universiti teknologi malaysiacivil.utm.my/abdulawal/files/2015/12/shehu-ibrahim-abubakar.pdf · abu...

DECLARATION OF THESIS / POSTGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT AND COPYRIGHT

: SHEHU IBRAHIM ABUBAKAR

Date of Birth : 15 OCTOBER 1967

Title : DURABILITY AND THERMAL GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH VOLUME PALM OIL FUEL ASH CONCRETE

Academic Session : 2013 2014/1

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)*

RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the organization where research was done)*

OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access (full text)

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for

the purpose of research only. 3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by:

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR 201103M10030 Assoc. Prof. Dr. A.S.M. Abdul Awal (NEW IC NO/PASSPORT) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date: 11 June 2014 Date: 11 June 2014

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA PSZ 19:16(Pind.1/07)

NOTES: * If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

2

We hereby declare that we have read this thesis and in our

opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the

award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering).

Signature : Name of Supervisor I : Assoc. Prof. Dr. A.S.M. Abdul Awal

Date : 11 June 2014

Signature : .....

Name of Supervisor II : Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd. Warid Hussin

Date : 11 June 2014

DURABILITY AND THERMAL GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF HIGH

VOLUME PALM OIL FUEL ASH CONCRETE

SHEHU IBRAHIM ABUBAKAR

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

JUNE 2014

ii

Durability and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis of High Volume Palm Oil Fuel Ash Concreteas cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature : ....................................................

Name : Shehu Ibrahim Abubakar

Date : 11 June 2014

iii

DEDICATION

To My Parents

Late Alhaji Abubakar Yazhima (Alhaji Wachiko) and Late Hajiya Aishatu Abubakar (Hajiya Woro)

And

My Wife and Children

Saratu Shehu, Aisha Abdullkadir, Fatima AbdullKadir and Salamatu Abdullkadir

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I wish to glorify almighty Allah the most gracious the most merciful by the saying of ALLHAMDULLILAHI RABILALMINA, for the benefit of wisdom and power he has provided without expecting anything in return. These provisions of Allah (SW) have made it possible to come this long in academic pursuit.

I wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude to my main thesis

supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. A.S.M. Abdul Awal for his continuing assistance, the encouragement, guidance, critics and understanding throughout the period of my studies. The trust, patience, great insight, modesty and friendly personality demonstrated by him have always been my source of inspiration. I am also very grateful to Professor Dr. Mohammed Warid Hussin for acting as my co-supervisor.

The author is greatly indebted to Faculty of Civil Engineering (FKA) for the

support and facilities provided to carry out the experimental work. Same goes to the academic and non-academic staff of the faculty for their support, assistance and friendly treatment that facilitated the work.

I remain immensely grateful for the financial support by the management of

Federal Polytechnic, Bida, Nigeria, through Federal Government of Nigeria Education Trust Fund. Same goes to UTM International Doctorate Fellow scheme.

The patient demonstrate by my lovely wife Saratu Shehu and children Aisha

Abdullkadir, Fatima Abdullkadir, Salamatu Abdullkadir and Aminu Usman during the studies is gratefully acknowledged. Same goes Dr. A. A. Alpha, Umar Sagamuwan, Yusuf Katun, Alhaji Mokwa, Usman Mustapha, Kudu Yabagi, Kasimu Alhaji, the entire family of Alhaji Wachiko and others too numerous to mention. Finally, the corporation enjoyed by my research colleagues is highly appreciated.

v

ABSTRACT

Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) is a pozzolanic material derived from controlled incineration of palm biomass and has been widely acknowledged to greatly influence the properties of concrete. Inspite of various researches carried out to investigate this phenomenon, very little is known on high volume application of ash in concrete. The research is dedicated at investigating various properties of concrete containing High Volume Palm Oil Fuel Ash (HVPOFA). Except some few tests which involved the use of mortar specimen, the performance evaluation of HVPOFA had largely been accomplished with specimens made of concrete where Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was replaced by 50 up to 70% POFA. The fundamental properties including the pozzolanic behaviour of the ash were investigated. From the study, it was observed that, the use of high volume POFA did not impact positively on the workability of concrete. However, the inclusion of superplasticiser has shown a tremendous influence in realising the workability. In comparison with other high volume ash concrete, early compressive strength development of concrete containing HVPOFA was impaired. The later age strength was noted to be almost the same as the control. Other strength properties of HVPOFA concrete showed a similar pattern of behaviour, though with a different magnitude. The influence of high volume POFA on deformation properties of concrete in terms of creep and shrinkage was also investigated. It has been demonstrated that a replacement of 50% OPC with POFA had no significant effect on creep and shrinkage of concrete. The research critically examines various aspects of durability of concrete containing HVPOFA against physical and chemical attack. As compared with the specimen made from OPC alone, specimen containing high volume ash demonstrated higher performance to destructive chemicals like chloride, acid and sulphate as well as elevated temperature. It is the pozzolanic effect of the ash that has contributed to the tremendous performance against aggressive environment. Specimens containing HVPOFA, however showed slight weakness in the carbonated environment as compared to OPC specimen. Test results on heat of hydration show that replacement of cement with HVPOFA is advantageous, particularly for mass concrete where thermal cracking due to excessive heat rise is of great importance. Microstructural tests in terms of XRD, SEM, EDX and TGA were concurrently conducted on both OPC and HVPOFA concrete in order to determine the interaction and effect of the particle that brings about the performance of the concrete containing HVPOFA. Finally, the performance of HVPOFA concrete has, in general, found to be quite satisfactory and can be used as high volume cement replacement material in concrete.

