university of africa journal of sciences university of...

14

University of Africa Journal of Sciences

Tectonostratigraphic Development of Lacustrine Deposits of Mesozoic-Cenozoic Basins, Muglad

Basin, Sudan

0TRashid A. M. Hussein٭

Abstract

0TMuglad Basin exposed to tectonic and structural regime which

can be manifested clearly to characterize the tectonic history of

the basin. Accordingly, models for time span, mechanism,

deformation, and evolution of the Muglad were proposed.

0TMuglad Basin, is a rift basin developed in Mesozoic-Cenozoic

time and was initiated as an extensional basin or graben (half-

graben) to the direct south of the Central African Shear Zone

(CASZ). The basin opening occurred on a series of half-

grabens trending NW-SE in Muglad Basin. The structural style

is most convenient to be studied as assemblages of the

correlative structures formed under a certain geological

conditions, rather than to be studied as structural patterns such

as faulting and folding. Structural analysis based on seismic

data from Muglad Basin was set. The structural style of

continental or nonmarine in Muglad basin, can be categorized

into two major styles: thick skinned (basement-involved) and

thin skinned (faults restricted to sediments only) categories.

٭

Sudan University of Science and Technology- College of Petroleum Engineering & Technology

University of Africa Journal of Sciences (U.A.J.S., Vol.2, 14-44)

15


0TThe tectonstratigraphic framework of the rifting of Muglad

Basin is a model of three phases was documented for Muglad

Basin: pre-rifting phase, syn-rifting phase of three diverse

episodes of rifting, and post-rifting sag phase.

Introduction 0TLacustrine, nonmarine, and continental basins are terms

interchangeably used by authors for those basins developed on

continental crust and dominated by continental sedimentary

infill. Most of the continental basins were formed in the

Mesozoic particularly in the Cretaceous; however, the oldest

continental basins were formed in Mid-Late Carboniferous and

Permian. Hydrocarbon exploration in lacustrine rift basins has

received inadequate conduct until the end of the 1970s. Some

major aspects highlighted the significance of rift basins such as

the recognition of lacustrine shales as good source rocks and

the notable successes of petroleum exploration in rift basins

(Begawan and Lambiase, 1995) and sand reservoir including

turbidites, deltaic, and fluvial types. Many publications

emphasized the economic and scientific interest of lacustrines

(e.g., Zhu Xiaomin and Xin Quanlin, 1987a and 1987b; Ponte

and Asmus, 1978; Ojeda, 1982; Estrella et. al., 1984 and

Hussein, R., 2008).

0TMuglad Basin is located in the south-central Sudan forms part

of a regionally linked intracontinental rift system (Fig. 1) that

crossed Central Africa.

16


0TThe Muglad Basin is the largest of the NW-SE trending rift

basins in Sudan which is considered as a main component of

West and Central African rift system (WCARS). It extends

across at least 120,000 Km2, up to 200 km wide and over 800

km long (Bosworth, 1992) and locally contains up to 13 km of

Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments and appears to be terminated

against the Central African shear zone (CASZ) which extends

for at least 2000 km across Africa from the Atlantic coast in the

Gulf of Guinea through Cameroon, Chad, the Central African

Republic, and into Sudan (Schull, 1988 and Fairhead, 1988).

0TThis study is to establish and summarize the main features and

categories of structures and tectonic development of lacustrine

sequences during the geologic evolution of Muglad Basin, and

to propose a commonly acceptable opinion on the forming

mechanism of the basin.

0TApparent role of tectonic on the lacustrine basin and

reconstruction of structural style are characterized on the basis

of data acquired during oil exploration from Muglad basin

since Chevron time up to the recent discoveries.

0T Regional geology

0TMuglad Basin is a rift basin developed in Mesozoic-Cenozoic

time span. It was initiated as an extensional basin or half-

graben in the Late Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous to the direct south

of the Central African Shear Zone (CASZ) (Fig 2.). The deep

Cretaceous-Tertiary basins of south-central Sudan form part of

17


a regionally linked intracontinental rift system that crossed

Central Africa (Fig. 2).

