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NWAGU, Eric K. N.

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Methods and Materials for Social Studies Instruction

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Methods and Materials for Social Studies Instruction

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Education

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CHAPTER 28

METHODS AND NIATEFIALS FOR SOClAL STUUIES INSTRUCTION

Specific Objectives

At the end of this chapter, t h e reader should be able lc: ( i ) explain the objeot~ve of Snc:~al Studies ~ristr~.ic!iori, jiij explain tne criteria for se:lectirig methods and materials for Social Studies

Ins trilc:ion; (iii) exp!airi ;he, meaning, application, strength and weaknesses of such

instruc:ional techniques as siinuiafion, gam2 project, ciiscussio~-1, fieldwork acrl lrqriiry, and

r &?r-nor\strak the use of various instructional mater~als in teaching Social Stutllks

c f fw l~v t ! ii\1111!l In a mul!l-!.:ttln!c society Social Stud~cs oqu~;)s children with relevant kilo~l(>c:ge. soclal skills, v a l w s and attitudes for good cltlrenshrp, patriotisri-1, soc~al tolcrancx c:oopcrat~on and soc~al responsih!ity In tact, the prograrnrne is des1gr1t.d io rc!oric!r~lati! youths arid clrcuriwen! the soclo-polit~cal problems that had been the bane i!! national development In I91ger1a The edut:at~orlal obj,!ctlves of Social Stii!l!cs art! ttwrefoio more affective ! t ! ~ ~ r i cogrtl!lvtx rind psyc;honiotor

r I h c : cor-~lc-:r.!ts of !he Social Sc!ences are dtsci~ssctd In Socral Stt.rdm as they w:x~ld ii~tl~.~(!t~c:it the r ~ ~ o r a l and cllaracter tra~r-ling of tho stuc?c:!lis i he cxpcrt Soc:~;il St~.~c?~c?s tc>a(:ii(?r !jt:i<:C:ts appropr~atc ~ristriic;t~usial rriethotls arid rrmterials that would (lilatilrt ~ i i i i le r i i s ir:insc:ericl rnastcry o l the contctnts of ~ristruc!ron arid development t-Jcs~rcd soc~al sk~lis attltucles and valucs

Iri another ~nstance, the'therne '~agricuiture in N ~ g e i ~ a " IS taught both In Geography. Agr~cultural Science and Social Studies. In Geosraphy, the students are taught the spatial ,distrjbut~on of crops and farni~ng techniques as well as ttie geographical conditions that favour growth of each crop In Agricultural Scrence the rillitlents learn as in the case ~f ge~0'r!3phy ar?d go further tc learn the cult~va!~on of each crop 2nd iheir economic irrportance. In Soc~al, Studies, the theme IS discussed in !he cont'ex! of hi:man actwties and approved means of livelihood. They see the ~rnportarlce of agriculture to both individuals. families and the soc~ety and begin to apprec~ate a lbe~ i sympathetically, the dependence of humar! societylcommun~ty or; farmers and the reed !o farm More ~mportantly the interdependence of varlous regions for fopd supply illus!raks qu~te aptly the need for untty and social tolerarlce . ,

In Niger~a 'ir-l!n for ~nstance IS produced tri the Mic!tflc fWt arid Cross Rlvor basiris arid c.or:x~.~rrio~! in !he East Ccnlral North Cclltral arid Wcstcmi rcgloris. ' I tit. north I:xodilces !orn:jtoes. oki-o. gartler-! eggs. rlce, beans and rna!rc wh~ch are cor~silrned ir-I tho suu ih The west prodl~ces kolanutr,.cons~~mcd in the north. The east produces palin 61: ccnsurned In t;oth the wes! and the north No regl3n car1 do wi!hout the others

The s ~ x c s s in serving the put-pses of bulk1 geography, agricultural science and scrc~ai studles by the the'me "Agriculture in Nigeria" depends on the methods of teaching selected by the ieacher 1 he contents are similar, and rt is only the c h o w oi mctihocis ai:d materials that. make possible the achievement of the ditfcrcmt t i I Each teacher selects the type of method and ~nstr i~ct~orial r.riatc;r~i~ls :hat vr!ouloJ fac~litate !he ach~cv,?ment ot hislher sct goals.

7 Content Organizatiori

;?!~oti.il::r fnctor that ~rifluences the c h o w of ~nstruct~onal methods and ~;l;:rcr~als c;ilts~de the ~rlstr~~ct ional objectlvcs of Soc~al Studies is the pattern of orgarlvat~on of Soclal Studles contents, As noted by Osakwe and Itedjere (1993) 8n.j evidencc?d ~n the JSS Social Studies Curriculum (FME, 'l985), the corltents are ijrganized in themes or broad topics which present specific problerns to the students., 7-1-1e problems are riot supposed .to be talked over Sy a verbose teacher who rattles through the nature, rriaynltude and consequences of the problems and their probable solution. This is no! Social Studies. I he tescher'should select the rrlethod that would enabie' students 'io experieiice the problem albeit iri a simu'aied or microcosmic cond~ticr: acd etoive or work o ~ t feasible solutions. ~ h d skills acquired becorw interna!ized a r d the newly acquired social values a d attiti!c'es then predominate ar?d cven,vhelrn socia! behaviours Oifferevt therries present diifercnt sc:s of

