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ENG 436: Oral Literature In Africa

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

ENG 436: Oral Literature in Africa (2 Units)

Course Facilitator: Dr. Amos Luka Bwala


STUDY GUIDE

Course Code/ Title: ENG 436: Oral Literature in Africa

Credit Units: 2

Timing: 26hrs

Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six

hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.

You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per

course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you

have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two

hours in a week.

Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all

the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately.

All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten

minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity,

whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity.

You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the

purpose of adjustment.

Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study

session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to

add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed.

You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment

questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one

hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for


your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success

depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do

not waste it.

Reading:

When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a

novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main

points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking

terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary.

Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those

main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the

book is not spoiled for further usage.

Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its

meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings

in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for

further explanations.

When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that

you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the

in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in

answering those activities except when the question requires you to be

detailed.

In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer

carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main

text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of


what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-

text carefully before you provide the answer.

Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention

to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts.

But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait

until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading

activities.

Bold Terms:

These are terms that are very important towards

comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are

bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When

you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your

book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you

can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the

term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading

because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.

Practice Exercises

a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each

activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major

informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is

one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must

be very careful in answering these activities because they provide

you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book


for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not

forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered.

b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers

are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To

every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions

and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the

major points in your reading.

c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential

components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of

what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering

them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this

study session can be used in answering the self- assessment

question.

Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you

are expected to write down the major points related to the

particular question to be answered. Check those points you have

written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that

you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question.

When you have completed the explanation of each question, you

can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to

the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade

your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance.


This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure

you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing.

e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide

services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected

to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students

Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student’s

processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or

more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s enquiries.

Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors

through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your

student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-

tutors when in doubt about your learning.

You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you

opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.

In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators

through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your

handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your

academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies.

Continuous assessment

The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks.

The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through

online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to

submit your test or assignment through your email. The continuous


assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you

participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not

pass your examination, so take note and be up to date.

Examination

All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri

Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the

Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation

for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you

form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate

your better understanding of what you studied.

Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you

have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social

Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your

group.

You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must

engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies,

making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first

summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self

assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies.

When the examination week commences you can also go through your

brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main

points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that

are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc).


You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must

also be well behaved throughout your examination period.


UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

ENG 436: ORAL LITERATURE IN AFRICA

COURSE MATERIAL WRITER

AMOS LUKA BWALA


GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

The course introduces students to the study of oral literature in Africa. It exposes students to thegenre of oral literature as a field of study. The entire course consists of TEN study sessions witha major aim of introducing the students to an introductory nature of oral literature as a field ofstudy. The major topics carry the students along to the understanding of the whole courseconsisting of the different common genres of oral literature, the basic theories used in doingresearch in oral literature, the act of performance,the audience and improvisations. Emphasis andillustrations will be on a general survey of the African continent and students’ localities.


GENERAL OBJECTIVES

The course is basically designed to enable students understand the branch of literature called oralliterature as a field of study. It is further meant to enable students understand the various sub-genres of oral literature. It is hoped that this exposure will lead students to appreciate the courseand develop in them the culture of studying oral literature of their localities and Africa as awhole.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 STUDY SESSION: THE NATURE OF ORAL LITERATURE

2.0 STUDY SESSION: COMMON GENRES OF ORAL LITERATURE

3.0 STUDY SESSION: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES

4.0 STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES

5.0 STUDY SESSION: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

6.0 STUDY SESSION: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE

7.0 STUDY SESSION: RESEARCH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE TNMODERN TIMES

8.0 STUDY SESSION: SIGNIFICANCE OF PERFORMANCE

9.0 STUDY SESSION: IMPROVISATION AND ORIGINAL COMPOSITION

10.0 STUDY SESSION: AUDIENCE AND ACTUAL OCCASION

3.0 STUDY SESSION: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

BOLD TERMS

3.3 IN-TEXT

3.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES

3.4 ACTIVITY

3.5 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ’S)

3.6 IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA’S)

3.7 SUMMARY

3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS)

3. 9 REFERENCES

3.10 SUGGESTED READING

4.0 STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES

4.1 INTRODUCTION


BOLD TERMS

4.3 IN- TEXT

4.3.1 HOWTOSTUDYGENRES


4.4 ACTIVITY



4.7 SUMMARY

4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ)

4.9 REFERENCES


5.0 STUDY SESSION: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

.5.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

BOLD TERMS

5.3 IN-TEXT: EUROPEAN STUDY OF AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE 1

5.4 ACTIVITY



5.7 SUMMARY


5.9 REFERENCES


STUDY SESSION: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE

6.1 INTRODUCTION


BOLD TERMS

6.3 IN-TEXT

6.3.1 BASIC THEORIES OF ORAL LITERATURE

6.4 ACTIVITY


6.6 IN- TEXT ANSWERS (ITA’S)

6.7 SUMMARY


6.9 REFERENCES



STUDY SESSION: THE NATURE OF ORAL LITERATURE

1.0 Introduction

This study session introduces you to the nature and significance of oral literature in Africa. Thesession also teaches you the meaning of literature, the difference between literature and otherworks of art such as painting and sculpture. You will also learn the main differences betweenoral and written forms of literature.

1.1 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:

1.1.1 explain what literature means and know the differences between literature and otherworks of art,

1.1.2 explain the main differences between oral and written forms of literature and

1.1.3 explain the functions of literature.

IN-TEXT

1.2The Nature of Oral Literature

Literature, whether written or oral, can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative andcreative way. However, this does not mean that all creative and imaginative works are literature.There are other fields of study which involve creativity and imagination, such as painting,sculpture and drawing. Theseare also creative and imaginative activities. The major differencebetween literature and sculpture or painting literature is the material they use in forming theirobjects. For example, the painter uses paint and brush, while statues can be carved from wood.The literary artist however uses words.

Literature generally, and oral literature in particular, can therefore be described as a medium ofcommunication. In Africa, both written and oral traditions are found. The written form ishowever better known and publicized because of the widespread usage of European languages.However, in terms of expression, the unwritten or oral literature is no less adequate than thewritten forms of literature. This is because it contains all the devices of language and performsall the functions that the written literature performs. These functions include serving as a vehicleof ideas, reflection of reality or incarnation or personification of transcendental or mystical truth.Both forms are also sources of aesthetic experience which people enjoy and reflect upon.