0TThe instigation of intracontinental rifting within West and

Central Africa was concomitant with gradual breakup of

Gondwana, particularly with separation of South America from

Africa, involving their inherent connection.

0TThe interior of West and Central Africa exposed to strong and

extensive rifting (Guirad and Maurin, 1992; Binks and

Fairhead, 1992), which synchronized with the Pacific Plate

subduction in the Mid/Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Fig. 3).

0TFig. 1: Location Map of Muglad Basin.

18


0TThe first phase of subsidence was quite active and extensive,

characterized by early-stage of rifting and late stage of thermal

contracted sagging which continued up to the Santonian where a

number of basins (particularly those are trending E-W) later uplifted

and exposed to erosion.

0TFig. 2 : Regional Geology and Structure of Muglad Basin Manifesting Early Cretaceous Extension and Strike-slip-dominated Rift Basins in West and Central Africa-Noting two groups of basins with distinct orientations, NE- SW- trending and NE-SW- trending, respectively. CASZ- Central African. (Modified from Genik 1993)

0TThe basin inversion was attributed to the far-field effect of

initial collision of the African and Eurasian plates along the

Alpine orogenic belt (Fig. 4). The NW-SE trending Tenere and

19


Muglad rift Basins escaped the inversion, because these basins

axes are sub-parallel to compressional stress direction caused

by the collision (HcHargue et al 1992).

0TFig. 3: Regional Tectonic Setting Illustrating Onset of Opening of Atlantic Ocean on the Western Side and the Indian Ocean in the Eastern Side of Africa during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Note: Muglad Rift Basin Initiated as a Result of the Transform Fault which extended into African Continent and leading to Strike-Slip fault of Central African Shear Zone (CASZ) (Modified from Fairhead & Green, 1989).

0TThe second phase of subsidence of the basin initiated as a

result of the compressional stress caused by the collision. Then,

the direction of movement of the African plate changed relative

to Eurasian plate that escorted to crustal-scale horizontal

20


extension in NE-SW direction in association with wrench-

related basin inversion along the CASZ.

0TFig. 4: Regional Tectonic Setting Illustrating Collision of Eurasian and African Plates along the Alpine Orogen during Late Cretaceous Creating NW-SE Oriented Compressional Stress and Inducing NE-SW Trending Tensile Force Leading to Subsidence in Muglad and Tenere Basins (Modified from Fairhead & Green, 1989).

0TThe second phase continued until the Middle Eocene, when the

most intense collision occurred along the Alpine orogenic belt,

resulting in closure of the Tethyan ocean and exerting a very

strong influence on basin development in interior of Africa.

Most of Mesozoic rift basin came to an end during the Middle

Eocene, Except for the NW-SE- trending Tenere and

21


Sudanese rifts (HcHargue et al 1992).

0TThe third phase of subsidence began in the Late Eocene and

occurred in parts of Muglad Rift Basin as transtensional

tectonic regime. Rejuvenation of the Central African shear

Zone appears to have occurred several times with dextral

movement in Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary times producing

narrow subsiding rift basin infilled with Cretaceous- Tertiary

sediments (Browne and Fairhead, 1983; Browne et al. 1985).

The existence of Lower Cretaceous sediments within the basins

supports the idea that these basins were structurally developing

during early Cretaceous times, possibly as response to dextral

shear. In western Sudan, the Central African shear zone

transforms most of its dextral displacement into the southern

Sudan Rift which is a major extensional basin that extends into

a southeasterly direction through southern Sudan into Anza rift

in the northern Kenya (Bosworth, 1992 and Reeves et al.

1986).