vi

ABSTRAK

Abu Terbang Kelapa Sawit (POFA) adalah bahan buangan yang dihasilkan dari pembakaran terkawal sisa pepejal kelapa sawit yang telah dikenal pasti sebagai suatu bahan pozolan yang berguna. Bahan ini telah diakui sebagai bahan yang boleh mempengaruhi sifat-sifat konkrit. Walaupun banyak penyelidikan telah dijalankan ke atas fenomena ini, namun sangat sedikit diketahui tentang penggunaan isipadu abu yang tinggi dalam konkrit. Kajian ini ditumpukan kepada sifat-sifat konkrit yang mengandungi Jumlah Abu Terbang Kelapa Sawit Yang Tinggi (HVPOFA). Selain daripada beberapa ujian yang dilakukan ke atas spesimen mortar, penilaian prestasi HVPOFA dicapai dengan menggunakan spesimen diperbuat daripada konkrit di mana Simen Portland Biasa (OPC) dicampur antara 50 hingga 70% POFA. Sifat-sifat asas termasuk sifat pozolan ke atas POFA telah dikaji. Walaupun penggunaan HVPOFA tidak meningkatkan kebolehkerjaan konkrit. Tetapi, dengan memasukkan bahan tambah superplasticiser telah menunjukkan pengaruh besar ke atas kebolehkerjaan. Berbanding dengan lain-lain konkrit mengandungi kandungan abu yang tinggi, kekuatan awal konkrit HVPOFA agak rendah. Kekuatan akhir konkrit didapati hampir sama dengan konkrit kawalan. Sifat-sifat mekanik konkrit HVPOFA menunjukkan corak yang sama walaupun dengan magnitud berbeza. Pengaruh penggunaan abu dengan peratus yang tinggi ke atas ubah bentuk konkrit di segi rayapan dan pengecutan juga diselidiki. Adalah didapati bahawa dengan penggantian 50% OPC oleh POFA tidak mempunyai kesan yang ketara ke atas rayapan dan pengecutan konkrit. Kajian ini juga dibuat secara mendalam ke atas beberapa aspek ketahanlasakan konkrit HVPOFA terhadap serangan fizikal dan kimia. Berbanding dengan spesimen yang dibuat dari OPC sahaja, spesimen yang mengandungi POFA yang tinggi menunjukkan prestasi yang lebih baik ke atas serangan kimia yang merosakkan seperti klorida, asid, sulfat dan peningkatan suhu. Ini menunjukkan kesan sifat pozolan POFA yang digunakan menyumbang kepada prestasi yang baik terhadap alam sekitar yang agresif. Spesimen yang mengandungi HVPOFA, bagaimanapun menunjukkan sedikit kelemahan dalam persekitaran berkarbonat berbanding dengan spesimen kawalan. Keputusan ujikaji ke atas haba penghidratan menunjukkan bahawa penggantian simen dengan HVPOFA adalah berguna terutamanya bagi konkrit pukal di mana keretakan haba disebabkan kenaikan suhu yang berlebihan adalah amat penting. Ujikaji mikrostruktur XRD, SEM, EDX dan TGA telah dijalankan serentak ke atas kedua-dua konkrit OPC dan HVPOFA untuk menentukan interaksi dan kesan zarah yang membawa kepada prestasi konkrit mengandungi POFA dengan peratus yang tinggi. Akhir sekali, prestasi konkrit HVPOFA secara keseluruhannya didapati agak memuaskan dan boleh digunakan sebagai bahan penggantian semen yang tinggi di dalam konkrit.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xv

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxvi

LIST OF APPENDICES xxvii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.1.1Benefit of Palm oil fuel ash as a construction material 2