Oral forms of literature are however distinguished from written literature by the nature of theircomposition and delivery. When the novelist, the poet or the playwright depends on writing toproduce his works, the oral artist does not rely on writing. Oral literature is composed orally. Forexample, oral poetry is made up as the poet goes along. It isusually sung or chanted, often tomusical accompaniment. For the composer of oral literature, the moment of performance of agiven piece of work is also the time of its composition. In its normal sense, therefore, oralliterature paradoxically ‘exists while going out of existence.’ To compare the nature of oral andwritten composition, take for instance Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart. Because it iswritten, it would continue to exist in its original form, even if a single copy exists in the world.But that is not so with an oral performance such as folktale or songs sung for differentoccasions in African societies. The moment the performance ends, the composition has also


ended and it can neither be repeated the same way nor documented in its entirety even with theassistance of modem sophisticated equipment like the video camera.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQS)

1. What is the meaning of literature?

2. Explain the main difference between oral and written forms of literature.

3. List three functions of literature.

IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITAS)

1. Literature can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative and creative way

2. The differences between oral and written literature can be explained thus: Oral literatureis distinguished from written literature by the nature of its composition and delivery. While thenovelist, the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works, the oral artist doesnot rely on writing. Oral literature is composed orally. For example, oral poetry is made up as thepoet goes along. It is usually sung or chanted, often to musical accompaniment. For thecomposer of oral literature, the moment of performance of a given piece work is also the time ofits composition.

3. Functions of literature include the following:

Literature can serve as a vehicle of ideas, reflection of reality or incarnation or personification oftranscendental or mystical truth. It can also be a source of aesthetic experience.

Activity:

In your own words explain the term Literature.

1.3 Summary

In this study session, you learnt that literature, whether written or oral, can be defined as the useof language in an imaginative and creative way. In Africa both written and oral literature arefound. The written form is however better known and publicized because of the widespreadusage of European languages. Oral forms of literature are distinguished from written literaturebecause while the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works, the oral artistdoes not rely on writing. For him, the moment of performance of a given piece of work is alsothe time of its composition.

.

1.4 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

Now that you have completed Study Session 1, you can assess how well you haveachieved its learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answerin your study diary and discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can checkyour answers with notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module.

SAQ 1.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 1.1)

1. How do you distinguish between oral and written literature?


2. What do you think are the functions of oral literature?

1.5 References/ Suggested Reading

Finnegan, Ruth. (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

______(1977) Oral Poetry, its Nature, Significance and Social Context. Cambridge UniversityPress.

Kuiper, Kathleen (1995) Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of literature. U.S.A Merriam Webster

Incorporated.


STUDY SESSION 2: COMMONGENRES OF ORAL LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

This session introduces you the common genres of oral literature in Africa. Genre generallyrefers todistinctive types or categories of literary composition. Over the years quite a number ofgenres have been developed through popular and scholar usages. Some of these include epic,tragedy, comedy, novel and short story. However, genres tend to be flexible because a givengenre can be broken into sub-genres.Furthermore, even standard definitions of genres putforward by scholars are seldom universally followed.

2.1 Learning Outcomes for Study Session


2.1.1 understand the meaning and nature of the term genre and

2.1.2 list the common genres of oral literature.

IN-TEXT

2.2 Common Genres of Oral Literature

2.2.1 Myth

Myth has several meanings. Some describe it as a prose narrative which is considered to betruthful accounts of what happened in the remote past. Myths also can contain dogmas or set ofbeliefs and thus often cited as authorities. They are therefore usually associated with theology orrituals. Some may account for the origin of mankind, death or characteristics of birds, animalsgeographical features, phenomena of life or things of nature. They may also recount the activitiesof deities, their love affairs, family relationships and their friendships. The charactersin mythsare usually not human beings, though they may have human attributes. They can be animals,deities or cultural heroes whose actions are set in an earlier world when the earth was differentfrom what it is today. Actions in myths can also take place in another world such as the sky orthe underworld.

2.2.2 Legends, Folktales and other Narrative terms.

Legends are different from myths partly because the events take place in the recent past and thesetting is the world of today. Legends may deal with secular or sacred matters and the charactersare often humans. Other narrative forms include saga. The term saga is sometimes used for prosenarratives usually about a famous hero or family or exploits of heroic kings and warriors. Sagacan therefore be described as a prose equivalent of an epic. It sometimes also overlaps withlegend. Folktales (used interchangeably with fairy tale, household tale) are prose narrativesregarded as fiction. They are not considered as dogma or history. The events may or may nothave happened and they are not taken seriously. They may also take place anytime, anywhere.

2.2.3 Epic: An epic, as described in Cudon(1992:284) “is a long narrative poem, on a grandscale, about deeds of warriors and heroes.” There is therefore no clear limit as to the length of anepic.

2.2.4 Riddles, Proverbs and Conversational genres


Riddle is an ancient universal form of literature. The commonest form of riddles consists of apuzzle question, the following is an example of a riddle:

Brothers and sisters have I none.

This man’s father is my Sons father?

Who am I? (Cuddon 1992:798).

Conversational genres include word-play, greetings, blessings and jokes. These have notreceived much attention from researchers.

2.2.5 OtherForms

Other forms of oral literature include poetry, drama and rhetoric.

Activity: What do you understand by the term genre?

In-Text Questions (ITQ)

1. What is genre?

2. List the common genres of oral literature.

In-Text Answers (ITA)

1. The meaning of genre istype or category of literary composition.

2. Common genres of oralliterature include: myth, legend, epic, folktale, riddle and proverb.

2.3 Summary

You have learnt in this session that genres generally refer to distinctive types or categories ofliterary composition. Many genres have been developed over the years. Some of these are theepic, tragedy, comedy, novel and short story. Genres tend to be flexible because a given genrecan be broken down into sub-genres. Furthermore you learnt that even standard definitions ofgenres put forward by scholars are seldom universally followed. The commonest genres of oralliterature are myth, legend, saga, epic, riddles, folktales, proverbs and conversational genres.Myth is a prose narrative which is considered to be truthful accounts of what happened in theremote past. Myth contains dogmas and is often cited as an authority. You also remember thatlegends are said to deal with secular or sacred matters and the characters are often humans.Folktales are prose narratives regarded as fiction and are not considered as history. Saga is aprose narrative usually about a famous hero or family or exploits of heroic kings and warriors.An epic is along narrative poem, often on a grand scale, about deeds of warriors and heroes.




1. List the characters found in myth as a genre of oral literature.

2. Outline at least five genres of oral literature in your tribe.


2.5 References

Finnegan, Ruth (1970).OralLiterature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. U.S.A MerriamWebsterIncorporated.

Cuddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary of Literary Terms andLiterary Theory. London: Penguin.

2.6 Suggested Reading

Okpewho, Isidore (1979) The Epic in Africa: Towards a Poetics of the Oral Performance. NewYork: Columbia University Press.

_________(ed.) (1990) “The Oral Performer and his Audience: a Case Study of Ozidi

Saga.” In IsidoreOkpewho (ed.) The Oral Performance in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books. 160-

184.


STUDY SESSION 3: CLASSIFICATION OF GENRES

3.0 Introduction

When a researcher collects oral material from the field, his analysis and evaluation can befacilitated if he classifies the data he has collected. This is partly because it is only by workingout the classes of what he has collected that he can make certain generalizations. In this session,you will be introduced to some of the ways into which oral literature is classified.

3.1 Learning Outcomes


3.1.1 list the ways into which oral literature can be classified and

3.1.2 attempt a classification of an oral piece from your own native oral literature.