) 4 Motivation

I ijc ~leeci for the students io be well motivated an3 cnitius~astic uriderl~c the choice of incihocis of teachtrig Socia! Studies. Ample er~?p!r~cal evidence have been advanced by the arncirnt of learn~ng achreved by studen!s Tile more motivatc?d they arc? the more eagcr they are to learn and cor~sr~~-~uently rr le Illore lcarriirig ttlat oar) b:, iich~c?vcd Where rnatlva!lon IS lacking, thc zeal to tackle thc rnaterrals to be Icacrlt hi!ccriles :?;-impcncd, and the learning process becorr~cs a drab In such srtuat~ons. \!cry !!tile ioarnrng is dccompl~siied Moieov,er, tor learning to Iranscend rnere acqutsltic~fi of kriovvledgu and result into change of attitudes :311d values, the degree of ca-i im~tment of the sr:ider?'is to the process of learnrrig shoxld be suffic~ently I i lgb~ Thls high comm~ttant is ~isually engendered by most factors of motiva!ion. In other werds t l k methods of teach~ng that set off and sustarri the "drlve to learn" In students

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:rilc;uld be preferred In Soc~al Stud~es classes for changing 11-I(? social dispos~!lons. valucs. prcfercnces and sktlls of S ~ L I ~ L ~ I I ~ S

Snmc methods, of !eachlrig motrvate s!udents and sustain ti:eir interest rn the learning process wtxle other mcthods dampen the morale and zeal of studcnts Those rncthods that involve students in activities and the use of more tl?ari one sense organ CIu:irlg learning, mot~vate !he stcrden!~ Such me!!-iods (as will be seen later In ths chapter) incli l tk: games, simulation, d~scovery, project, field worli, role playrng. eti;.

4 Reinforcement

"Re~nforcernerit is mos i in;l;orisi.~t for all forms of learriilq" (Stones,196689). Ccing by Clark Hull's need reduction theory of learning, ih;! learner should feel r;a:isfied or gtatihcd after he/she has learri'; some?hiiig Mot~vatlon creaks the need fur k:mwledge of ilew vaiues, altitudes and social skills Acquisit.iorl o f tile kriowizdge. ~ i c reduces the need and erigc:\dcrs a feelri7g of sat~sfactiori or iulf~ilrnen! ri; the students When the learnirig condition IS devoid of positive rc~nforccrs, Icarnir-lg becomes tedious and stressiui, ever\ arriongst highly rriotrvated Jc?zrr?ers.

The implication of ihis is that the cho~ce ot 'instructional methods and, slrategiks for Socral S!udres s t i o ~ ~ l d give considerat~an to the in!erest of t h e students i i siloiild allow !!:ern to irlter,act freely but crclerly among ther !,selves and with the tcacher srid the learning materials Those methods that reduce students tc passive I~sicrlers to the n?onotc~nobs verbiaae of a dornrnarit, "all-kwwing" leacher are sentencrng innocent s tud~r ' i k Zo bot. I ?hysically and psyctlolo!.;~~ .a1 puriishnient. Such methods waniorlly defeats the p!.rrpose of Social Stud~es

t) Practice

I'ract~cc: 1s 31.1 ri-nportant principle rri learriing and retentlor! Empirical evrderice (Ai11k.iu.ei:: 1988) have shown that children learn more wherl !hey are involvcd l r l

;ictiv~t!i!s fZy ac:!!v!?y t!erc we rmply rnore than mcrnory arid ~ludliory exercises I t ir~Iuc!es :lit:: asc- c!l the i-aritls, the body, ? h e rncmory. la r ig~~agc ;?nd the scnse

- organs. It would appear that the more ~nvolvtna the activity is to the ch~ldreri, the more realistc and permanent the consequent learning would be.

Through practice and social acliwties c.trtairi*dcsirabie social behaviour sltrlls atld values are learnt. In other words soc~al sk~lls and \,~ilues are better Icarn: through d~rect involvement of the learner in a social process than through rriere observation whether visual, auditory, tactile, elc. Ir! choosirlg met5ods and materials for Social Studies instructio~;, consideration should be givcn more to the methods that keep the stuuents zctive in the learning erivironmen! ! k r i those that keep them passive

Moreover, the disuse theory of forgettlrig is found 111 practice ~ccordin!:, to the, tIL:eory, rna tena!~ learnt bui no! mc?d or applied o w r a lorig por~oc? of tirrw w w l d start wnijing In the memory, such that, the more 11 1s riot used or practrce the morc: ~t is forgotten Social skills that are learnt t h r o u ~ h practice are more easily applied and tiansferred to life situations. They are relatively more permanent arid corisequeritly retained longer than those that are learnt through listening.

The Methods \ ,

There are numerous methods and stralegies for social studies instruction. Space !nay m t permit a detailed discussior~ of each rncthod or strategy. The traditional rnethods will only be mentioned and the more nove! and innovative ir:siruciional approaches will be discussed. The latter categcry inciudes: simulation, yarne, project, clisclissiori, field work, and inquiry

Simulation

Sirnulaiion is one of the problem-solvtny activity methods of teaching and learning Simulations mitror or reflect real societal problems and their networks of - associated varia?les. I he problems and a!l the factors that irifluence them are modeletl In s~rnulatron 1Oi class execution. Most s~rnulat~on inodels are 5~11 l t around s!~xj ie problems i~~idividuals ar;d groups are assigned aspects of the problem to st:~tlyiexplore. Th? model is fir;nily executed In the classroon~

In !he classrocm executron of a simulation, the problem IS presented as real, ?zd the interplay of different inf lue~cing variables or factors ar-e also presented The students then consider the prcblem in its ent~rety q d evolve a practicable solution !o it. For instance, th3 simulation on Election Power Farlure i.1 Nigeria developrnerit ;ind valiciatcd by Okpala (1991) enables students to explore :~i l the possible causes ;jnc! effects of the problem, arid then work out practicable solutions to the problcrn of coristnni clcxtrri: power failure i r i N~geria.

Planning the Use of ~ imulat ion: '

1 ldentify a significant societal problem that calls for 'rnmediate solution cg p r o b l ~ m of pollution, soil erosion, arrncd robbery, 419, bribery and corruptron, poor agriculti.~~ e yield, etc etc

' j L!st cjui what the speciic objecilves ol execut~rig ihe 'slrnulat~on for the soc:eiy: the specrf~c desrrable social skills, values a n d attitudes as veil as the k r iowled~e !o be acquired Ihrough the pr occss.