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Aim of the Study 4

1.4 Objectives of the Study 4

1.5 Research Hypothesis 5

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study 5

1.7 Significance of the Research 5

1.8 Research Approach 7

1.9 Layout of Thesis 8

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Introduction 10

viii

2. 2 Portland Cement Composition 10

2.2.1 Portland Cement Hydration 12

2.2.2 Temperature Rise in Portland Cement Reaction 13

2.3 Pozzolans and Pozzolanic Reactions 15

2.3.1 Pozzolanic Materials 16

2.3.2 Technical, Economical and Environmental Benefit of

Pozzolanic Materials 17

2.3.3 Pozzolanic Reaction and its Beneficial Effect

in Concrete 17

2.3.4 Role of Admixture on Pozzolan Application 18

2.3.5.1Mineral Admixture 19

2.3.5.2Chemical Admixture 20

2.4 Influence of Pozzolans on Fresh Properties of Concrete 21

2.4.1 Setting Time 21

2.4.2 Workability of Concrete 23

2.4.3 Heat of Hydration 24

2.5 Strength Characteristics of Concrete: The Role of Pozzolans 25

2.5.1 Compressive Strength 26

2.5.2 Creep 30

2.5.3 Shrinkage 31

2.5.4 Creep Recovery 32

2.6 Durability 33

2.6.1 Influence of Pozzolans on Durability of Concrete 33

2.6.2 Elevated Temperature 34

2.6.3 Sulphate Attack 36

2.6.4 Acid Attack 39

2.6.5 Chloride Attack Mechanism of Concrete 40

2.6.6 Carbonation Mechanism of Concrete 43

2.6.7 Abrasion 46

2.7 High Volume Concept 46

2.7.1 High Volume Fly Ash 47

2.7.2 Characteristics of High Volume Fly Ash Concrete 48

2.7.3 Fresh Properties of High Volume Fly Ash Concrete 49

2.7.3.1Workability 49

ix

2.7.3.2Density 51

2.7.3.3Setting Time 51

2.7.4 Strength Properties of HVFA Concrete 52

2.7.4.1Compressive Strength 52

2.7.4.2Flexural Strength 54

2.7.4.3Creep and Shrinkage 55

2.7.5 Durability Properties of HVFA Concrete 55

2.7.5.1Chloride Penetration 55

2.7.5.2Resistance to Sulphate Attack 56

2.7.5.3Resistance to Carbonation 58

2.7.5.4Resistance to Acid Attack 59

2.7.5.5Heat of Hydration of HVFA Concrete 59

2.8 Summary of Research Gap 60

3 METHODOLOGY 62

3.1 Introduction 62

3.2 Materials 62

3.2.1 Preparation of Palm Oil Fuel Ash 62

3.2.2 Cement 64

3.2.3 Aggregate 65

3.2.3.1Fine Aggregate 65

3.2.3.2Coarse Aggregate 65

3.2.4 Water 65

3.2.5 Admixture 66

3.3 Analysis of Cement and High Volume Palm Oil Fuel Ash 66

3.3.1Soundness 66

3.3.2 Setting Time 67

3.3.3 Pozzolanic Activity Index 67

3.4 Design and Proportioning of Concrete Mixture 68

3.5 Fresh Concrete Test 69

3.5.1Measurement of Workability 69

3.5.1.1Flow of OPC and HVPOFA Mortar 69

3.5.1.2Slump of OPC and HVPOFA Concrete 70

3.5.2 Fresh Density and Air Content of Concrete 70

x

3.6 Test on Hardened Properties of OPC and HVPOFA Concrete 71

3.6.1Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test 71

3.6.2 Compressive Strength 72

3.6.3 Indirect Tensile Strength 73

3.6.4 Flexural Strength 74

3.6.5 Modulus of Elasticity 75

3.6.5.1Specimen Preparation 76

3.6.5.2Testing Procedure 76

` 3.7 Deformation Test of OPC and HVPOFA Concrete 78

3.7.1Creep and Drying Shrinkage 78

3.7.2 Reinforced OPC and HVPOFA Concrete Beam 80

3.8 Durability Test 81

3.8.1Water Absorption Test 82

3.8.2 Initial Surface Absorption 82

3.8.3 Measurement of Heat of Hydration 84

3.8.4 Chloride Penetration Test 86

3.8.5 Sulphate Resistance 88

3.8.5.1Preparation of Specimen 88

3.8.5.2Visual Assessment 89

3.8.5.3Weight Loss 89

3.8.5.4Strength Loss Factor 89

3.8.6 Test for Acid Resistance 90

3.8.6.1Physical Assessment 91

3.8.6.2Weight Loss 91


3.8.7 Carbonation 92

3.8.9 Fire Test 93

3.8.10 Abrasion Resistance 95

3.9 Microstructure 96

3.9.1 Field-Emission Scanning Microscopy 96

3.9.2 X-ray Diffraction 97

xi

4 CHARACTERISTICS OF ASH AND ITS EFFECT ON

CONCRETE PROPERTIES 98

4.1 Introduction 98

4.2 Characteristics of the Ash 98

4.2.1 Physical Properties 98

4.2.1.1Effect of Grinding on Particle Size 98

4.2.1.2 Strength Activity Index and Particle

Size Analysis 99

4.2.1.3 Soundness 101

4.2.2 Scanning Electron Micrograph 101

4.2.3 Chemical Composition 102

4.3 Fresh Properties OPC and HVPOFA Mixtures 104

4.3.1Setting Time 104

4.3.2 Effect of Superplasticiser on Flow of Mortar 105

4.3.3 Effect of Superplasticiser on the Slump 108

4.3.4 Correlation between Flow of Mortar and Slump of

Concrete 112

4.3.5 Fresh Density 114

4.3.6 Air Content 115

4.4 Strength Test 116

4.5 Mechanical properties 118

4.5.1 Hardened State Density of OPC and HVPOFA

Concrete 118

4.5.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 119

4.5.3 Effect of Curing Period on Compressive Strength 120