IN-TEXT

3.2 Classification of Genres

Scholars have developed a number of approaches to the classification of oral literature.These include the following:

i. ClassificationAccording toSubject Matter

This type of classification is based on what a given form of oral literature contains. Forexample, myths are differentiated from legends because they are concerned with originsand presence of the supernatural. Similarly heroic poetry is about heroes and narrativesare subdivided into animal tales, wonder tale, trickster tales and stories about people.Classification can also be made according to types of theme such as love, mourning andorigins of the world.

ii. ClassificationAccording to Families

This is also called generic classification. It is classification of material collected intosome kind of families such as putting all narratives, poems and drama separately. Evenpoems can further be classified into narrative and non-narrative poems.

iii. Situational or Sociological Classification

Context of performance is of paramount importance in this form of classification. Oralmaterial can be classified according to the type ofperformers, place and time ofperformance and the audience for whom a given performance is made. For example, weoften hear people speak of wedding songs, work songs, court songs and hunters’ songs.

iv. Classification According to Stylistic or Formal Features

This is classification according to length, form of expression (whether poetry or prose, ormixture), the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g. sungpoetry, narrative poetry and recitedpoetry, type of linguistic expression (everyday, obscure or symbolic language) etc.

v Classification According to Performance Characteristics

This classification is concerned with how a particularform is performed, e.g. is itaccompanied by music, dance, etc.


But we should bear in mind that classifications are interrelated and the best way is to usemultiple approaches that suit the kind of material, you have collected. For example,the best wayto undertake stylistic classification is by classifying your material, first by using genericclassification to get total perspective of the literature you are studying. It will also be helpful tosupport your data with situational or sociological approach

3.3Activity: Generate and classify the various genres of oral literature in your locality.

In-Text Questions(ITQ)

1. Explain the significance of classification of oral literature.

2. List the ways into which materials of oral literature can be classified.


1 Classification of oral literature is significant because it facilitates analysis and evaluationof oral material collected. Furthermore, working out the classes of what you havecollected enables you to make certain generalizations.

2 Oral literature can be classified according to the following:

i Subject Matter: For example, myths are differentiated from legends because they areconcerned with origins and presence of the super natural. Similarly, narratives are sub-dividedinto animal tales, wonder tales and stories about people. Classification can also be madeaccording to theme or plot, e.g. such basic human subjects like love, mourning and origins of theworld.

ii. Generic Classification: This is classification of oral literature into some kind of families suchas narratives, poems and drama.

iii. Situational or Sociological Classification: This classification is according to whom, whereand by whom oral art is performed, e.g. wedding songs, work songs, court songs.

iv. Stylistic Features: This is classification according to length, form of expression, the mannerin which the form is delivered, e.g. sung poetry, narrative poetry, recited poetry, type oflinguistic expression used etc.

v. Occasion, Role and Context: This type of classification poses questions such as ‘when andwhy a text is produced, e.g. Yoruba Ijala poetry is performed by and for hunters at gatherings ofhunters. Also in this category are funeral songs, lullabies and children’s play songs.

vi. Performance Characteristics: This classification is concerned with how a particular form isperformed, e.g. whether it is accompanied by music, dance, etc.

3.4Summary

You have learnt in this session that classification helps in facilitating analysis and evaluation oforal material collected. The approaches to classification include subject matter classification,generic classification, situational classification and stylistic classification.You have learnt thatstylistic classification refers to classification by the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g.


sung poetry, narrative poetry and recited poetry. The classifications are interrelated and the bestway is to use multiple approaches.

3.5Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)



1. Into how many categories do you think oral literature can be classified?

2. Explain how classification of oral literature is carried according to subject-matter.

3.6 References

Finnegan, Ruth (1970).Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

Cuddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary ofLiterary Terms andLiterary Theory. London: Penguin.

Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia ofLiterature. New York: MerriamWebsterIncorporated.

Sunkuli, Leteipa Ole and S. O. Miraku (1990). Dictionary of Oral Literature.Nairobi:Heinemann.


Vansina, Jan. (1988).Oral Tradition as History. London: James Currey.

STUDY SESSION: HOW TO STUDY GENRES

4.0 Introduction

In the last study session you have been introduced to some methods used in classifying genres oforal literature. In this session you will be introduced to some methods used in the study of genresof oral literature.



4.1.1. List the methods of studying oral literature.

4.1.2 Undertake analysis of oral literature by using one of the methodologies studied,

IN-TEXT

4.2 How to Study Genres

The different genres you learnt in the last session can be studied in different ways. The followingare some of the ways or methods of studying genres.

1. FormalFeatures: A scholar can focus on the structure of a given text or the form ofexpression such as the use of dialogue. Focus can also be on the type of linguistic usagein a given a text.


2. Subject Matter: A scholar can also focus on a particular subject matter in a piece of oralperformance. For example, even a single performance can contain several subject matterssuch as myths, legends, proverbs and historical fragments.

3. Occasion and Role ofContexts: You can also study occasions during which oralliterature is performed, including the role of the context within which it is performed. Forexample, particular seasons or occasions can give rise to particular oral performances andthe seasons and occasions can have impact on the types of performances and these areaspects to be studied.

4. Local Terminologies and Taxonomies: Sometimes one can study the special terms orthe aesthetically critical vocabularies of a given text of oral literature. For example, onecan collect terms used commonly inevaluating oral performance or describing voicequalities of oral performers.

4.3 Activity: How do you think oral literature can perfectly be studied?


1. Mention three methods of studying oral literature.

2. Analyse a piece of oral literature using one of the methods you studied.


1. Three methods of studying oral literature are:

i. Situational or Formal Features: This comprises the study of length, form ofexpression and the type of linguistic usage.

ii. SubjectMatter: This is the study of what a genre is talking about or what itcontains. For example, myths are different from legends because of what theycontain.

iii. Occasion and Role of Contexts: You can study occasions during which oralliterature is performed, including the role of the context within which it isperformed.

iv. Local Terminologies Taxonomies: Sometimes one can study the special terms orthe aesthetic critical vocabularies of a given text of oral literature.

2. The student can choose material from oral literature of his choice. However, it should notbe taken from books, journals etc. already published.

4.4 Summary

You have learnt in this session that when studying the genres of oral literature, you can focus onthe following areas: the situational or formal features, length, form of expression, the type oflinguistic usage, the subject matter and the occasion. Another area of research is use of localtermino1ogies and taxonomies.





1. In your own words, explain a method you think can best be used to study oral literaturein your locality.

2. How do you analyse a popular folktale in your area?

4.6 References

Finnegan, Ruth (1970).Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

Qiddon, J. A. (1990).Dictionary of Literary Terms andLiterary Theory. London: Penguin.

Kuiper, Kathleen (1995).Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. U.S.A MerriamWebsterIncorporated.

Sunkuli, Leteipa Ole and S. O. Miraku (1990).Dictionary of Oral Literature. Nairobi:

Heinemann.


Vansina, Jan (1988).Oral Tradition as History. London: James Currey.