0TStructural setting 0TThe most considerable recent debate is the nature of

extensional fault system in the upper crust whether they are

dominantly listric (e.g. Gibbs, 1987, 1989) or they are

essentially planner (e.g., Jackson, 1989). Gibbs, 1984 used a

half-graben model to describe rift-basin geometry. To

investigate the nature of extensional fault system it is more

convenient and reflective to correlate the structural assemblage

22


than to investigate the patterns of individual type of structure

such as folding or faulting. Harding and Lowell 1979 studied

the structural style as assemblages of the correlative structures

formed under a certain geological conditions which could be

studied collectively in order to attain and predict hydrocarbon

traps. The structural style of Muglad basin -which is one of the

continental or nonmarine basins- can be categorized into two

major styles: thick skinned (basement-involved) and thin

skinned (faults restricted to sediments only) categories. The

thick skinned (basement-involved) includes: (1) strike-slip or

wrench fault assemblage, (2) compressive blocks and thrusts,

(3) extensional blocks and (4) warping arches, domes and sags.

The thin skinned includes: (1) detached thrust- fold

assemblage, (2) detached normal fault assemblage, (3) salt

structures, and (4) shale structures. Variety of structural styles

prefers allocation in certain plate-tectonic environments and

associated with the basin tectonic settings, mechanism of basin

formation, and sedimentary sequences. The various geometries

of the Sudanese rift-basins are variations on a half-graben idea

(D. Craig Mann, 1989).

0TIn this study the structural style of nonmarine basin in Muglad

Basin is characterized by extensional and/ or transtensional

structural styles resulted from faulting system activities during

Early Cretaceous stage and Early Tertiary. Therefore, Muglad

Basin is categorized as thick skinned (?) and thin skinned fault

23


assemblage.

0TThick skinned (basement-involved) category 0TExtensional basement-faulted blocks assemblage: In Muglad

Basin the extensional sediment-basement-faulted blocks are

thick skinned generally asymmetric in configuration and

present large scale tilting blocks (shearing) (Fig.5) seismic

lines SD77-59 and SD83-28 with steep fault dips that can be

classified into two categories: antithetic and synthetic normal

faults, and half-grabens which are the basic configurations of

several complex rift-faulted basins (Fig. 5).

0TFig. 5: Seismic section (Line 3-Muglad block) showing several complex rift-basins and their mimic subbasins indicating extensional basement-faulted blocks assemblage. Note: overall basin is composed of at least 6 mimic subbasins. 0TThey may also present some step fault blocks and horsts and

grabens combination (Fig. 6).

0TThe authentic shape of thick-skin fault is still controversial;

however, in Muglad Basin they developed in response to planar

or listric (or dogleg) shaped half- graben (Fig.7) originating

24


within the deep crust or mantle (thick-skinned) creating pull

apart.

0TThick-skin faults connect to the underlying crustal detachment

either on a “flat” or on a “ramp” on the basal detachment are

common in Muglad Basin. Fault displacement is transferred

between synthetic thick-skin faults by “transfer faults”.

Transfer faults have been modeled as near vertical intersecting

the main detachment faults at right angle (Lister et al. 1986 and

Ebinger et al. 1987).

0TFig. 6: Presents Seismic Cross Section Showing Some Step Fault Blocks (Horsts and Grabens Combination).

0TNevertheless, in Muglad Basin transfer faults with this

geometry (right angle) are rare.

0TDeformation in extensional basement-faulted blocks

assemblage might be contemporaneous and/ or deuterogenic.

25


The subsiding mechanisms of the basins are ascribed to the

block-faulting of the basement despite the type of the basin was

post-orogenic, composite block-faults, or intracratonic rift

basins.

0TThus the majority of the faulting system in Muglad Basins are

contemporaneous, i.e. growth faults. However; comparing with

the pre-basin faults, they are deuterogenic faults. The rate of

continental sedimentation plays a significant role on the

erosion of fault scarp depending on the pace of the fault

displacement. When the rate of sedimentation is low with rapid

fault displacement, fault scarps eroded back.

0TAlso, erosion can occur on the opposite updip side of a basin,

when rotation of the block by thick skin faulting creates a new

base level for sedimentation in the basin low; the updip edges

commonly erodes to fill the newly formed depression. The

compensation between basin extensional and subsiding rates

controls the dip of contemporaneous faults.