4.5.3.1Rate of Compressive Strength Development 122

4.5.3.2Correlation between UPV and Compressive

Strength. 124

4.5.4 Flexural Strength 125

4.5.4.1Correlation between Compressive and

Flexural strength 127

4.5.5 Splitting Tensile Strength 128

4.5.5.1Correlation between Compressive and

Splitting Tensile Strength 130

xii

4.5.6 Modulus of Elasticity 130

4.5.7 2

4.5.8 Relationship between Experimental and ACI

Predictive Model of Elastic Modulus 133

4.6 Summary of Fresh and Hardened State Properties 136

5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE 138

5.1Introduction 138

5.2 Deformation of Concrete 138

5.3 Temperature Effect on Creep and Shrinkage Testing

Environment 139

5.4 Influence of Moisture on Shrinkage of Concrete 139

5.5 Creep of OPC and High Volume POFA Concrete 141

5.6 Creep Recovery 144

5.7 Creep and Shrinkage Effect on Strength Gain of

Concrete 146

5.8 Reinforced Concrete Beam Application for OPC and

HVPOFA 148

5.8.1 Ultimate Load on Reinforced Concrete 148

5.8.2 Load versus Deflection of Reinforced Concrete 148

5.8.3 Load Reinforcement Strain of Concrete 149

5.8.4 Cracking and Mode of Failure 150

5.8.5 Compressive and Tensile Strain Characteristics 151

5.9 Summary 152

6 DURABILITY 154

6.1 Introduction 154

6.2 Influence of High Volume POFA on Permeability 154

6.2.1 Water Absorption 154

6.2.2 Initial Surface Absorption 156

6.3 Effect of HVPOFA on Temperature Rise 159

6.4 Rapid Chloride Penetration 161

6.5 Resistance to Sulphate Attack 163

6.5.1 Mortar Bar 164

xiii

6.5.2 Concrete Cube 165

6.5.2.1Visual Assessment and Strength Factor 165

6.5.2.2Mass Loss 166

6.5.2.3Strength Loss 167


6.6 Carbonation of Concrete 170

6.7 Resistance to Acid Attack 173

6.7.1 Visual Assessment 173

6.7.2 Weight Loss 174

6.7.3 Strength Loss 176

6.7.4 Strength Loss Factor 178

6.8 Fire Endurance 179

6.8.1 Furnace Temperature Rating 179

6.8.2 Cooling Effect on The Physical Characteristics

of Concrete 180

6.8.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of Air and

Water-Cooling Specimens 182

6.8.4 Influence of Temperature Rise on Concrete

Weight 183

6.8.5 Residual Compressive Strength of Concrete 184

6.8.6 Relationship between the Residual Compressive

Strength and Residual UPV Values of Air and

Water-Cooling Regime 186

6.8.7 Relative Performance of OPC and HVPOFA

concrete 189

6.9 Abrasion 190

6.10 Summary 192

7 MICROSTRUCTURE OF OPC AND HIGH VOLUME

POFA 193


7.2 Microstructural Analysis 193

7.3 Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy 194

xiv

7.4 Thermogravimetry and Differential

Thermal Analysis 201

7.4.1 Analysis of Mass Loss of OPC and HVPOFA 204

7.5 X-ray Diffraction 205

7.6 Summary 208

8 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 209


8.2 Properties of Ash 209

8.3 Fresh Concrete Properties 210

8.4 Hardened Concrete Properties 210

8.5 Deformation 211

8.6 Durability 212

8.7 Microstructure 214

8.8 Contribution of this Thesis 215

8.9 Recommendations 216

REFERENCES 217

Appendices A-E 238-249

xv

LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2. 1 Compound composition of ordinary OPC (Gambhir, 2004) 11

2.2 Properties of HVFAC (Malhotra and Mehta, 2005) 9

3.1 Mix proportion of OPC and POFA concrete 68

3.2 Classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of Pulse velocity. 72

3.3 Initial surface absorption rating 84

3.4 RCPT rating (ASTM C1202) 86

4.1 Physical properties of OPC and POFA 101

4.2 Chemical composition of OPC and POFA 103

4. 3 Rate of strength development of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 124

4.4 Experimental modulus of elasticity and ACI predictive model results 134

5.1 Details of loading conditions of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 142

5.2 Elastic and creep recovery of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 145

6.1 Water absorption of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 155

6.2 Characteristic of heat of hydration of OPC and POFA concrete 159

6.3 Rate of increase in reduction of chloride ion penetration 163

6.4 Physical characteristics of concrete exposed to sulphate solution 168

xvi

6.5 Physical characteristics of concrete after exposure to H2SO4 solution 177

6.6 Physical characteristics of concrete at various temperatures 182

6.7 Change in UPV of concrete exposed to elevated temperature 183

7.1 Mass loss of OPC and HVPOFA specimen 204

xvii

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Potentials of high volume palm oil fuel ash concrete 8