STUDY SESSION 5: EUROPEAN RESEACH INTO AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

5.0 Introduction

In the nineteenth century, a lot of works had been published on African oral literature.However,they were in inaccessible books and journals and their importance was not widelyrecognized. This was largely because of the belief that Africa had no indigenous tradition ofliterature. Europeans believed that Africa was surrounded by superstition and the peopledepended on the savage idea of ‘magic of the word.’However, it has now been confirmed thatAfrican oral literature possesses aesthetic, social and personal significance. This was as a resultof intensive research into the field by European scholars. In this session, you will be introducedto the contribution of linguistic studies by Europeans to the documentation of African oralliterature. In that direction, the efforts of German linguists will be prominent.



5.1.1 recount the efforts of European researchers into African literature in the 19 century and

5.1.2 appreciate the role of linguistics in the study of African oral literature,

IN-TEXT

5.2 European Research into African Oral Literature

European study of African oral literature began in the middle of the 191 century (1850s).Although there had been isolated efforts before then, it was only in mid 1850s when linguisticstudies became a specialist field that serious documentation started. The motive behind the firstcollection was evangelization of Africa. The second motive was comparative analysis of Africanliterature with the folktales collected by the Grimm Brothers. These early Europeans publishedgrammar books and collection of vocabularies. W.S. Koelle, a German linguist who came toFreetown as a young man in 1848 made some of these collections. He worked as a teacheramong the freed slaves in Freetown. He was a missionary, a teacher as well as a professionallinguist. Koelle was employed by the Church Missionary Society of England to work as amissionary. Because of his linguistic background, he developed interest in collectingvocabularies of about one hundred languages and published them with the title: PolyglottaAfricana. He also worked with Ali AisamiGasirmabe, a Kanuri freed slave. His collaborationwith AliAisami resulted in publication of a monumental book on African Literature titled:African Native Literature or Proverbs; Tales, Fables and Historical Fragments in the Kanuri orBomu Language. The book was published in 1854.

Koelle and others before him published lengthy collections and translations whichincludenarratives of various kinds, proverbs, riddles and tales describing local customs.Occasionally, they also documented songs and poems. These collections emphasized linguisticelements and what was thought suitable for children. No attempt was however made to relate thecollections to their historical contexts. There was also no description of the normal circumstancesof the materials collected.However, one of the greatest values of these researchers was theirpublication of large collections of literature from a single people. This threw more light on


current literary convention among a given people rather than collection of odds and pieces whichlater became the popular tradition.

This serious research in which German linguists played the most prominent role contributed tothe founding of African languages in German Universities of Berlin and Hamburg. Universitychairs forAfrican languages were established in these universities and academic journals werealso founded. One of the earliest chairs was for Bantu. The scholars also embarked on seriouscomparative studies of African and European literatures. They also identified categories ofAfrican oral poetry and made a list which included war songs, love songs, satirical songs anddirges. As far as provision of basic sources was concerned, the German collections were amongthe most valuable. This was because they established the study of African languages andliterature as a serious field of study. They also helped in recognizing that the collections theymade were a form of literature.


1. Mention two factors that motivated European research into African oral literature in the19 century.

2. Explain the strength and weaknesses of the European research into African oral literaturein the 19thcentury.


1. The two factors that motivated European research into African oral literature in the19th century are:

a) Evangelism of Africa and comparative analysis of African literature with thefolktales collected by the Grimm Brothers.

2. The strength and weaknesses of the European research into African oral literature inthe 19th century can be explained as follows:

The strength was the emphasis the collections placed on linguistic aspects and what isthought suitable for children. The researchers published large collections of literaturefrom a single people and this threw more light on literary convention among a givenpeople. The main weakness was that no attempt was made to relate the collections oftheir historical contexts. There was also no description of the normal circumstances ofthe materials collected.

Activity: Do you think linguistics is part and parcel of the study of African oral literature?

5.3 Summary

In this session you have learnt that linguistics became a specialist field of study in Europe in the1850s and it was then that serious study into African oral literature began. There were two mainmotives behind the collection and documentation of African oral literature. The first motive wasevangelization of Africa and the second comparative analysis which aimed at comparingfolktales collected by the Grimm Brothers. These early Europeans published grammar books andcollection of vocabularies. One of these collections was made W.S. Koelle, a German linguistwho worked as a teacher among the freed slaves in Freetown. He was a missionary, a teacher, aswell as a professional linguist. Koelle worked with Ali AisamiGasirmabe, a Kanuri freed slave.


Their collaboration resulted in publication of a monumental book on African literature titled:African Native Literature or Proverbs, Tales, Fables and Historical Fragments in the Kanuri orBomu Language, which was published in 1854.




1. Explain how evangelism affected research on African oral literature.

2. Do you think materials collected during research on African oral literature aregenuine?

5.5 References


Cuddon, J. A. (1990) Dictionary of Literary Terms and LiteraryTheory. London: Penguin.

Koelle Sigismund Wilhelm (1854) African Native Literature, or Proverbs, Tales, Fables,andHistorical Fragments in the Kanuri or Borno Language. London: Church MissionarySociety.(Reprinted 1968 by Graz, AkadeinischeDruck-und Verlagsanstalt).


Koelle, Sigismund Wilhelm (1854) African Native Literature, or Proverbs, Tales, Fables,andHistorical Fragments in the Kanuri or Borno Language. London: Church MissionarySociety.(Reprinted 1968 by Graz, AkademischeDruck-und Verlagsanstalt).


STUDY SESSION 6: BASIC THOERIES OF ORAL LITERATURE

6.0 Introduction

By the 1920’s European study of African oral literature had reached its peak. When the Germansleft, their place was taken over by the South African Linguistic School, which was supported byFrench and English professional scholars. But these scholars concentrated their studies onaspects of social institutions and not linguistics. Much of the studies made earlier were thenneglected.

Therefore, until recently, the study of African oral literature remained neglected. To understandthe factors that contributed to this neglect, one has to know about the history of anthropologicalstudies in Africa.

During the first half of the 20th century, the study of African institutions and cultures wasmonopolized by anthropologists. The emphasis of these scholars was not the study of Africanoral literature in itself. The main aim was to research into African political, social and economicorganizations and culture in general. Consequently, the theorists that guided these scholarsbrought a serious setback to the study of African oral literature. The proponents of these theorieswere “the evolutionists”, “the structural functionalists” and “the Diffusionistsor the Historical-Geographical.” This topic deals with the assumptions and methodologies of these theories andtheir effects on the research into African oral literature.



6.1.1 mention the main assumptions of the Evolutionists, the StructuralFunctionalists andthe Diffusionists or theHistorical-Geographical and

6.1.2 list the methodologies of the evolutionists, the Structural Functionalists and “theInfusionists or the Historical-Geographical and their effects to the study of African oralliterature.

IN-TEXT

6.2 BASIC THEORIES OF ORAL LITERATURE

6.2.1 The Evolutionist Theory or Evolutionism

Advocates or proponents of the evolutionist theory are Euherus, Max Muller, Jacob Grimm andWilliamGrimm (Sunkuli and Miruka.1990:91). The theory maintains that verbal arts of a peopleoriginate spontaneously and that people create their verbal arts collectively from their interactionand cultural environment. The general viewpoint is that there are certain ideas that recur atidentical stages ofdevelopment in any society. They further state that this permits the occurrenceof independent but more or less similar tales from geographical regions remote from each other.