3 Select o i develop appropriates slrnulatlon Sometirn-s sui!ablc /simulatlori co~t i i l I:j<! se!ectei:i amon3 those developed I:)y other '.eachers and research

workers Tho sclcct~or; S~OLI IC ! be after clue corisrd(tratron of tt-ie dcsrgrier's ' . puiposc in the n.iodcl, the levc! of st~~dit~!t:; 11i(. r~!o!lc:l was ~;rc;11cd to sitivc: llic hrlie 11 would take to execate thc s~rnulatron; the facil~ties requtred arid the cornplexrty of the rnodei Where therc is not su~lable s~rnulat~on existing thc o r i ~ wrll be on trw tcacher to dcvelop an appro~r~akc s~rncrlatron

1l1o d ~ v c l o p ~ ~ l e i l t of s~mulat~on dcrnands a lot uf iritctlloct!.ral l n l p ~ i : The rncrital elforts are yc:arcttl towards cc!nc(.:!pt~.~nl~ziri tllc prot~ l t rn for.11.1 both wliol~sticlaritl d~rnenstonal perspectives and then mapping. out exploration strategies that would Ictad students rn!o understanding the various dirnensions and factors of thc prol)lciri, arid predispose h e m for frnding realistrc solutlori to the problem; and then piecing roles together rn order to rcprescnt a very complex problem ir? a simple realistic form or model After developing the srniulation the teacher should try rt out to ensure that lht actrvrt~es are wrthin the competency level of the students, and that the object~ves are :ach~evable through !he planncd exerclse; and that the exerclse can be compleied w t h n the projected t i rw interval.

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4: r'kterrriined the appropriate date, time and venue for t he exercise The ttme should be arnplc c r l o ~ ~ g h to pcrrnlt the stut1c:its to enjoy both thc ctxcc:ut;orl ::rrt~cisrn ancf ovaluatrori of tho exercrse I! should however not bi? par] of the studerils' 1-cxreat~orial cxcrcisc?~ The venue should be spaclogs c:;ougIk to allow free rnov,emc-nt of :tie partrcipants arid also freedorrl 11; rearrangtq furn~tirre and o i k r facil~tres

5 Sharrng out roles in advance to the stxlents. The roles should be ' cquitab!y distributed to permit the partkipatton of ali class mornbers The

kachcr should descriScz thc procedure and the rules to be observed. The c'!cscriptiorl r;t~c>u!d be skeletal arid simply alrrred at acquarr~trrq the students with th? structure and procedure of t h e s ~ m ~ l a t i o n model. Much of the w r k with regards !o the strategies for better understandrny of the 7rohlems and evolution' of workable solulions should be the exclus;ve reserve of the stud en!^ However, the more effective the teacher's briefing, ttic less he wouU he intervenmg in the coursct of the c-:xecutiori of the s!i??~~la!tor,l

G Studor.its. whrle preparir~y for ttie~r rolcs. should also improvise the materials lo be used In executrng ~:IL sirnulat~on. local sourcirig of materials by the sti.ldents draws them c!oser to the problem and makes them look inwards for !he so!c!tron of the problern It triakes them se!! depcndc~lt and self relmnt in the efforts to solve the problem berrig s~r rlulatoc?l

7 The evali~at!on plan should designed. The evaluatron cxerclses should be capab!e of raveal~ncj how much of the sptxific objectives have bcxtn atia~nctl by each studcrit and the group It st-ioc!ld also assess the sirnulatlon in terms of i k simplrciiy, ~nteres!ingness ar-ic: functionality

I he advantages of s~rnulatton over the trad~t~onal ~ncthods of teach~ng was e1d:ior;lted 11: Ogur~sarlys (1904) arid A m et al (1982) [hey r'iclude -

! t makes teaching and learn~ng real~stlc am! reduces concepts from abstract to coricrete and realistic forms. I t o;)poc!ilne Ihe sttuderits is participate fully and act~vely in the learnmg process They do not sit pass~vely and l~sterl to the "all kriowmg" teacl-let. t i rnotlvates and susia~ris the ~rlterest of the students In the learning pmcess I t ~riculc;.,tes thc prohlerii solvmg skills arid a!t~tudes ~ r l ihe students. i t trains the studerlts !n group process and make them to reallzt?. apprec~ale arid accrtpt the qual~ l ic?~, r:)les arid rc;.;ponsrbilities of good Ittadership and followersh~p. I t 1s gc?od for achiev~rq educational objectives that are focused on requ~red char-igus in valucs and attitutfes of the.students. it allows the students tb express frccly the~r creative abil~ties. It perrnrts close rnteract~on among the students and zonsequently learning the sociai skills of cooperation, tolerance, r e s p c t , mutual t h r ~ s t , fnendl~ilcjss, constructive critlcwn artd the like. I h e rrjle pr-actxe, role execat~onlplay and the role recall make reterltlori arxf recall 0.f knowletlge easy.. It permits the achievement of multiple instructional objectives In orie class contact.

1 --

Slmulatior\ arc not easy to develop l iw r ' develr-lprnent make great demand on !he :n;cilcct and creat~ve i i b ~ l ~ t y of the teacher Moreover slnce I[ IS t ~ i l a novel method of teaching i i l average Nigerrljn classrooms, mosi i ~ a c h e r s may not know how to-develop thern.

Furthermore, only limited r?crrriber of pubi~shed sinuialions are with~n ihe reach of a\:ylrage Nigwar; teacher.