2.1 Influence of POFA on temperature rise of concrete 25

2.2 Effect of ash content on strength of concrete (Awal, 1998) 28

2.3 Creep recovery of concrete (Ng, 2008) 33

2.4 Expansion of mortar bars in 5% sulphate solution (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007) 38

2.5 Effect of POFA on chloride penetration in concrete 42

2.6 Strength of concrete containing high volume class F fly ash (Siddique, 2003) 53

3.1 Palm oil solid wastes 63

3.2 Flow chart for the production process of POFA 64

3.3 Le-Chatelier apparatus and test specimen 67

3.4 Mortar mixer and mortar flow table test 69

3.5 Air content testing instrument 71

3.6 Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing 72

3.7 Testing for compressive strength 73

3.8 Testing for splitting tensile strength 74

3.9 Testing for flexural strength 75

xviii

3.10 Modulus of elasticity instrument 77

3.11 Modulus of elasticity testing setup 77

3.12 Creep specimens 79

3.13 Demec meter used for creep and shrinkage measurement 79

3.14 Testing for creep and shrinkage 80

3.15 Reinforced concrete beam test setup 81

3.16 Coring and cored specimen for water absorption test 83

3.17 Initial surface absorption test 84

3.18 A general view showing the test arrangement 85

3.19 Laboratory test arrangement for rapid chloride penetration test 87

3.20 Specimen in sulphate solution with alternate wet and dry 90

3.21 pH meter 92

3.22 Specimen before and during acid test 92

3.23 Schematic carbonation and test specimen in carbonation chamber 93

3.24 Electrically controlled furnace 94

3.25 Temperature-time curve of electrically controlled furnace 94

3.26 Abrasion test setup 96

3.27 FESEM setup (a) and spotting (b) instrument setup 96

3.28 Siemens Diffractometer 97

4.1 Effect of grinding on the particle size of POFA 99

4.2 Relationship between strength activity index and grinding time of POFA 100 4.3 Particle size analysis of OPC and POFA 100

4.4 Scanning electron micrograph of POFA 102

xix

4.5 Initial and final setting time of OPC and high volume POFA 104

4.6 Effect of SP on flow of mortar at 0.60 w/b ratio 106




4.10 Slump of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 109

4.11 Effect of SP on slump of concrete at 0.60 w/b ratio 110




4.15 Relationship between flow of mortar and slump of concrete at 0.6 w/b ratio 112

4.16 Relationship between flow of mortar and slump of concrete | at 0.5 w/b ratio 113



4.19 Fresh density of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 114

4.20 Air content of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 115

4.21 Compressive strength of concrete at 0.60 w/b ratio 117




4.25 Effect of ash content on density of concrete 119

xx

4.26 Effect curing time and UPV of concrete 120

4.27 Pattern of failure in OPC and High volume POFA concrete 120

4.28 Strength development of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 122

4.29 UPV value as a function of compressive strength of concrete 125

4.30 Flexural strength of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 127

4.31 Relation between compressive and flexural strength of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 128 4.32 Splitting tensile strength of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 129

4.33 Relation between compressive and tensile strength of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 130 4.34 Pattern of failure in OPC and HVPOFA concrete for MOE testing 132

4.35 Relation between ACI PMOE and EMOE of OPC concrete 135

4.36 Relation between ACI PMOE and EMOE of 50% POFA concrete 135



5.1 Temperature and relative humidity of testing environment 139

5.2 Shrinkage of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 141

5.3 Basic creep of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 142

5.4 Creep strain of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 143

5.5 Creep recovery of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 144

5.6 Creep and shrinkage effect on strength gain of concrete 146

5.7 Strength gain after creep 147

5. 8 Strength gain after shrinkage 147

5.9 Load-deflection of OPC and HVPOFA concrete beam 149

xxi

5.10 Load-reinforcement strain of OPC and 50% POFA concrete beam 150

5.11 Failure mode of OPC concrete beam 151

5.12 Failure mode of and HVPOFA concrete beam 151

5.13 Compressive and tensile strains of concrete 152

6.1 Effect of HVPOFA on water absorption capacity 156

6.2 Effect of HVPOFA on initial surface absorption of concrete at 7 days 157



6.5 Temperature profile of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 160

6.6 Effect of HVPOFA on rapid chloride penetration concrete 162

6.7 Expansion of mortar bar exposed to magnesium sulphate solution 164

6.8 Cube specimen after 56 weeks of immersion in sulphate solution 166

6.9 Weight change of concrete cube specimen exposed to sulphate solution 166

6.10 Strength losses between companion and test specimen in sulphate solution 167 6.11 Strength loss of OPC and high volume POFA concrete 169