The main assumptions of the evolutionists are:


1. Belief in the concept of unilinear (through stages) and parallel (similar) stages ofdevelopment through which all human societies must pass.

2. Belief that the direction of evolution was upwards and that people progress from crudeprimitive life towards civilized and differentiated culture of contemporary Europe.

3 . Belief that oral literature is work of communal consciousness and group authorshiptherefore not individually inspired art as in civilized societies.

4. The belief that no individual creativity was expected of primitive people; that among theprimitive people, literature was handed down word for word from a distant past.

5. All primitive literaturesare seen as similar and generalized similarly without consideringparticular history, culture or individual composer. Although the exact stage they assignedto the various non-literate people vary, their perception is that it is generally low and thatall folk literature is characterized by magic, totemism and failure to distinguish betweenthemselves and the animals in the stories.

6. No consideration is given to the history of individual cultures.

The main methodology employed is concentration on the origins of institutions and materialscollected, thus asking questions such as “Which type of literature came first in the pre-history ofman?”, “Which aspect of primitive life has survived into the present in form of folklore?

The effects of the evolutionist on the study oral literature are as follows:

1. The study of the evolutionists provided what is thought to be scientific proof to someprejudices about the nature of the oral art and this affected the attitude of those workingin the field by conditioning their approach.

2. The research dictates the type of literature to be selected among those recorded. It alsodictates the kind of interpretation. Since oral literature is considered as survival ofprimitive stages, interpretations are based on hypothetical customs of the primitivepeoples such as primitive matriarchy and totemism.

3. No consideration is given to literary effectiveness.

4. They do not place any emphasis on selection of different types of literature and noquestions are raised about individual authorship.

5. And as the primitive people were thought to be concerned with tradition, no new tales oraspects of literature are collected.

6. Due to the emphasis placed on origin and early history, no emphasis is placed oncontemporary relevance of folktales.

It can therefore be concluded that emphasis of the evolutionists is on general studies and noattention is given to systematic collection or detailed analysis of literary texts. Although theapproach has been rejected by many scholars, some of their assumptions still feature in thewritings of known anthropologists.

6.2.2 The Structural Functionalists

In the 1930s anthropologists began to pay attention to more systematic and first hand collectionof African literature. In those days the research was dominated by the structuralist functionalists.The theory is associated with Levi Strauss. As Sunkuli and Miruka (1990:92) have observed, the


theory seesorature as a vehicle of reconstruction of the basis of life, spanning from the pastthrough the present to the future belonging to the local and the universal and the time bound tothe timeless. The theorists concentrate particularly on the function of oral literature in stabilizingor validating current order of things. Their idea is that oral literature has a utilitarian role in thesociety. The main assumption is that oral literature is not worthy of study as a subject in its ownright and therefore can be ignored when it does not fit in with a particular interpretation ofsociety. The fusionis to favour tradition rather than the aesthetic aspect of literature. They alsogive more emphasis to prose narrative than poetry. The research is also characterized bycollection of brief summaries rather than detailed recording.

6.2.3 Historical-Geographical or Diffusionists Theory or Diffusionism

This theory originated in Finland and it was very widespread in America. These scholars areinterested in the spread of material and non-material culture. Their aimis to discover the “lifehistories” of various kinds. They do this by systematically collecting and classifying stories of agiven community and indexing them elaborately. They finally compare these with stories fromother areas.

The effects of their approach are as follows:

1. Focus is on the subject matter of oral literature because it is the subject they use inexplaining the origin and spread of stories.

2. No attention is given to detailed study of the role of forms of literature.

3. There are no large transcriptions and translations as the researchers collect onlysummaries of the contents of what they study.

4. Sometimes unskilled assistantsareemployed to summarize the contents of the storiescollected.

5. Emphasis is placed on prose narratives whose motifs can be traced.

6. No attention is given to poetry.

Activity: Do you think there are differences between Historical-Geographical and Diffusionism?


1.List main assumptions of the Evolutionists.

2. List the main effects of the Diffusionists to the study of oral literature in Africa.


1. The main assumptions of the Evolutionists are:

a) The study of the Evolutionists provides what is thought to be scientific proof to someprejudices about the nature of the oral art and this affects the attitude of those workingin the field by conditioning their approach.


b) The research dictates the type of literature to be selected among those recorded andthe kind of interpretation. Since oral literature is considered as survival of primitivestages, interpretations are based on hypocritical customs of the primitive peoples suchas primitive matriarchy and totemism.

c.) No consideration is given to literary effectiveness.

d). They do not place any emphasis on selection of different types of literature and noquestions are raised about individual authorship.

e). As the primitive people are thought to be concerned with tradition, no new tales oraspects of literature are collected.

f). Due to the emphasis they place on origin and early history, no emphasis is placed oncontemporary relevance of folktales.

2. The main effects of the Diffusionist or the structural functionalist to the study of oral literaturein Africa are:

a). Attention is on the subject matter of oral literature because it iswhat they use in tracingthe origin and spread of stories.

b). No attention is given to detailed study of the role of forms of literature.

c.) There are no large transcriptions and translations as the researcher collects onlysummaries of the contents of what they study.

d). Sometimes unskilled assistants are employed to summarize the contents of the storiescollected.

e). Emphasis is on prose narratives whose motifs can be traced.

f). No attention is given to poetry.

6.3 Summary

You have learnt in this session that during the first half of the 20th century, the study of Africaninstitutions and cultures was monopolized by anthropologists. The emphasis of these scholarswas not the study of African oral literature. The main aim was to research into African political,social and economic organizations and culture in general. Consequently, the theorists that guidedthese scholars brought a serious setback to the study of African oral literature. The proponents ofthese theories were “the evolutionists”, “the structural functionalists” and “the Diffusionistsor theHistorical-Geographical.” You learnt that Advocates or proponents of the evolutionist theoryare Euherus, Max Muller, Jacob Grimm and William Grimm (Sunkuli and Miruka.1990:91). Thetheory maintains that verbal arts of a people originate spontaneously and that people create theirverbal arts collectively from their interaction and cultural environment. The general viewpoint isthat there are certain ideas that recur at identical stages of development in any society.

The Structural Functionalists see orature as a vehicle of reconstruction of the basis of life,spanning from the past through the present to the future belonging to the local and the universaland the time bound to the timeless. The theorists concentrate particularly on the function of oral


literature in stabilizing or validating current order of things. Their idea is that oral literature has autilitarian role in the society.

Finally, you learnt that Historical-Geographical or Diffusionists Theory or Diffusionism isinterested in the spread of material and non-material culture. The aim here is to discover the “lifehistories” of various kinds. This is by systematically collecting and classifying stories of a givencommunity and indexing them elaborately and finally comparing these with stories from otherareas.