2. S~mi~la!ion. as a method of teaching takes much t ~ m c to be plan;led and executed Planning and execution o f siniulat~ons cut into the Icssori pcr~ods of otlter subjrtcts

3 Stui?~:rlt.: rnay b e carried away by the fun in tiie exercise, and Itiey rriay forget Ihc fundamental objectives of the sirnulation.

4 The method does not suit very young pupils especially in lower primary. Even tilough very si!l?pie simulation models can he ckveloped for them, t1.1~ rrla!rl 5:renyth of simulation as a problem solwng approach becornes more manifest in coiriplex problem situations

5 A tc!acl;c\i wrlo is dctf~crent ~n class c;on!rol s l c i l l ? , l n r ~ r r . ~ ~ ~ c . f ~ ~ ~ r ~ ( : ~ ~ s may 1101 i~r ld I! easy io control ai>r+ rl::zi;i \tic (;ourse 01 e x w t ~ t ~ w o! ; ~ ! l ~ l i ~ l i : ! l ~ n rnodcl [ h c ~ ! i . i ( i t 3 5 h ~ ( j l l l d kX31:0l'l?~? rloisy i l l l l ' l l l~, aild qllar'r(:i3!)r~le du:.!!!Cj l k l c piay and a': the eritl, a yood solutror: rriay no! be ~c~:- Ic~K:C' l o r tile sirn~~lalet l p! oblcrr:

Game IS sarnet~mes used In ei:or to mean simulation Some authors merge - the two concepts to have simulation game A garne is a structt.~red exercise which roqulres and rewar-rls the appl~cat~on of spec~fic siillls or ;;b:l~t~es Each ~:artic~parit slr~ves to o~~ tsh lne i?! !xrs In the dernonstrat~on of thc sk;lls and abllit~cs and consequently In the ncrinber of crcdits or po~nts won as llrc garrle progresses I-here are wlrwers arid loscrs ;it thc t ~ ? d of games Sornc gijrnes arc clcveloped to teach or cxerclse ccr!aln cognll!\/c or social behav~our sk~ils, kr~owledgc and corripetcriecies vvhlch are of et lwat~on;~l trnporta1;ce. For iristance, the popular game "snake and ixldcr-" has beer! rnodilietl.

in Nqerra. As itie game is played by two or- 4 people over arid over agaln, they rnastcr the distribution ~f railways in N~geria and the very important railway stritions ir: Nigeria

planning the Use of a Play

1 Slato Ihe specific objectives of the instructional programme. 2 'Select or dcvelop the play. 3 Map out evaiuatloti strategies (7 Prowde cnough game facilities to perrnit the par!ic!;~::!iori of all the class

riv171bers . 5 Fhcf !he students or! how to play the game and the objectives in view. G Demonst r~ fe how the game is plab~ed -i Croup t i ? stadenik for the p!ay arid asslgn various roles arid

rcsponslbiiitics !o the studcn' and groups

A dva n l a p s . .

I Ocirig ar: activity meihild it stimulates and susta~ns student's inteiest in the str~dy

'7 .,- it makes the learning process more natural and realis!ic. -, 3 Learning IS more permanent, and retention and recall are easier. ,,: .. 9 i t ~nculcates the spirit of healthy competition in the students. c, .., !t teaches studerils to be acceptmg defeat with !?e open mind of a

s~ortsma;?.

Disadvantage

i 1-11s n !etiioc: to t ~ z ~ i . \ l i ~y makes grea! tlernarid or1 the hrne of bo!h the teacher and the students. Where fac~lilies arc nct ad tqmte and the studerils are forced to take turris, the play me!hod !csson rnay not be completed ir, regular double lesson pe!!ods.

2 The main object~ve of the lessor> could be lo's! to the euphoria of the play 'I - i f the oi~jcc;:ivcs are not well explained to tht: sl:lc!erit, ;In unhealthy rivalry

rnay arlse betv~cen 2nd amongst them.

Discussion rncthod

! l i s c ~ ~ s s ~ o r ~ hiis been a very effective rrlethod of teac91ng many aspects of Socral Slud~es Some teachers apply the rncthod i!nconsc~ously even hen they are using 'other me!hocis of teachincj. L>~scuss~on method ~rnmlves the students and teacher In dialogue over cornmoi-i thenics. In :he process, the participarils think together, learn together and share exper~ences They raise ct~estioris and provide the arlswers. debate pants act! resolve c!ifferences in opinion, express doubts and ol.)ta~il clanf~cations, observe and correct errors. ~ i sc i i ss ion engenders healthy i r~ te rac tm amongst students and between students' arid their teachers. It ensure rnairi1i:nance (3: muit~ple channels of commuriication amongst the students and bctwecn t lwm and the~r teachers. The lrrwthod exercises arid trains the students i r i pol~te speech making, reasoning or crit~cal thmk~ng, objcxY~v~ty and respect for the views (I( others

Class discussion can take ahy of the follow~ng shapes or forms: (a) Srnall group disc:~ssion (b) I3anel c;iscuss!ori j lleba!e a x l (d) brain storm~ng

( a ) Small Group Discussion , a

This is \~h (> rc the entire class is grouped into srmll clusters of membershy in order io allow cvciy class member lo participate and make contributions. It is adv~sabie to have mixed ability pupiis in each group to fastenlhasten the rate of undcrstandirig of the slow learners. However where the task IS ryluch niore challer~g~rxj and the w e a ~ students are likely to fee! inferlor arld incapable, the advice IS to group the students acc~rd ing to their ir~tellect or background knowledge, and then give spec~al assistance to the group of weak students.