6.12 Effect of carbonation of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 171

6.13 Effect of high volume POFA on Carbonation concrete 172

6.14 Concrete cube specimen after six months exposure in 5% H2SO4 solution 174

6.15 Mass change of concrete continuously immersed in sulphuric acid solution 175

xxii

6.16 Strength loss OPC and HVPOFA concrete immersed in acid 178

6.17 Strength loss factor OPC and HVPOFA concrete 178

6.18 Experimental time-temperature curve compared with the standard curve of ISO 834 and ASTM E 119 180

6.19 Surface texture of the concrete samples at 27oC and those exposed to elevated temperature of 800oC 181

6.20 Rate of weight loss of OPC and POFA concrete 184

6.21 Residual compressive strength of OPC and POFA concrete 185

6.22 Relationship between the residual compressive strength and UPV value for air cooling regime 188

6.23 Relationship between the residual compressive strength and UPV value for water cooling regime 188

6.24 Relative performance of air-cooling over water-cooling. 189

6.25 Surface of concrete prism after abrasion test 191

6.26 Relationship between abrasion coefficient and curing period of OPC and HVPOFA concrete 191

7.1 FESEM of 7 days OPC specimen 196

7.2 EDX of 7 days OPC specimen 196





7.7 FESEM of 7 days HVPOFA specimen 198

7.8 EDX of 7 days HVPOFA specimen 198

xxiii

7.9 FESEM of 28 day of HVPOFA specimen 198

7.10 EDX of 28 day HVPOFA specimen 199

7.11 FESEM of 90 day HVPOFA specimen 199

7.12 EDX of 90 day HVPOFA specimen 199

7.13 TGA and DTA of 7 days OPC and HVPOFA paste 202



7.16 XRD of 7 days OPC and HVPOFA paste 206



7.19 Peak intensity of Portlandite of OPC and HVPOFA specimen 207

7.20 Peak intensity of C-S-H of OPC and HVPOFA specimen 207

xxiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACI - American Concrete Institute

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

BS - British Standard

BRHA - Black Rice Husk Ash

CR - Creep Recovery

C-S-H - Calcium Silicate Hydrate

C2S - Dicalcium Silicate

C3 - Tricalcium Aluminate

C3S - Tricalcium Silicate

Ca - Calcium

CaO - Calcium Oxide

Ca(OH)2 - Calcium Hydroxide

CO2 - Carbon Dioxide

EDX - Energy Dispersive X-ray

ER - Elastic Recovery

FA - Fly Ash

FESEM - Field Emission Scanning Electron Micrograph

GGBFS - Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

HCL - Hydrochloric Acid

H2SO4 - Sulphuric Acid

HVFA - High Volume Fly Ash

HVPOFA - High volume Palm oil Fuel Ash

ISAT - Initial Surface Absorption Test

LVDT - Linear Variable Differential Transformer

MgSO4 - Magnesium Sulphate

MOE - Modulus of Elasticity

OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement

xxv

PFA - Pulverised Fly Ash

POFA - Palm Oil Fuel Ash

RHA - Rice Husk Ash

RILEM - International Union of Testing and Research Laboratory for

Material and Structure

SAI - Strength Activity Index

SF - Silica Fume

SCC - Self Compacting Concrete

SDF - Strength Deterioration Factor

SP - Superplasticiser

TGA - Thermogravmetry Analysis

TIA - Timber Industrial Ash

UPV - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

UTM - Universiti TeKnologi Malaysia

w/b - Water Binder Ratio

XRD - X-ray Differaction

xxvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS Ac - Cross sectional area

d1 - Height of specimen

d2 - Width of specimen

D - Cross sectional dimension

E - Modulus of elasticity

2 - Longitudinal strain corresponding to S1

fcu - Compressive strength

fct - Tensile strength

fcf - Flexural strength

Fcu - Maximum load

L - Length of specimen

Lr - Distance between lower roller

S1 - Stress corresponding to a longitudinal strain of 0.000050

S2 - Stress corresponding to 40% of the estimated ultimate stress

W - Percentage of water absorption

Wd - Weight of specimen dry

Ww - Weight of specimen wet

xxvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Mix design of concrete 238

B Compressive strength data 240

C Axial and lateral deformation 244

D Design of single rectangular section 247

E Publication and award 248

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Large amount of waste generated from palm oil mills in Malaysia and other

Asian-Pacific is commonly used as landfills due to lack of economically attractive

use opportunities. Landfilling is detrimental because it causes not only enormous

financial burdens to the producer of by-products, but also makes them accountable

for the unknown future environmental liabilities. Moreover, due to shrinking of

landfill space and increased environmental restrictions, cost of landfilling may be on

the high side. Additionally, Malaysia strives to maintain a leading role in palm oil

production, thus increased palm oil plantation from 400 hectares in 1920 to about 3.6

million in 2002, with a targeted expansion of 5.2 million by the year 2020 (Basiron

and Simeh, 2005). Therefore, it is anticipated that higher quantities of waste will be

discharged to the environment from the industry in the near future.

rb the excess

of solid waste (palm shell, bunch and fibre) generated is its use as fuel in the

electricity generation, making the industry self-sustained in terms of energy

generation and utilization. Though, further by-product emerges in the form of ash

known as palm oil fuel ash (POFA) which is believed to be about 5% of the total

solid waste fed into the boiler mills (Altwair et al., 2011).

