university of nigeria, nsukka ibrahim...university of nigeria, nsukka faculty of the social sciences...
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UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES AND CRIME PREVENTION IN NIGER
STATE
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF SCIENCE
DEGREE (M.Sc) IN SOCIOLOGY.
(CRIMINOLOGY AND PENOLOGY)
BY
HASSAN, IBRAHIM MUHAMMAD
PG/M.Sc/07/42782
SUPERVISOR: PROF. V.I. OKEKE
AUGUST, 2011
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CERTIFICATION
Hassan, Ibrahim Muhammad, a postgraduate student in the Department of
Sociology/Anthropology and with Reg. No PG/M.Sc./07/42782 has satisfactorily completed the
requirement for course and research work for the degree of Master of Science in Sociology (criminology
and penology).
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for
another diploma or degree of this or any other University.
___________________ ____________________
Prof. V.I. Okeke (Head of Department)
(Supervisor)
_____________________________
External Supervisor.
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my late Mum (Hajiya Hajara Muhammad Hassan) who passed on
during my class work in this great Institution of higher learning (University of Nigeria, Nsukka) on 22nd
June, 2008. And the lonely ninety (90) days interregnum that existed between her and my first son
(Ahmed Marzoog Ibrahim) and also my newly born daughter named after Mum, Hajara Asswabariyyah.
Ibrahim.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillah! The completion of this work is made possible with the invaluable contributions of
the following people.
Farmost among the list are my supervisor Prof. V. I. Okeke whose encouragement, willingness
motherliness and readiness to read through the work and offer useful suggestion helped to improve the
quality of this work and its eventual completion.
I was also greatly encouraged by my Lecturers; Prof. D.S. Obikeze, Prof. E.U.M. Igbo for their
pieces of academic advice at all times. My gratitude also goes to Dr. C.U. Ugwoeke, Dr. Nwokeoma, all of
Department of sociology/Anthropology University of Nigeria Nsukka and Dr. Salahu Lawal of I.B.B.U.
University Lapai for their suggestions and comments which were quite helpful towards making this work
standardized.
Others to whom I owe a lot of gratitude are Abdullah Muhammad Hassan of Federal University
of Technology, Minna; my father, for his patience in bearing with my absence especially at old age and
the entire family of Muhammadu Hassan, for their moral and psychological encouragement.
Finally, to my family, I am ever grateful for their support and encouragement and for the pains
they went through because of schooling.
Cheers
Hassan Ibrahim. Muhammad.
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ABSTRACT
This study is focused on the private security companies and crime prevention in Niger State. The study
identified methods of providing security needs of Nigerlites during the traditional era and through this,
factors that necessitate the establishment of PSCs in Nigeria. This study also evaluate the effectiveness of
PSCs in their security functions, it also highlight major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their
functions and project strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery especially
as it affects PSCs and the police. The hypotheses were tested using chi-square (x2). Hypothesis I revealed
that the presence of guards/PSCs has reduced crime in the society which further corroborates hypothesis
II that both the guards and subscribers feel satisfied with the services provided by these companies. And
Hypothesis III which revealed that trained guards are more effective than those not trained emphasized
the need for adequate training of PSCs/guards for the purpose of securing the society.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification … … … … … … … … … i
Dedication … … … … … … … … … ii
Acknowledgement … … … … … … … … … iii
Abstract … … … … … … … … … iv
Table of Contents … … … … … … … … … v
Acronyms … … … … … … … … … x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study … … … … … … … 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem … … … … … … 5