' b e r e arc 2 models of usage of smail group cliscus:;~on technique in one ~r!s!ance a common :heqie or topic is discussed by all the gr-oup~ at ttic end of wh~ch Ihe l(tar:twr surrirnarireci the key p(>ir\ts arid attend to ttic::r ques!.ons Or1 t k o t h ~ i hail(!, when tho tilerno IS broad an:! w ~ t h may dirr~ensrori, !tic var!ous aspects of !tic ihcriie COLIICJ tw ident~fied and assigried to (lrfferent groups to Lic:lberate on. ?-tie resolutioris of Lhc? various groups are th~r'i ;)/!:'i;eLi kogetiier ij! Ltie eriu o l lhe small group ~ I S C U S S ~ O ~ ~ S .

' Disa dvan tagcs . I h c advantages in small g r9~1p discussion are tliat

( ~ j It enables every member of tile class to participate in the discussion. (I!) i t :riakes learr:ing more realistic and less ritualistic slnce the focus of attentlor1

IS sl.iiftccj! from the teacher to the entire class. I ~t pr:rrnrts in-deptb treatment of the top~c under discussion. I i t pcrmlts d~ffererit groups to investigate arid d~scuss d~fferent aspects of a

! r : rg~ scale problem and thctreaftcr present cxpcriencds arid resolut~oris to tile i::lt;fo class

{ v ) ~i pcrnll! inc.i~v!tJ:raIiza!~:in of ~;.~s!r;~c:lior? The tcac:hcr car) tsolate the stutl(;lrits who ri:c;c!,lrc specla1 attentlor1 1r1 one yroiir? for drlliing arid extra at!cr.it~ori.

(V I ) I! st~fr!cilates weak students and affords thern the opportari~ty of ask~ny quest~ons and c lar~fy~ng doubts

Disadvantages

! ho tj~:;adva!it;~ges In srriall group drscuss~ori ~ r x l ~ A c tllat. ( 1 ) 1tic nurncrous small groups emerge may not be easy to rnr-lnqe or

c:oordrnate by unskrlled tear-I-iers (11) Some students may dom~nate the discussiori ( 1 1 ; ) . I t (:~i.iId cost a lot of time especially when all thc groups are required to report

back. to t h e entlre class. the11 f~ndrnys. ( IV) ! h e tcactier may nol be able to glve adequate atteiltlon lo all the groups.

Panel discussion

Yhis type of discussion involves fewer members of the class in the actual drscus~~or i . T h e teacher select 3-5 people as discussants. He can select from both \.vit.h~n and uirtslde the class. The theme of the discussion is given well ~n a'dvance of the actual d~scuss!on The t e ~ c h e r functions as the moderator though he crin delegate the funct~on to a student For the discussion, the well ?repared discussar~its S I ~ aiour7d a fable In front o i the class. The ri-loderator pos~tiovs himself where both the iiiscussar?ts .and the ~ l ~ d i e n c e (other class members) are clearly vrsiblc to h ~ m . t ie rnon~tors ihe ccuntenance of the students to know when to call a discussant to vepeat himself or explairi a pcjlnt further. The student aud~encc should be allowed to ask :he~r q ~ r e s t i o ~ s and get necessary clar1f1catior.1

Advantages

(I) l i is easje; io execute In terms of class control. ( i i ) It takcs less time to complete than small group discussion, which takes too

long to summarize (iii) No discussant will be free to dominate others. ' ( In-depth ;:!!rl quite penetrating analysis cct~lr l be attained if required. (v) I! pc::'m~!s the teacher to involve experts outside the clr?ss or school. (v l j I t ;rains the aud~ence Iri the skills of listening

The Disadvantages

( ! ; I! ~r.wolvcs only few class members in the actual tliscursion ( 1 1 ; I1 !lie rrioderator IS not well ~nTorrned about tho contents and objecllvcs of t k i e

loc,sori tile d~scuss~or~ rriay via off the expected path a r d lhe objcctlves w ~ l l r:ot be achieved

( I i irc studerits may not [eel fiee to coritcst Ilic positloris or views of espccrally v~:;itin(l discussanis

jiv)? There is ah~ays the kmptatiori to involvc only tho bi~lliaril st~rdor!ls r r l I l ~ o d~scl!ss~ori and retarn others as passiveldcc~le I~ster icr.~.

jv) Thc d~scuss~ori may lead to a row or rn~sundnrst;~ntlirig among the discussariis.

Th!s type of discusr,;ion involves the discur,sants In a scholarly argument in favour arid aga~r-1st a proposal The niethod is ernployctd In teaching coritrovers~al toj>i(:s, issti('i; Ici;:t a:tract po larmd opirirons, and the advaritages and cl~sadvaritages of soc~ai pdicies and ideas. Social Studies contents have a !3t of debatable topics, !ssuc-:s and ideas For instance, t h e ques:lon of, whether i t IS better to have Nigor~:;l ::iwI(!i! c j r t l n ~ i c ~ i , ~vhc t l k r tile problerrl of developrrient I ~ I N~geria is :nore of bad leatlershlp or bad followership whelher rural-urban mrgrat~on sl.iould be er~courayed O i dir;courr?yed. and the good arid harm done to mankrnd by ~ndustrializa!ion and crrbarimt~or~. are all debatable.

?:here are two types of debate They are the opposlng parlei debate and the balloor! debate The form?r is inore popular In usage than the'la!ter. In the case, of opposing pancl debate. the teacher divides the class into 2 and through balloting assrgl-I .proposer and opposer roles to the groups A date and !ime are fixed for the debate E a c h group workina aq 2 tarn prepares ~ t s points 3 spcakers to represent rt. 7 he tezcfier or his appointee moderates the exercise and at the erid sumrnarzes the points tnade by each group. The groups should he given equal hearing in terms of i~rne and nurr-~ber of speakers. 7 he class members (or audicnce) note the poirils rriade and at the end determine the winrliny groups %

11-1 the (case of balloon debate the argcrrnenl is betwee? individuals and not groups. The teaclier appoints 3-5 discussants to each argue the pros and cons of a ctebatable Issue or problern solution. The rjiscussarits rnay or rnay not hear thcmselves as they present llieir arguments to the audicnce. A'ier the presentations thcy ;-lrr: c8llecf In for questions The moderator sunmarires the pornts made for and ?gair.;st .!he proposal by each debator, arid wit11 the help of ttic class members rn audience decrde on tiye winner.