26


0TFig. 7: Seismic section (A) form Muglad Basin and diagrammatic Section (B) showing listric or dogleg shaped half-graben originating within the deep crust or mantle (thick-skinned) conforming to the eroded fault scrap geometry. 0TWhen the extensional rate is higher, the dips are gentle but

when the subsidence rate is compensated by sedimentation, the

dips are steep. In other hand, the composite block-faulted and

postorogenic faulted basins have basement faults being

relatively steep in dips with planar fault surfaces. The basement

blocks of pull-apart basins caused by strike-slipping are

theoretically vertical in dips but practically they exhibit small

step-wise- basement-faulted blocks with gentle dipping angles.

(Fig. 8).

0TDetached normal faults assemblage: The detached normal

27


faults assemblage thin skinned are not involved in the

basement. Thin-skin detachment faults are antithetic to thick-

skin detachment faults (Mann, D. Craig, 1989). They are

accommodated in the sedimentary facies on passive margins

and thick incompetent rocks inducing gravity slumping which

are rare in Muglad Basin due to the gravity differences of the

sediments and providing lubricant for detachment.

0TFig. 8: Seismic Section Exhibits Small Parallel Stepwise Basement-faulted Blocks with Gentle Dipping Angles. 0TThin skinned (basement not involved) category

0TIn Muglad Basin the detached normal faults are characterized

by listric plan within sedimentary sequences, steep near the

surface and flat at the deep depth. The detached normal faults

can be categorized in Muglad basin into the following

modes:(i) Common normal faults assemblage, (ii) Antithetic

normal faults assemblage, (iii) rollover anticlines or reverse

drag anticlines assemblage, and (iv) miscellaneous normal fault

28


assemblage. (i) common normal faults assemblage are forming

as a result of occurrence of the basin under successive

extensional subsidence and sedimentation, thus, brittle sand

and clay beds might be fractured forming normal faults which

flattened out into plastic beds (e.g. salt or shale flowage) and

occurred mostly in the flanks of the filled rifts and associated

with changes of the thickness and sedimentary facies. (ii)

antithetic normal faults assemblage are often observed in

intracratonic rift basins. They habitually accommodated in the

central areas of the faulted depression, corresponding to the

depocenter. The listric faults firmed out into thick mudstones.

Sandford (1959) used experiment model which emphasized

that the normal faults propagate from outer to center when the

cabbage-like graben (Fig.9) is caused by detachment and

extension, or they propagate from the center outwards when the

graben is caused by upwelling of the basal rocks or structural

doming.

29


0TFig. 9: Seismic section (SD82-43) from Muglad Basin Showing Antithetic Normal Faults propagating from the outer to center of the cabbage-like structure. The faults are Dominantly Listric within the Synrift Sequence. 0TThe antithetic normal faults can be established as a result of

local compensation of the extensional basal faults in interarc

rift basins and in several depressions of the postorogenic

basins. (iii) rollover anticlines or reverse drag anticlines

assemblage are major structural style of the progressive delta

sequences on passive continental margin (Bally et. al 1981,

Gibbs 1984); however, they can be seen in the rift infilling

sequence of the intracratoinc failed rift basins due to reverse

drag caused by the slipping and tilting of growth faults. They

are occur predominantly in the downthrown blocks of the

major boundary growth faults of both the northern and

southern depressions of the Kaikang Trough (Fig. 10 - a) with

30


the axes parallel to the faults. Example is in the western side of

the dintersection SD 79-65 and 78-58 b. The rollover

anticlines are related to the gravity slumping along the growth

fault planes. So long as the sedimentary sequences in basins

were reversely dragged, accompanying the growth faults, the

induced anticlines can be categorized into this structural style

(10- b). The well developed plastic beds in the downthrown

block gave rise to growth fault flattened out into the plastic bed

and may form some rollover anticline. (iv) the other normal

faults assemblage are small normal faults which have no

relations to the basement faulted-blocks and couldn’t be

referred to the fractured system caused by basin extension.