2

To address the problem of waste arising from numerous palm oil mills in

Malaysia, it has become essential to find technically feasible and economically

befitting cost-effective solutions to waste disposal from the industry by means of

transforming waste into low or preferably high value products. The novelty of new

construction products through integration of the free available waste could be one

alternative way of converting the trash (economic benefit) to treasure. Reuse and

recycling of waste will not only save the huge disposal costs, but also conserve

natural resources, and in some cases provide technical benefits. Therefore concerted

effort in various ways of utilization has demonstrated the ash to be a valuable

material especially in construction.

1.1.1 Benefit of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Construction Material

Research initiated on palm oil fuel ash at the Faculty of Civil Engineering,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has identified POFA as a pozzolanic material. Studies

elsewhere have also confirmed (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Sata et al., 2007; Tay and

Show, 1995; Tay, 1990) the research findings of the institution. The ash is a residual

material of energy production using palm shell, fibre and bunch. POFA has been

found to offer numerous advantages in the production of concrete when cement is

partially substituted by the ash. The application of POFA in concrete affects a wide

range of fresh and hardened concrete properties. Some of the effects may be

considered desirable and are the reason why the materials are used. While on the

other side the effect may be less desirable and have to be accommodated.

Some of the advantages of POFA in concrete mix include; improved

workability, reduced permeability (Sumadi and Hussin, 1995), early strength may be

depressed with an increased ultimate strength (Awal, 1998; Chindaprasirt, et al.,

2007; Sata, et al., 2007; Tay and Show, 1995). Furthermore, the ash played a positive

role in the reduction of bleeding in concrete (Tay and Show, 1995; Tay, 1990), better

surface finish and influenced heat of hydration (Awal and Hussin, 2011; Sata et al.,

2010). Laboratory examinations have shown that, this ash has not only enabled the

replacement of ordinary Portland cement, but also played an effective role in

3

controlling durability issues of concrete (Awal, 1998; Chindaprasirt et al., 2008;

Tangchirapat and Jaturapitakkul, 2010).

Bearing in mind the amount of waste (ash) produced in over two hundred

palm oil mills in Southeast Asia and African sub-Sahara, there is a need to explore

further, the application of the high volume of palm oil fuel ash. Therefore, an effort

to explore the potentials of high volume application of POFA in concrete has also

been initiated by this research from the same faculty and institutions.

1.2 Problem Statement

The global need for the preservation of natural resources, reduction of carbon

dioxide emission due to the rise of construction industry, durability and sustainability

of concrete structure have fuelled the search for alternative solution to produce

environment-friendly construction materials. During the past decades, numerous

research works have been carried out on the use of agro-waste ashes as

supplementary cementing material in concrete construction. Among others, palm oil

fuel ash (POFA) played a tremendous role in this regards. Despite its application as a

pozzolanic material in concrete, the problem of ash disposal still persists as major

portion of the ash remains unutilized even after its maximum use of up to 30% as

cement substitute. With the expansion of palm oil plantation in South-East Asian

regions, the production of palm oil and the consequent ash generation in the mills are

expected to increase posing further problem. Likewise, to satisfy the future demand

and termly requirements for sustainability and sustainable environment, there is a

need to examine further on high volume application and utilization of POFA in

concrete.

This practice of high volume application has been found successful in other

related ash such as fly ash, and has progressed from laboratory experiment to field

application. High volume POFA (HVPOFA) concrete is, therefore, referred to as

structural concrete with POFA content substantially higher than that used in

4

conventional POFA concrete, mostly 50% and above of the weight of the binder.

This type of concrete represents a momentous departure from the practice of normal

concrete and can be regarded as a new generation of advanced cementitious products.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this research is to investigate the durability and thermal

gravimetric analysis of high volume palm oil fuel ash concrete.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

In view of the benefit obtained by the application of palm oil fuel ash, the

objectives of this research have been targeted to:

i. Investigate the fresh state and strength properties of high volume palm

oil fuel ash concrete.

ii. Evaluate the deformation behaviour of high volume palm oil fuel ash

concrete.

iii. Examine the durability properties of high volume palm oil fuel ash

concrete.

iv. Study the microstructure and evaluate the factors influencing the

performance of high volume POFA in concrete.

5

1.5 Research Hypothesis The hypothesis behind this study is that, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) can be

integrated in high volume as replacement of OPC to enhance significantly the

strength, deformation and durability properties of concrete. The hardened properties

of concrete containing high volume palm oil fuel ash are comparable to normal

concrete and can be used for general application.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study The study would be experimental in nature and focus on the development and

use of high volume palm oil fuel ash (HVPOFA) concrete. Replacement levels of

cement with POFA ranges from 50 - 80%. The study emphasizes strength and

durability as well as the deformation behaviour of HVPOFA concrete, which is

believed to be within the limits set by the objectives. The results of the study cannot

be applied in general terms, except for POFA that possess the same index

characteristics. Cost effectiveness of HVPOFA concrete has not been considered in

this study. This of course does not intend to neglect the study economy to

background, but rather it is believed that technical issues have to be understood and

fixed right before the economic aspect of the study is determined.