Advantages

'The method tra~ris puplls for persuaslvc-: sptzak~r~g It acquarnts them wlth the sk~lls in search~rig for ~r~forrnatiorl that support or !refute any proposal !t t ra~ r~s students In the art of logic and the use of facts to establish a case whrch they may not even believe in. Through debate students deveiop listening sl(ills arid note taking skills. Studenls also learn how to weigh facts crit~cally arid arrive at an acceptable dec~s~on Stl.~den!s also learn how to accept both victory and defeat likr: sportsman. i t ~ncu!cate:; !@am spir~! rn the students.

Disadvantages

I 13cba:c: 1s scicctlve arid docs not involve all thc studctnts in the presenhtiorr of the ideas Majorrty o! the students share rri !he I!terr;ry prcwess of low stcidents

( 1 1 ) Ilchatc: favours the few studerlts w ~ t h tvgh llterary ab~lrty The very art~culatc? s tden ts overwhelm the~r counterparts who may be be'ter In other scholast~c competenc~es

(111) Uebate may requlre more than the normal lesson per~od and as such be expensive In tlrne consumption

(IV) I f cuilld engcncler u ~ i t ~ a l t h y rivalry arid row ht:!weer~ groups and ~ n d ~ v ~ d u a l whch 1s the oppas~ic of what the teacher alms at nct\rov~qg

(v) i t\ro~!gl l POWC!I~CI/ lag~cal and persuasive ilrai~nier:l i h ~ c l ~ s s rnay draw a conclus~orl that IS snrl?'!; i,~ldcceptat)le but loycally tlcfcritlable

Project ~ e t h o d

A project IS a set of stracturea exercise centred ai'ound a problem which requires students to learn andlor apply specific cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and competencies in producing an or~ginal work which embodies the solution to the central problem A project demands a lot of originality fronl !he students. It takes some t~i'ne to be accomplished, and ~t usually results in a concrefe materials product. The product could be in the forrn of a written report, model::, prototypes, charts, schcnies, diagram, etc.

Project therefore IS a veritable technique for both teaching 2nd evaluation of learri~ng outcome. A project can be designed for students to learn certa~r~ prcdctcrrrl~ned facts, rels:~onsh~ps, skills and processes. The degree of which those karn~ngs have beer) accomplished IS reflected in lhc quallly of the product of the j:r~j~(j(:! S o b y assosslng the qual~!y of the product One is d c t c m ~ r w d the degree o! leamr!.iy atta~ned by the sii.ldenis.

The procedure for en-lploying projects In both tcachtng and assessmerit has 5f:i:ri outlined For teachers (FMEST. 1985.63) It 1s as follows:-

(I) ltlerlt~ficalion of general purpose of the project ( i i ) lsolatlng the specific cbjectlves of the lesson both ir; cogn~tive, affect~ve and

psychcmotor domains.

I Assign pr~orities to each of the objectives.

(iv) kxplain to the punils the nature of thc project and set them working either ~ndivid~rally or in 'groups ,

(v) Assess !he qual~ty of their products. Instances of project topics in Junior Secondary School Studies are.- (& ) Market survey of sources and prizes of goods. (b) Comn?~~nrly s!..l!vey for nverage farn~ly members. ( c ) Major eco:wrnlc activltlcs of comrnuni!y merlibcrs (d) Modclliriy of globe and other land forms ( t t j Mappng of r;chool conipoirnd

, . -?tudcr~ts rnay become too ~ r x o l v e ~ In a projcxt to consider the importanct-t of other aspect:; of the course.

( ~ i j in large classes it 1s difficult ts find a rir mbt:i of different project toplcs of q u a ! drff~culty.

( i l l ) S i i~ce rxorjl projects art: execured outsldt! I l ~ o classroorr,. it becorms diffict~lt for the teacher to monrtor the rnpui made by l nd i v~dua !~ or groups ~nernkwrs Some students comrrllsslon friends. 0 1 - relations to execute the projeci lor them

(rv) Ir i group projects, dull students are shicldcc: by :b2 brighter ones who handle rnllch iji t he tasks involved in the projec!

( v ) Assessmenf' of learning outcomes through considerat~orl of the quality of product in imbued w!th a not of subjectivity.

The advantages of project method of teaching:'

Froject method can be used to instruct and exercise both the head (cognitive), the heart (affective). and the hands (psychomotor). It st~rnulates and sustarr!: the interest of the students in !he course of study I hrough project methods some very uscful cducatronal rriaterrals could be broduced for use by teachers and the stodctnls i t exterlds the student's period of learning beyond t W official school hours slr.lce :he students continue with the projects ever1 alter school hours

. ,

Succesc,i~!l exec~ttion of the project gives s!udents achicvenient motivation whrch can sustr-lrn the future learnrng efforts of the studcnts. mojeci rnethod Facllttates transfer of learning and permits the application of what is dearrit f r ~ m the course to the execution of ,project tasks in another course. It'trains students in problem solving skills. ii trarns s t~~der i ts in the sk~lis for group leadership and fcllowership.

The disadvantages

(I) Projcct method may demands more t i ve than is allocated to the course. (ri) A teacher who is not ccmpctent in designing and supervising projects may

end up trivislizing with the student's t~me, money, energy and other resources. ( 1 1 1 ) PIOJX!S give bullies freedom to torment their student-victims without teacher's

~ntervention n ( v ) home U ~ ' O J ? C ~ S i3~e expensive to d ischarp Such projrxts tempt studerlts to source mo:-zy and'haterials through dublous, rmmoral znd criminal means.