They concentrated in a certain interval, some of them are

related to the reservoir rocks and others concentrated in the

source rocks. They couldn’t be explained by deuterogenic

fractures. Two formation mechanisms could be suggested to

explain this kind of faults. One in the reservoir intervals, they

are caused by local gravity slumping of the differential

compaction due to the irregular distribution of many isolated

sandbodies in the deltaic area of a shallow lake basin and they

are irregular in both the directions and dip angles but in

Muglad basin can form by antithetic bedding plane faults not

slumping (Mann, D. Craig 1989, Bally et. al 1981, Gibbs

1984). The other one is that the faults in the source rocks are

resulted from minor fractures, which were caused by volume

31


expansion in the process of oil and gas generation and were

displaced slightly under different overlying pressures (10- c).

0TFig. 10: (a) Rollover Anticline-: Example: West of Intersection of SD 79-65 7 78-58b. (b) Drag Fold Example: Amal -1 Structure. (c) Faulted anticline: Example: South of the Western Fault Step Zone between Seismic Lines SD 79-68 and SD 77-6. 0TStructural assemblage resulted from deformation of plastic

rocks: Structural assemblage of salts, shales and claystones are

formed due to the plastic flowage of rocks; however,

deformation adjoins some factors such as tectonic settings and

sedimentary conditions in order to provoke the formation of

this structural style.

0TBasement flexure-uplift assemblage: It occurs only in

intracratonic or stable platform. It is a resultant of vertical

32


movement of the crust along faults due to the association of

faulted blocks in the basement on condition that completely

rigidized. This assemblage is not present in Muglad Basin.

0TBasement thrusts assemblage: It is characterized by thrust

faults and associated folds. The thrust faults cut both the

basement and the overlying sediments. It is one of the thin

skinned structural styles but is often misinterpreted, either as

thick-skin basement-involved faults with decreasing

displacement downwards, or as basin edge faults, which form

the other half of a misinterpreted full graben. On seismic

interpretations, reflectors below the detachment falsely appear

faulted, but with smaller apparent fault displacements than seen

above the detachment. This broken or faulted seismic character

below the detachment is artificially produced by complex ray

paths and lateral velocity variations across fault boundaries.

Another difficulty faces the recognition of detached thrust fold

assemblage in Mugald basin is the large variation in the size of

detachment. If the study area and seismic lines are too small to

see the whole fault system, large detachments can go

unrecognized.

0TDetached thrust folds assemblage: they normally occur in

sediments of the down-wrapping basins on cratons and on the

sides adjacent orogenies. This structural style deformation

happens where the original miogeosynclinal sediments on the

continental margin was upthrusted onto the craton due to

33


terrain collision and the overlying sediments were compressed

and deformed, forming complex detached thrust folds which

extremely uplifted and induced gravity spreading and gravity

sliding while the craton basement reserved comparatively

stable due to its rigidity. The major parameters control the

grade and convolution of the detached thrust folds are the

magnitude of the colliding blocks, the thickness of the

sedimentary sequences and the intercalations of competent and

incompetent beds of the craton. Strike-slip or wrench fault

assemblage: strike-slip deformation has a middle stress. The

compressional or extensional field of stress can’t avoid

inducing some wrench deformations. An asymmetrical graben

structure with a tilted array of planar to listric faults was

produced (Fig 11). The faults within the prerift sequence in the

graben become sigmoidal as response to the internal

deformation in the graben. These faults become listric within

the synrift sequence (see fig. 11). The fault nucleation

sequence indicates both hanging-wall and footwall nucleation.

Many of the faults are nucleated relatively rapidly early in the

deformation history and are active throughout the deformation.

34


0TFig.11: Seismic Section (SD78-14) Across Extension of Muglad Basin Showing Asymmetrical Development of Planar to Listric Growth Fault Arrays with a Complex Crestal-Collapse Graben System of Antithetic and Synthetic Faults. A = Pre-rift, B = Syn-rift, C = Post-rift. It illustrates Sharp Change of Thickness of Nayil and Tendi Formations Across Faults 0TMuglad Basin deformed in extensional-wrench. Extensional,

pull-apart basins are usually occurred (Crowell, 1973). In

addition, seismic line (GN98-020) from Muglad Basin (Fig.