1. Explain structuralism as a theory in the study of oral literature in Africa.

2. In diffusionism, do you think it has given emphasis to the study of poetry as a theory?



Finnegan, Ruth. (1992) Oral Traditions and the Verbal Art: A Guide to Research Practices.London: Oxford University Press.

STUDY SESSION7 : RESEARCI INTO AFRICAN ORAL LLTERATURE IN MODERNTIMES

7.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last session, you learnt about European efforts at research into African oral literature.Linguistic studies spearhead by Germans provided great impetus during that time. The seriouswork done by those linguists however came to end when the Germans lost their colonies inAfrica. This brought some setback to thestudy of African oral literature. However, in the 1950sand 60s there grew a global interest in Africanstudies. This was shown by the recognition givento Africa as a worthwhile field of study and proliferation of professionals concerned withdifferent aspects of Africa. In this session, you will learn the efforts by groups of modernscholars into the study of African oral literature.



7.1.1 mention the factors responsible for renewed interest in the study of oral literature in the1950s and


7.1.2 explain the contribution to research into African oral literature by four groups of scholars inmodern times.

IN-TEXT

7.2 Research into African Oral Literature in Modern Times

One of the modern groups of scholar that made significant contribution during this periodcomprised musicologists and ethnomusicologists. Although the primary interest of thesescholars was recording of music, they increased the significance of the poetic forms because theyoften wrote down the words of the songs. These scholars were supported by the African MusicSociety in Hamburg which coordinated scientific study of music and published the results in thefield of oral poetry. The second group of scholars comprised American anthropologists whoclosely worked and published in a journal called Journal of American Folklore. Although theirwork concentrated on the southern part of WestAfrica, they promotedthe recording of oralliterature and related it to social contexts. They also pointed out the importance of individualperformer, originality, traditional convention, audience and subject matter.

The third of scholars was made up of African scholars who undertook scholarly analysis of oralliterature in their own languages. These scholars produced original works. In Nigeria, we have anexample of J.P. Clark who collected and documented the “Ozidi Saga.” Babalola, also ofNigeria, also worked on hunter’s poetry of the Yoruba, while NketiaKwabena of Ghana alsowrote a lot on literature on the drum language of the Akan. Kagame worked on Rwandan poetry.

The last group of scholars comprised the South African group and a number of other scholarswhoconcentrated on the analysis of texts with little regard for the social concern and imaginativequalities ofthe collections they made. However, there were few efforts at studying the style ofparticular works.

Activity

1. Compare the activities of scholars in the 1950’s that renewed interest in the study ofAfrican oral literature.

in-Text Questions (ITQ)

1. What are the factors responsible for renewed interest in the study of oral literature in the1950s?

2. Mention the groups of scholars that contributed to research into African oral literature.

in-Text Answers (ITA)

The factors responsible for renewed interest in the study of oral literature in the 1950sare:

1. Recognition was given to Africa as a worthwhile field of study and proliferation ofprofessionals concerned with different aspects of Africa.

2. The groups of scholars that contributed to research into African oral literature are:musicologists, ethnomusicologists, American anthropologists and African scholars.


7.3 Summary

In this study session, you have learnt the study of African oral literature has been characterizedby rise and fall in criticism and interpretation. Some people studied it for its relevance andpsychological expression. Others studied it for its structural characteristics and some for itssocial functions. All these were a good sign for the development of the field.


Now that you have completed Study Session 7, you can assess how well you have achieved itslearning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answer in your study diaryand discuss them with your tutor at the next contact. You can check your answers with notes onthe Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this module.


1. List factors responsible for the renewed interest in the study of African oral literature.

2. Explain the contributions of American anthropologists in the study of African oralliterature.


Finnegan. Ruth. (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

Cuddon, J. A. (1990). Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. London: Penguin.

Koelle, Sigismund Wilhelm.(1854) African Native Literature, or Proverbs, Tales, Fables,andHistorical Fragments in the Kanuri or Borno Language. London: ChurchMissionarySociety.(Reprinted 1968 by. Graz, AkademischeDruck-und Verlagsanstalt).


STUDY SESSION 8: SIGNIFICANCE OF PERFORMANCE

8.0 Introduction

Performance, in the broadest sense of the word, is the established custom or habitual practice ofeveryday life. It is a practical application of embodied skill and knowledge to the task of takingaction. Performers can be formally or informally trained to acquire techniques which they use ina particular situation. In Africa,various forms of performance constitute the primary site for theproduction of knowledge where philosophies are enacted and multiple and often simultaneousdiscourses are employed. Oral performance is one aspect of the varied performances in Africa. Inthis session, you learn about the role of performance in African oral literature.



8.1.1 define performance and

8.1.2 describe the significance of actual delivery in African Oral literature.

IN-TEXT

8.2 Significance of Performance

Until recently, oral performance in Africa was transcribed, translated, presented on a printedpage and treated as a fixed text. The politics involved in this was the attempt to put the verbalarts in Africa on an equal footing with western literature. Turned into things or objects of study,the verbal art is thusde-contextualized, removed from the performance situation in which theywere uttered and rendered.However, in recent times, there is increasing awareness ofperformance in Africa. Understanding performance has been enhanced by performance orientedscholars such as anthropologists and folklorist Actual delivery came to be seen as a significantaspect in the performance of African oral literature.

Let us, for example, look at the following Akan dirge translated by Finnegan (1970):

Amaago, won’t you look?

Won’t you look at my face?

When you are absent, we ask of you.

You have been away long: your children are waiting for you.


The foregoing printed words on paper represent only a shadow of the complete or fullactualization of the poem as an aesthetic experience for the poet and audience. This is becauseapart from the separate question of overtones and symbolic associations of words and phrases,the actual enactment of the poem also involves emotional situation of a funeral, the singer’sbeauty of voice, her sobs, facial expression, vocal expressiveness and movements (all indicatingthe sincerity of her grief) and not least, the musical setting of the poem. In fact, all the variegatedaspects we think of as contributing to the effectiveness of performance in the case of morefamiliar literary forms may also play their part in the delivery of unwritten pieces –expressivenessof tone, gesture, facial expression, dramatic use of pause and rhythm, the interplayof passion, dignity or humour, receptivity to the reactions of the audience and so on. Suchdevices are not mere embellishments superadded to the already existing literary work - as wethink of them with regard to written literature - but an integral as well as flexible part of its fullrealization as a work of art.

Unfortunately, it is precisely this aspect which is most often overlooked in recording andinterpreting instances of oral literature. This is partly due, no doubt, to practical difficulties; buteven to the unconscious reference constantly made by both recorders and readers to morefamiliar written forms. This model leads us to think of the written element as the primary.

Activity:

Describe any two oral performances in your locality.

in-Text Questions (ITQ)

1. What is performance?

2. List the devices involved in the performance of oral literature.


1. Performance is generally the established custom or habitual practice of everyday life.It is a practical application of embodied skill and knowledge to the task of acting.Oral performance is one aspect of the varied performances in Africa.