(VI) Group projects c.oriceal the weaknesses of du!l studcnts and cvcri the strcngttis of w r n e !xiillant students

I ) it is i \ i > t all Social Studies toprcs that can tje taught through project mc:thdd i The euphoria of activities associated with project excculion may kiiritlcr

c:onscrentious study of other units within the cocirse.

f- oldwo work IS cne of the rnost effective rnethod of teaching social screrice '

:;oficepis Physical and Biological Sciences make L.IX of scrence laboratones but the labolatory for- teaching 2nd learning concef~ts in s m a l sciences and t-lumamtifts is the "field" The field here refers to the actual or natural sett~ng where the c;oncept or ~ t s attributes are manifesting or located and as sach can be observed and studied.

7 ,

I ne prlrriary cor:cerr.i sf Social S!M!es IS :k tnierac:trori of man wrfh his physical arid soci;~i cnv~ronnient Roth the components o! tho phys~cal cnvrr~onrncnt aric! the

I .:

processes that b!~llr! nioclity or destroy them 2re better oi;sct:~l:d arid discc!sscd tPim modelcd or.tlescr~bed Sirnllarly, the social eriv~ronnxnt of rnan wt i~ch reflects the dyriarnlcs of txrrnari ccmrncinitics and society are better understood throug'i comi-nun~ty stud~es. %

Thz applicaticn of this method entails that the studznts are taker) out of the classroom to the site cr vicinity where the concepts of interest can b e obscrvcd and studtctcf 1-1 tic:lals !tie study could be w ~ t h ~ r i 11.ie sc:hcml corripound, with~n the conimun1ty a: the out skirts of the cornmuri~ly, In neighbo~~ririg or o'lslarit plac:c:s Ttic? alsrancx of the f~eldwork s ~ t e t:) ttie school docs riot ~nval~date the ettorts of the tcachcr The choice of distance places for f~eldwork should dcperid or1 the riature of the iheme a r ~ d the nearness of the rnost promlslng s ~ t c tor the study.

Planning a Fieldwork

1 l le ierm~rie and state the specif~c object~ves of the f~eldwork 111 terms of the : knowledge skills and values to be acquired by ttie students.

Cl /: ident~fy the study sites that can offer. s!udents .tl-e necessary learn~ng I

experiences 1-he more comprehens~ve a s~ te is in terms of possessing all : :he features of ~nterest, the better. It is more corivenierit to concentrate on

one Gr two sites than to visit numerous sites in one tr~p. 3. Visit the sites and identify the features of interest, the .spots that oiler

students vision advantage, areas that are unsafe for "he students. If it is an ~ns!lt~.tIlorl I ~ k e tactor~es, bsnks, eic. tile teacher shsuld arrange wrth the officials for the date and trrqe of the fieldwork The Ic:,;cher should collect a letter from the establishment authorlzlng them to psy the study vis~t with the studcrits #-

4 . Prepare study questions for the studerits Discuss the expectations of the students In the f ie idw~rk with them, and help them to determine the rnater~als they requrre for the work. 111 the course of the f~eldwork, they should firid answers to the s t ~ ~ d y questions iridivt!ually or in groups. rliscuss also the format for writing the f~eldwork reports

5 Make arranqement for transport i f the site is d~starit for the transport,.theri a committee of 3-5 should be appointed by the studcnts to collcct the r~ioricy, arrange fo i transport w~ t l i the assistarice of !he teacher. arid buy snacks for brcatc.

Advantages

I I rr1aki.s learn~ng more meaniagfl-11 arid rctj-tl~stic iris!c.:ad of abstract and ihcoret~cal It rnakes students to have direct experience of the rrialter under discuss1or1 Thr, rnakcs lenrn~ng to be rnoro per!mriorit f'~oidwork, is 111tc:rc:stirio !(I st~.ltlen!s tirid I!' sc~sta~rls thwr 1r1tc:rest in Soc~al S !~~d ies I t i i ~ ( ; u l ~ a t ( > ~ ihc sk~lls o! oi.)s:;c~va!~ori in the r;t~~tlorits !! cjlvzc s!udents opport:iv~ty of learn~rq rriorc than what is stipulated in the ~ris!ructional obyxrwes of the particular Iessori. l i creates a link betwcer; disciplines. In the explanation of the functioning of ar! industrial complex, icr instance, certair~ Econorriics terrri. Political Science, PIi;/sics. Chzrii~stry. Biological concepts could be introduced 2nd learnt.

(v i~) I t jo~nts the school \ ~ ~ t h the cornrnun~ty In the quePt for good educat~orl of ;,ouths

Disadvantages

(i) If demands a lot of time for the planning and e x e h o n . (11) It demands a lot of money fcr transportation and otl-ier logistics ( I I~) It exposes both the teacher and the students to a lo1 of r~sks. v ) It disrupts the school proaramine ( ) t i the teachx is not sk i l l f~~l , the main purpose of the ficldfwork may riot be

r achieved

Inquiry Method

'I'hls method l f l ~ 0 l W d students in searching for. tihg answers to questions or solutiori .to a problem either individually or a groups I r i suing this rne!Rod, the teackier presents a prob!mi to the students arid allow them to scout 2nd probe for the data requisite for solving the problern. They analyze the data and draw conclusion which are expected to throw light oil the solutiqn of the assigned problem. The method is also cal!ed discovery ~nzthcjd.

When the students are given enough directive on how to proceed to solve the problem, the method becomes known as guided 'discovery but when they are not aided or directed :he method is ungilided discovery. The choice of method depends on the objecti\:zs of the insi:uct.ion and the level of maturity cf the students.