12) the Nayil and Tendi Formations are primarily deposited

and cover a thickness of 4 km. as a sedimentary drape strongly

controlled by faulting to indicate another intensive phase of

rifting.

0TThe resulted sub-basins were superposed upon the Darfur-stage

and bored faults were obviously formed by reactivating the

previous structures. In addition, many new intra-basin faults

were also created.

35


0TFig. 12: Seismic line (GN98-020) from Muglad Basin showing negative flower structure as a cursor for the presence of wrench deformation. 0TThese newly formed faults, along with reactivated old ones,

often make up negative flower structures (see Fig.12)

indicating sinistral movement and which confirms the presence

of wrench deformation as one of the most typical criteria of

wrench deformation which is characterized by vertical strike-

slip faults without apparent vertical displacement. The dextral

en echelon faults in horizon and the alternation or combination

of the positive and negative flower structures in cross sections

verify the presence of wrench faults in the area. Figure 13

summerizes the major structure assemblages of Muglad Basin.

36


0TFig. 13: Summarizing the Major Proposed Structure Assemblages of Muglad Basin.

Conclusions 0TGeometry and nature of the extensional detachment exert a

fundamental control on the evolution of extensional basin structures.

The horizontal or tilted detachments that generate extension above a

restricted area experiencing stretching induce extensional basin

geometries at the early stages of rifting. In these early stages rifts form

and are bounded by two steep bounding faults, and internal

37


deformation within the asymmetrical rift is accommodated by an array

of planar faults.

- 0TOnce the planar faults penetrate the synrift sequence,

they become listric growth faults. Simple listric

extensional detachments are characterized by rollover

anticlines with gometrically necessary crestal-collapse

graben structures. Within the crestal-collapse grabens,

hanging-wall nucleation of new faults is dominant. At

high extension value, the synthetic crestal-collapse

graben faults develop into a fan of listric growth faults

in the synrift sediments. Superposition of successive

crestal-collapse grabens at high extension values

produces complex arrays of intersecting faults.

- 0TRamp/flat listric extensional fault systems are

characterized by a rollover anticline and crestal-collapse

graben system associated with each steepening-upward

segment of the detachment, and a ramp zone consisting

of a hanging-wall syncline and a complex deformation

zone. The hanging-wall syncline is characteristic of

ramp/flat detachment geometries. The ramp/flat

evolution of extensional basin structures developed

above major detachment surfaces can be generated by

horizontal or tilted detachments.

- 0TAssessment for nonmaring deposits of Muglad Basin

attained through integrating geophysical data, structural

38


analysis, and petroleum geology.

- 0TIt has been proved that nonmarine petroleum basins have

very suitable geological conditions to form oil and gas

pools. A series of giant oil and gas fields has been found

besides lots of medium to small sized ones. This might

enhance understanding of petroleum geological

conditions of the Meso-Cenozoic nonmarine petroleum

basins, support and enriched the theory of the petroleum

formation and occurrence in nonmarine petroleum

basins.

- 0TIn Muglad Basin, the assessment of petroleum achieved

to zones, favorable reservoir–cap combinations and

favorable plays and prospects throughout the Muglad

Basin. some remarks are worthy to be stressed. 1. Oil

discoveries around the western flank of Unity oil field

confirmed the presence of the kitchen in which the

organic matters had been cooked and then generated oil

and/ or gas and latter by expulsion moved to the

adjacent areas. The paleostructure was mature enough to

trap the oil and later flow it from Tendi Formation to

Kaikang-1; 2. In the northern part of the basin near the

boarder of Fula subbasin, Abu Gabra Formation is well

developed, thus, it is the major Cretaceous source rock

in the area of the Unity oil field and; 3. The center of the

Muglad Basin was regarded less prospective because the

39


Abu Gabra Formation is relatively thin due to the

gravity study and the structure in the area is young.

During the major lake development stage of a half-

graben, the block-faulting was strong, the lake was wide

and deep, thus, the source rock of large size and

reservoir bodies were developed.

0TReferences

0TBally, A.W., D. Bernoulli, G.A. Davis, and L. Montadert,

(1981.) Listric normal faults: Oceanologica Acta, 26th

International Geological Congress Proceedings, Paris, 1980, p.