1.7 Significance of the Research

Appropriately used, POFA can considerably enrich the properties of concrete

and other related construction materials which will reduce the pressure on the

domestic and industrial consumption of Portland cement. The importance of high

volume palm oil fuel ash concrete research is demonstrated in the flow chart shown

in Figure 1.1.

6

Utilization of high volume POFA as a replacement material of cement will

help reduce the CO2 emissions associated with the manufacturing of Portland

cement. Fundamentally, for every production of Portland cement a considerable

amount of CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Since this study is targeted towards

high volume utilization of waste from palm oil mills, hopefully it will help to balance

the ecosystem, reduce cost of disposal, reduce pressure on consumption of Portland

cement and preserve the natural resources used in the production of Portland cement.

When the technology of HVPOFA concrete is adequately articulated, it will reduce

the overall construction cost thus producing green concrete and make construction

affordable.

HVPOFA

CONCRETE

APPROACHReplacement of cement (50 - 70%)

PROPERTIESConcrete strength

> 25 MPa at 28 daysHigh durability

BENEFITSReduce cost

Reduce environmental pollutionRecycle and reuse of waste material

PRODUCT FEATUREGreen Concrete

Low CarbonReduce OPC

COMMERCE POTENTIALSPrecast ConcreteMarine Structure

ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY PRODUCT

Figure 1.1 Potentials of high volume palm oil fuel ash

7

1.8 Research Approach

1. Conduct a comprehensive literature review on the use of pozzolans as a

supplementary cementitious material in concrete and other related

construction activities.

2. Select the cement, POFA, aggregate and other materials based on their

characteristics.

3. Study test procedure of various standards (ASTM, BS, RILEM) for

conducting tests on mortars, OPC concrete and relate it to the production of

concrete containing high volume palm oil fuel ash.

4. Carryout a preliminary study and trail mixes aimed at effecting changes or

adjustment on proposed mix ratios where necessary before embarking on full

scale experiment.

5. Develop a befitting schedule of experimental programs with test to study the

influence of high volume palm oil fuel ash on cementitious matrices and

compare its performance with that of Portland cement alone.

6. Conduct complementary studies to understand the effect of high volume palm

oil fuel ash on strength, deformation and durability properties of concrete.

7. Examine and compare microstructural studies of high volume POFA concrete

with those of OPC concrete.

8. Analysis of results and discussions on the findings on the use of high volume

POFA in concrete.

9. Draw conclusions and make available recommendation on the application of

high volume palm oil fuel ash as a new innovative supplementary cementing

material for construction.

10.Suggest areas of further research of high volume palm oil fuel ash application

in concrete.

8

1.9 Layout of Thesis

Chapter One: Provides a general appraisal and a brief description of the

background problem. In addition, the chapter also spelt out aims and objectives,

scope and limitation, research hypothesis, significance of research and the research

approach.

Chapter Two: Describe the properties of Portland cement and explanation of

the past research works on the use of pozzolanic materials. A review of the state-of-

the-art on the application of pozzolanic materials on properties of concrete are

discussed. However, even though there are no available literatures on high volume

palm oil fuel ash concrete, the contribution of high volume fly ash on properties of

concrete was reviewed.

Chapter Three: The materials and methodology using appropriate standard

and modification where necessary in conducting the tests were described in the

chapter.

Chapter Four: Reveals the results of physical and chemical properties of ash

and its effect on fresh concrete properties. Parameters studied in this chapter include,

workability in terms of the slump of concrete and flow of mortar, fresh density, air

content and setting time. In addition, relationship between some data is developed in

order to establish a correlation. It also presents the results obtained and discussion

made on the evaluation of mechanical properties. Tests falling in this category

include; compressive, flexural, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.

Chapter Five: Deformation behaviour of concrete as influenced by high

volume palm oil fuel ash on creep, shrinkage and reinforced concrete beam is

evaluated and discussed in this chapter.

Chapter Six: Consists of the results and discussion arising from various

durability tests conducted on OPC concrete and that containing high volume palm oil

9

fuel ash. Aspects of durability performance considered in this chapter are;

permeability (initial surface and water absorption), heat of hydration, sulphate attack

(wet and drying), chloride (rapid chloride penetration test) and acid attack, fire

endurance and abrasion.

Chapter Seven: Microstructure involving field emission scanning electron

micrograph (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), therrmogravimetry analysis

(TGA), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results are presented and discussed in this

chapter. These microstructure studies were conducted on cement mortar and

cement/POFA mortar.

Chapter Eight: Concludes this dissertation by stating the findings and

achievements of the study and the contribution of the research to the existing

knowledge. Recommendations are made for further research in related areas to

improve concrete quality using high volume palm oil fuel ash for use as an

alternative to cement.

universiti teknologi malaysiacivil.utm.my/abdulawal/files/2015/12/shehu-ibrahim-abubakar.pdf · abu...

Documents