Advantages

1. It (levclops the problem solving skills in the stuc!eri!s 2 . It makes students less dependent on tlic teacher for information or

solut!on td problem. 3. i t st!rnulates ztid motivates students to learn

.- 4 . I he joy associatetl wlth the discovery of the solut~ori to the problem

provides the reinforcerrierit that sr.:~tair)~; f~~r t l~ ic r I I ~ ~ L I I I ~ a:ld I~;:rri~rig L; ., !t trains stude:!is to be patient, understarldirig, cooperat~ve arid

sympathetic with group members. 6 . It !rains str~dents In critical and objective th~ri l r~rq, arid to rely on ernpir~cal

evidence when presenting a case.

Disadvantages

' 1 , ti makes great demand on the tirne of the stucicnts as sor?ic problems may take many w e e k lo be solves.

2 'The method fovour high ability students 3 Failure to solve the problem can damper1 the spirit of the studonts arid

that cari affect i h e ~ r att~tudes towards the subject or Leacher. 4. Easy problems rnay be regarded as a was!r- of !~rrle by brilliarlt students

and they will not take the exercise seriously 1: .). It takes students away from other siibjects as they devote rrlost of the;?

:!me iiavei;r!c~ and scocrt~iig for the dala reqa~rc!d fcr sclvirig a problem

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

1.3y 11s rlature Soclal Studies lessons accornmotlate a lot of variet~es of ~:;struciiur?al rnaterlals some of which are products of nature while other are rnan made. Since Soclal Studies borrows content f;-orn 5oc1al Science and the hurnanit~es, ail the instructional materials being used In the Social Sciences arid hurnantties find appl~cation is Social Studies. TIN? ni&erials are too rlclmerous to be enumerated here. For instance, Ogunasanya (1984) su~gested the following te~!ching/Ic2rnin aids for the topic "Indigenous African Rcliglor7".

( I ) Pictures IS churches, mosques, sh;~ne, temples, stones, dances at reli(jious festwa!~, chapels, masquerades. (Yo this can be added the piclures of worshipers, priests, diviners, materials for sacrificc, etc).

(!I) R e ~ l object: masks, masquerade costumes, sym5ols of religious worship (like .

kolanut, alligator paper, white chalk, calabash c l palm wine and red 011, red oil iarnp' or h i -ner , horn of COW, gourds. ~ndrgo, wood ct?rvi:lgs, goa! arid ram t;klrls c ~ k . C O V ~ K ? S , etc:).

(11:) VISI~S 1c chclrchcr;, shrines, rnosques, chapel, etc (IV) The use of iesouree perscns (vi) Relevant books, journals, magazines, newsp71pcrs, etc j Chalk board

'!i-me and n w e ;Ire what.it would take to teach the above mentioned topic very effoi:!iv:~ly Thtir:: arc scores cf such topics in ~ b c i a l Stc~dics cur, the use c;f even more varied arid nurnerous materials than '.he above illustration

Considerations in Selection of Instructional Materials.

I rach material selected have a purpose !o accornpl~sh ~n 7 f t should s i ~ t the age and ab~ l~ ty of thc s!udctnts

xluri-1 derrland~rq topic used in the

3 li sha:ild help to make s~mple the undc!stand~rlg of t he concepts being laugh!

4 , It si.\!ouid he bold, sharp, clearly vislble and not strenuous to the eyes. 5 Autfln air% should bc ::lrtaily audible! lo thc si~idcnts 6 11 should not take much ol the time for ~m!ruc i~on i . 7he rnater~al sho~~lc! be c-:xpe:~encctd by all lhc; students in the class All

stlo:~lti see. smelt. hear, taste.\ or touch what 1s b e ~ r y ?resented. t3 Ir should be :)resented just at the tlrne r! 1s ruqwred and thereafter

rer'noves.

r> 3. Wt:erl there are alternat~ve to cl-loose from Ihc? less cxpenslvc and more

rol(!var!t ones sha~rld be sclectecl

Conclusion

?here are ma.ny methods of teaching Social studies. No one method is good for teachirig all the Soc~al Studies topic. Each, method has strengths arid weaknesses The choice of method should depends on the ni-ture of the tup~c to be iacrght and the specific instructional objectives to be atta~ried However, wh~ch ever method that best satisfies the criteria for selecting instruc!ional rnethods should be prcfer-red over other methods.

Furthermore, there is no Social Studies topic that can affectively be taught without instructional materials. The more appeal the material makes to most of the human kenses the better for teach~rq Social Studies

w

REFERNCES

fin~kweze. C. M. (1088). F'L ~lc~at!on of the use of hlodels, Games and S~rnulatiori for Teaching Ge~graphy In Nigeria Post Primary Schools Unk@Iis.h_e_d. Doctoral Disscfl.gj& %sukka Ilepar-imenl of Education, U N.N.

Lroudu, S a (1997). "Ass~gnmerits, 13rojects arid thc IJsychornotor Domain" in Ezeutlu, S.A., . l"\ywigah. UNV and Agbaeg bu, C N. (Eds). Educational ,Measuremientttand Evaluat~ori for Coimes arid Universities. Onitsha: Cape Publishers Inlcrnai~onal Lmited -- . - - - - - .- --

i'oiic.!a'l ivlin~stry of iduci i t ion, Science and Technology (FMCST) (1985). National iculum. for Junior S e c o n d a ~ S c h o o l s Volume 5 Soc~a l -~~u ( i i es IRe I i ~~_n~~ Ibatlari: G:=!r!.-. -. . _ - - . L - - -J_

I - fc! : icryn~? I~ducatiorial.Rooks (Nigeria) Limited.

I clcicral Miri~stry of Etlucatlon, Science and Technology (1'385). !--mJt)ook on Contiriuous P,5sc:smga: ! k i d a n : kie~nernann Educational Books (Nigeria) Lirnlled