87-101.

0TBaoqing Wang and Ihsan S. Al-Aasm. (2002.) Karst controlled

and reservoir development: example from the Ordovician

main-reservoir carbonate rocks on the eastern margin of the

Ordos basin, China. AAPG Bulletin, Vol. 86, pp. 1639- 1658.

0TBegawan, S. R., and J. J. Lambiase (1995). Preface, in J. J.

Lambiase, ed., Hydrocarbon habitat of rift basins: The

Geological Society of London Special Publication on. 80, p.

vii-viii.

0TBrowne, S. E. and J. D. Fairhead (1983). Gravity study of the

Central African rift system: a model of continental disruption;

1, the Ngaoundere and Abu Gabra rifts, in P. Morgan, ed.,

40


Processes of continental rifting: Tectonophysics, v. 94, p. 187-

203.

0TBrowne, S. E. and I. I. Mohammed,(1985). Gravity study of the

White Nile rift, Sudan, and its regional tectonic setting:

Tectonophysics, v. 113, p. 123-137.

0TBosworth, W (1992) Mesozoic and early Tertiary rift tectoincs

in West Africa. Tectonophusics, 213: 115- 137.

0TCrowell, J. C (1973). Origin of Late Cenozoic basins in

Southern California, in W. R. Dickinson ed: Tectonics and

Sedimentation, Society of economic Paleontologists and

Mineralogists.

0TEllis, P. G. and McClay, K. R., (1988). Listric exensional fault

systems- results of analogue model experiments Basin Res. 1,

55-70.

0TEstrella, G. O., M. R. Mello, P. C. Gaglianone, R. L. M.

Azevedo, K. Tsubone, E. Rosseti, J. Concha, and I. M. R. A.

Bruning. (1984). The Espirito Santo Basin (Brazil) sourc rock

characterization and petroleum habitat, AAPG Memoir 35, p.

252-271.

0TFairbridge, R. W. (1961). Eustatic changes in sea level, in L. H.

Ahrens ed. Physics and Chemistry of the Earht, Pergamon

Press.

41


0TFairhead, J. D. (1988). Mesozoic plate tectonic reconstructions

of the central South Atlantic Ocean: the role of the West and

Central African rift system. Tectonophysics. 155: 181-191.

0TGibbs, A. D. (1984). Structural evolution of extensional basin

margins J. Geol. Soc. London, 141: 609-620.

0TGibbs, A. D. (1987). Development of extension and mixed-

mode sedimentary basins. In: Continental extensional

Tectonica (Eds M. P. Coward, J. F. Dewey and P. L. Hancock,

Spec. Publ. Geol. Soc. London No, 28, 19-33.

0TGibbs, A. D. (1989). Structural styles in basin formation,

Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s

Newfoundland.

0TGiedt, N. R. (1990). Unity field, Sudan, Muglad rift basin

Upper Nile province, in E. A. Beaumont and N. H. Foster, eds.,

Structural traps III: AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology,

Atlas of Oil and Gas Fields, p. 177-197.

0TGuirad, R. and Maurin, J. (1992). Early Cretaceous rifts of

Western and Central Africa: an overview. In: P. A. Ziegler

(Editor), Geodynamics of Rifting, volume II. Case History

Studies on rifts: North and South America and Africa.

Tectonophysics, 213: 153-168.

0THarding, T. P., Lowell, J. D. (1979). Structural Style, their

42


plate-tectonic habitats and hydrocarbon traps in petroleum

provinces, AAPG Bull, Vol. 63, NO, 7.

0TJackson, J. A. and White, N. J. (1989). Normal faulting in the

upper continental crust: observations form regions of active

extension J. Struct. Geol, 11, 15-36.

0TLing Chen, Tianyu Zheng, and Weiwei Xu. (2006). Receiver

function migration image of the deep structure in the Bohai

Bay Basin, eastern China, Geophysical Research Letters, Vol.

33

0TLister, G. S., Etheridge, M. A. and Symonds, P. A. (1986).