2. The following devices are involved in the performance of oral literature.

i) Overtones and symbolic associations of words and phrases

ii) Emotional situation, like that of a funeral

iii) The singer’s beauty of voice, her sobs, facial expression, vocal expressivenessand movements e.g. indicating the sincerity of her grief

iv) The musical setting

v) Expressiveness of tone, gesture, facial expression, dramatic use of pause andrhythm, the interplay of passion, dignity or humour, receptivity to the reactionsof the audience etc.

8.3 Summary


In this session, you have learnt that performance generally is the established custom or habitualpractice of everyday life. It is a practical application of embodied skill and knowledge to the taskof acting. You now know that there are varied forms of performance in Africa which constitutethe primary site for the production of knowledge where philosophies are enacted and multipleand often simultaneous discourses are employed. Oral performance is one aspect of the variedperformances in Africa. In this session, you have also learnt about the role of performance inAfrica oral literature. Recently, understanding performance has been enhanced by performanceoriented scholars and actual delivery came to be seen as a significant aspect in the performanceof African oral literature.




1. Explain the way and oral literature is performed.

2. Mention some stylistic devices that are common in oral performances in Africa.

8.5 Reference

Finnegan, Ruth (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.

8.6 Suggested Readings

Abrahams, Roger D. (1976) “Concerning African Performance Patterns.” InBernthLindforsandUlla Schild (eds.) Neo-African Literature and Culture: Essays in Memory of JahnheinzJahn.Wiesbaden: B. Heymann. Vol. 1: 32-42.

Avorgbedor, Daniel (1990) “The Preservation, Transmission and Realization of Song Texts:APsycho-musical Approach.” In IsidoreOkpewho (ed.) The Oral performance in Africa.Ibadan:Spectrum Books. 208-227.


STUDY SESSION 9: IMPROVISATION AND ORIGINAL COMPOSITION

9.0 Introduction

In Study Session 8 you have learnt about the importance of performance in oral literature. Youhave also learnt the way in which techniques of delivery can be variously exploited andevaluated by the performer or audience. But there is a further related aspect of oral literature.This is the question of improvisation and original composition which forms the substance of thissession.



9.1.1 explain the significance of improvisation and original composition and

9.1.2 list the main ways in which improvisation and original composition vary.

IN-TEXT

9.2 Improvisation and Original Composition

If you observe the performance of any piece of oral literature, you will notice that somethingmore may be involved in the delivery than the fact of its actualization and re-creation in andthrough the performance aided by a technique of delivery that heightens its artistic effectiveness.For instance, there are also the cases when the performer introduces variations on older pieces orintroducing even totally new forms in terms of the detailed wording, the structure or the content.The extent of this kind of innovation, of course, varies with both genre and individual performer.The variation can be between two extremes: thus, it can take the form of a totally new creation ormemorized reproduction of set pieces. Between these two, there are also other possibilities, asfollows:

1. Rehearsed composition

2. Facile improvisation by a leader in boat or dance song

3. Combination and recombination of known motifs into a single unique performance

4. Interest in accuracy and authenticity of wording in which memorization rather thancreativity is the expected role of the performer

Activity: How do you improvise in the study of African oral literature?


1. Explain the two extremes of improvisation and original composition.

2. Mention four types of variation that may occur in the performance of oral literature.


1) The two extremes of improvisation and original composition are: It can take theform of a totally new creation or memorized reproduction of set pieces.


2) The four types of variation that may occur in the performance of oral literature:

a. Rehearsed composition

b. Facial improvisation by a leader in boat or dance song

c. Combination and recombination of known motifs into a single uniqueperformance

d. Interest in accuracy and authenticity of wording in which memorizationrather than creativity is the expected role of the performer

9.3 Summary

You have learnt in this session that improvisation and original composition is an importantaspect of oral performance. This characteristic occurs when the performer introduces variationson older pieces or introduces even totally new forms in terms of the detailed wording, thestructure or the content. The extent of this kind of innovation, of course, varies with both genreand individual performer. The variation can be between two extremes: thus, it can take the formof a totally new creation or memorized reproduction of set pieces. Between these two, there arealso other possibilities.




1. Differentiate between self,original and improvised version of any oral composition inyour locality.

2. Outline the different kinds of variations of oral performance in your locality.

9.5 Reference/ Suggested Reading

Finnegan, Ruth. (1970)Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.


STUDY SESSION 10: AUDIENCE AND ACTUAL OCCASION

10.0 INTRODUCTION

This study session introduces you to two other characteristics of oral literature. They are the roleof audience and significance of actual occasion in which a given piece is performed.



10.1.1 explain how audience is involved in the performance of oral literature and

10.1.2 list some occasions that can affect performance of oral literature.

IN-TEXT:

10.2 AUDIENCE AND ACTUAL OCCASION

10.2.1 Significance of Audience

Audience is often directly involved in the actualization or creation of an oral piece.In most casesthe artists comesface to face with the audience. The artist can exploit the presence of theaudience and can also be influenced by it. The artist may choose to involve the audience directly.This can take the form of a formula to arouse listeners like the ones used in folktales. In someinstances, the audience can join in choruses of songs. The artist may also omit certain elementsof his work such as obscenities,certain types ofjokes and complex forms, especially in thepresence of children. Some artists also direct references to the behaviour or fortunes of particularlisteners. Members of the audience can also break into the performance with additions, questionsand suggestions.

10.2.2 Significance of Factual Occasion

Occasions can affect the detailed content and form of the piece being performed. Oral pieces areoften directly involved in the occasions of their actual utterance. Some pieces are specificallydesigned for some occasions. In other words, they are designed for and specifically arise fromparticular situations. Such situations can be funerals, weddings, celebrations of victory, soothinga baby, accompanying work etc. These pieces may be accompanied with certain prose forms likeproverbs appropriate to the occasion. A piece of oral literature can also be affected by thefollowing:

a) Purpose and atmosphere of gathering at which it is rendered: For instance Kanurihunters’ songs can be performed while a hunter at his leisure or to a gathering ofhuntersand non-hunters alike and it contains praises of hunters and the animals hunted.

b) Recent episodes in the minds of the people and the audience: For example, politicalevents can capture and reflected in a song.

c) Time of the year and propinquity of harvest: An example can be given with Kanuri blindperformances which are staged during harvest time or the wrestling done which isperformed when maize is ready for harvest.


d) Various social obligations: Many oral recitations arise in response to social obligations,which in turn are exploited by the poet or the narrator for his own benefit.

Activity: Demonstrate to an audience how oral literary topic can be performed.


1. Mention two ways by which an artist can involve the audience.

2. Mention five occasions that may affect the performance of oral literature.


1) Two ways by which an artist can involve the audience are:

a) The artist may choose to involve the audience directly. This can take the form of aformula to arouse listeners like the ones used in folklores.

b) The audience can join in choruses of songs.

2) The following occasions can affect performance of oral literature.

a) Purpose and atmosphere of gathering at which it is rendered

b) Recent episodes in the minds of the people and the audience

c) Time of the year and propinquity of farming activities such as planting, harvest etc.

10.3 Summary

In this study session, you have learnt that the artist can exploit the presence of the audience andhe can also be influenced by it. This is done in several ways including direct involvement ofaudience and omission of certain elements of his work such as obscenities and certain types ofjokes. Oral pieces are often directly involved in the occasions of their actual utterance. Somepieces are specifically designed for some occasions. In other words, they are designed for andspecifically arise from particular situations.




1. Explain who an artist can be.

2. Explain audience, occasion and performance in the context of oral literature.


Finnegan, Ruth (1970) Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.


ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQS)

STUDY SESSION 1

1. Meaning of literature

Literature can be defined as the use of language in an imaginative and creative way.

2. The differences between oral and written literature

Oral literature is distinguished from written literature by the nature of its composition anddelivery. While the novelist, the poet or the playwright depends on writing to produce his works,the oral artist does not rely on writing. Oral literature is composed orally. For example, oralpoetry is made up as the poet goes along. It is usually sung or chanted, often to musicalaccompaniment. For the composer of oral literature, the moment of performance of a given piecework is also the time of its composition.

3. Functions of literature include the following:

Literature can serve as a vehicle of ideas, reflection of reality or incarnation or personification oftranscendental or mystical truth. It can also be a source of aesthetic experience.

STUDY SESSION 2

1. The meaning of genre is:

Type or category of literary composition.

2. Common genres of oralliterature include:

Myth, legend, epic, folktale, riddle and proverb


STUDY SESSION 3

1 Classification of oral literature is significant because it facilitates analysis and evaluationof oral material collected. Furthermore, working out the classes of what you havecollected enables to make certain generalizations.

2 Oral literature can be classified according to the following:

i Subject-matters: For example, myths are differentiated from legends because they areconcerned with origins and presence of the supernatural. Similarly, narratives are sub-dividedinto animal tales, wonder tales and stories about people.Classification can also be madeaccording to theme or plot, e.g. such basic human subjectsas love, mourning and origins of theworld.

ii. Generic Classification: This is classification of oral literature into some kind of families suchas narratives, poems and drama.

iii. Situational or Sociological classification: This classification is according to whom, where andby whom oral art is performed, e.g. wedding songs, work songs or court songs.

iv. Stylistic or common features: This is classification according to length, form of expression,the manner in which the form is delivered, e.g. sung poetry, narrative poetry and recited poetry,type of linguistic expression used etc.

v. Occasion, role and context: This type of classification poses questions such as when and why atext is produced, e.g. Yoruba Ijala poetry is performed by and for hunters at gatherings ofhunters. Also in this category are funeral songs, lullabies and children’s play songs.

vi. Performance characteristics: This classification is concerned with how a particular form isperformed, e.g. Is it accompanied by music, dance etc.

STUDY SESSION 4

1)Three methods of studying oral literature are:

i) Situational or formal features: This comprises the study of length, form of expressionand the type of linguistic usage.

ii)Subject matter: This is the study of what a genre is talking about or what it contains.For example, myths are different from legends because of what they contain.

iii)Occasion and role of contexts: You can study occasions during which oral literature isperformed, including the role of the context within which it is performed.

iv)Local terminologies taxonomies: Sometimes one can study the special terms or theaesthetic vocabularies of a given text of oral literature.

3. The student can choose material from oral literature of his choice. However, it shouldnotbe taken from books, journals etc. already published.

STUDY SESSION 5


1)The two factors that motivated European research into African oral literature in the 19th

century are:

a). Evangelism and comparative analysis of African literature with the folktalescollected by the Grimm Brothers.

2)The strength and weaknesses of European research into African oral literature in the 19th

century can be explained as follows:

The strength was the emphasis the collections placed on linguistic aspects and whatwere thought fitting or suitable for children. The researchers published largecollections of literature from a single people and this threw more light on literaryconvention among a given people.The main weakness was that no attempt was madeto relate the collections to their historical contexts. There was also no description ofthe normal circumstances of the materials collected.

STUDY SESSION 6

1)The main assumptions of the Evolutionists are:

a) The study of the Evolutionists provides what is thought to be scientificproof to some prejudices about the nature of the oral art and this affects theattitude of those working in the field by conditioning their approach.

b) The research dictates the type of literature to be selected among thoserecorded. It also dictates the kind of interpretation. Since oral literature isconsidered as survival of primitive stages, interpretations are based onhypocritical customs of the primitive peoples such as primitive matriarchy andtotemism.

c) No consideration is given to literary effectiveness.

d). They do not place any emphasis on selection of different types of literatureand no questions are raised about individual authorship.

e). And as the primitive people are thought to be concerned with tradition, nonew tales or aspects of literature are collected.

f) Due to the emphasis they place on origin and early history, no emphasis isplaced on contemporary relevance of folktales.

2)The main effects of the Diffusionist or the Structural Functionalist to thestudy of oral literature in Africa are:

a) Attention is focused on the subject matter of oral literature, because it is thesubject they used in tracing the origin and spread of stories.

b) No attention is given to detailed study of the role of forms of literature.

c) There are no large transcriptions and translations as the researchercollectsonly summaries of the contents of what they study.

d) Sometimes unskilled assistants are employed to summarize the contents ofthe stories collected.


e) Emphasis is placed on prose narratives whose motifs can be traced.

f) No attention is givento poetry.

STUDY SESSION 7

1)The factors responsible for renewed interest in the study of oral literature inthe 1950s are: recognition was given to Africa as a worthwhile field of studyand there was a proliferation of professionals concerned with different aspectsof Africa.

2)The groups of scholars that contributed to research into African oralliterature are: musicologists, ethnomusicologists, American anthropologists,African scholars.

STUDY SESSION 8

1)Performance is generally the established custom or habitual practice ofeveryday life. It is a practical application of embodied skill and knowledge tothe task of taking action. Oral performance is one aspect of the variedperformances in Africa.

2)The following devices are involved in the performance of oral literature:

1. overtones and symbolic associations of words and phrases

2. emotional situation, like that of a funeral

3. the singer’s beauty of voice, her sobs, facial expression, vocalexpressiveness and movements e.g. indicating the sincerity of her grief

4. the musical setting

5. expressiveness of tone, gesture, facial expression, dramatic use of pauseand rhythm, the interplay of passion, dignity or humour, receptivity to thereactions of the audience etc.

STUDY SESSION 9

1)The two extremes of improvisation and original composition are: It can take theform of a totally new creation or memorized reproduction of set pieces.

2)The four types of variation that may occur in the performance of oral literature:

a)Rehearsed composition

b)Facial improvisation by a leader in boat or dance song

c)Combination and recombination of known motifs into a single uniqueperformance

d)Interest in accuracy and authenticity of wording in which memorization ratherthan creativity is the expected role of the performer


STUDY SESSION 10

1)Two ways by which artists can involve the audience are:

a)The artist may choose to involve the audience directly. This can take the form offormula to arouse listenerslike the ones used in folklores.

b)The audience can join in choruses of songs.

2)The following occasions can affect performance of oral literature:

a)Purpose and atmosphere of gathering at which it is rendered.

b)Recent episodes in the minds of the people and the audience.

c)Time of the year and propinquity of farming activities such as planting, harvestetc.

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