Detachment faulting and the evolution of passive continental

margins: Geology 14: 246-250.

0TMann, D.C. (1989). Thick-skin and thin-skin detachment faults

in continental Sudanese rift basins. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 8: 307-

322.

0TNorth, F. N. (1985). Petroleum Geology, Allen and Unwin Inc.

0TOjeda, H. A. O. (1982). Structural framework, stratigraphy and

evolution of Brazilian marginal basins, AAPG Bulletin, v. 66.

p. 732- 749.

0TPonte, E. C., and H. E. Asmus. (1978). Geological framework

of the Brazilian continental margin, Geologische Rundschau.

43


V.68, p. 201.

0TReeves, C.V., Karanja, F.M. and MacLeod, I.N. (1986).

Geophysical evidence for a failed Jurassic triple-junction in

Kenya: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 81, p. 299-311.

0TRonov, A. B. (1980). Quantitative analysis of Phanerozoic

Sedimentation, Sedimentary geology, vol. 25.

0TSchull, T. J. (1988). Rift basins of Interior Sudan: Petroleum

exploration and discovery. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., v. 72:

1128-1142.

0TShiguo Wu, Dongdong Dong, Zhaohua Yu and Dongbo Zou,

(2007). Geophysical evaluation methods for buried hill

reservoirs in the Jiyang superdepression of the Bohai Bay

basin, eastern China, J. Geophys. Eng. 4 :148-159

0TVail, P. R., R. M., Mitchum, and S. Thompson. (1977).

Seismic Stratigraphy and Global Chanes of Sea Level, Part 4:

Global Cycles of Relative Changes of Sea Level, in: Seismic

Stratigraphy applications to hydrocarbon exploration, Charles

E. Payton (Editor), AAPG, p. 83-97.

0TWang B. and Qian K. (1997). Geologic Research and

Exploration Practice in Shengli Petroleum Province, Petroleum

Industry Press. PP.335.

0TXie Jiarong, (1934), Shaanxi Basin and Sichuan Basin, Journal

http://www.iop.org/EJ/search_author?query2=Shiguo%20Wu&searchfield2=authors&journaltype=all&datetype=all&sort=date_cover&submit=1

http://www.iop.org/EJ/search_author?query2=Dongdong%20Dong&searchfield2=authors&journaltype=all&datetype=all&sort=date_cover&submit=1

http://www.iop.org/EJ/search_author?query2=Zhaohua%20Yu&searchfield2=authors&journaltype=all&datetype=all&sort=date_cover&submit=1

http://www.iop.org/EJ/search_author?query2=Dongbo%20Zou&searchfield2=authors&journaltype=all&datetype=all&sort=date_cover&submit=1

44


of geography, vol. 1, No. 2.

0TXin Feng, Xian-Huan Wen, Bo Li, Ming Liu, Dengen Zhou,

Michael Q. Ye, Dongmei Hou, Qinghong Yang, and Lichuan

Lan. (2007). Water Injection Optimization for a Complex

Fluvia Heavy Oil Reservoir by Integrating Geological,

Seismic, and Production Data, Society of Petroleum Engineers

Inc. SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in

Anaheim, California, U.S.A. 11-14 Nov.

0TZhu xia. (1982). Global paleotectonics and Paleozoic

petroleum basins, Oil and Gas Geology, Vol. 4, No. 1.

0TZhu Xiaomin and Xin Quanlin. (1987a). Discriminant

functions and dispersal map for grain size parameters for delta

and turbidite fan sandbodies. Oil & Geology, Vol. 8, No. 3.

0TZhu Xiaomin and Xin Quanlin. (1987b). Grain size features of

a delta and Turbidite fan at the third member of Shahejie

Formation in Huimin Depression. Journal of the East China

Petroleum Institute, Vol. 11, No. 1.

0TZhu Xiaomin and Xin Quanlin, (1987c). Application of Makov

Chain Method to establishment sedimentary facies model. Acta

Sedimentologies Sinica, Vol. S, No. 4.

university of africa journal of sciences university of...

Documents