1.3 Research Questions … … … … … … … 8
1.4 Objectives of the study … … … … … … … 8
1.5 Significance of the Study … … … … … … … 9
1.6 Operationalisation of concepts … … … … … … 9
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Review of Empirical Studies … … … … … … 11
2.1.1 The Establishment and Growth of the Private Security Sector in Africa (Nigeria) 14
2.1.2 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PSCs … … … … … 16
2.1.3 Major Constraints of the PSCs … … … … … … 17
2.2 Theoretical Literature … … … … … … … 18
2.3 Review of Relevant Theories … … … … … … … 20
2.4 Theoretical Framework … … … … … … 23
2.5 Hypotheses of the Study … … … … … … 24
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design … … … … … … … 25
3.2 Area of the Study … … … … … … … 25
3.3 Population and Scope of the Study … … … … … … 26
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3.4 Sample Size … … … … … … … 27
3.5 Sampling Method … … … … … … … … 28
3.6 Instruments for Data Collection … … … … … … 29
3.7 Administration of Instrument … … … … … … … 30
3.8 Method of data analysis … … … … … … … 30
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Data Presentation and Analyses … … … … … … 31
4.2 Questionnaires for Guards … … … … … … 31
4.2.1 Age Range of Respondents …. … … … … … 31
4.2.2 Educational Qualification of Respondents … … … … … 32
4.2.3 Marital Status of Respondents … … … … … … 32
4.2.4 Sex of Guards … … … … … … … … 33
4.2.5 Companies Involved in the study and frequency of Representation … … 33
4.2.6 Local Government Areas of Service … … … … … … 34
4.2.7 Guards Working Duration … … … … … … 34
4.2.8 Number of Guards Posting … … … … … … … 35
4.2.9 Training and Retraining of Guards … … … … … … 35
4.2.10 Relationship of Guards to their Boss (host) … … … … … 36
4.2.11 Do you think the Presence of Guards has Reduce Criminal Activities
in Nigeria State … … … … … … … … 36
4.2.12 Reason for the growth in number of PSCs … … … … 37
4.2.13 Do guards meet their personal basic needs on the job … … … 37
4.2.14 Unable to meet basic needs on the job … … … … … 38
4.2.15 Other jobs assign to guards … … … … … … … 38
4.2.16 Types of errand guards undertake … … … … … … 38
4.2.17(a) Directors/supervisors visitation to duty posts … … … … 39
4.2.17(b) Things directors/supervisor check … … … … … 39
4.2.18 Problems of Guards … … … … … … … 40
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4.2.19 Guards and criminal encounter … … … … … … 40
4.2.20 Response of guards to criminal activity … … … … … 41
4.2.21 Guards reasons for establishing PSCs … … … … … 41
4.2.22 Methods of providing security during the traditional era in Niger State … 42
4.2.23 Guards opinion on level of subscribers’ satisfaction … … … 43
4.2.24 Relationship between PSCs and Nigeria police … … … … 43
4.2.25 Do guards prosecute cases in court … … … … … 44
4.2.26 Level of satisfaction with the PSCs services … … … … 44
4.2.27 Suggestion for overcoming problems of the companies … … … 45
4.3 Questionnaire for supervisors/beneficiaries … … … … … 45
4.3.1 Age range of beneficiaries … … … … … … … 45
4.3.2 Educational background of subscribers/beneficiaries … … … 46
4.3.3 Marital Status of Respondents … … … … … … 46
4.3.4 Occupation of beneficiaries … … … … … … 46
4.3.5 Religious Affiliation of Respondents … … … … … 47
4.3.6 Local Government Areas of Respondents … … … … … 47
4.3.7 Area/Streets of Sampled Residents … … … … … 48
4.3.8 PSCs Engaged … … … … … … … … 49
4.3.9 Types of Residence … … … … … … … 49
4.3.10 Duration of engagement … … … … … … … 50
4.3.11 Increase/growth in number of PSCs will lead to reduction in crime activities 50
4.3.12 Reasons for reduction of criminal activities … … … … 50
4.3.13 Level of satisfaction with services of PSCs by subscribers … … … 51
4.3.14 Reasons for PSCs establishment … … … … … … 51
4.3.15 Means of obtaining security before emergence of PSCs … … … 52
4.3.16 Other duties assigned to guards … … … … … … 52
4.3.17 Other benefits derived from PSCs by their host communities … … 53
4.3.18 Would you consider your security guards as well trained … … … 53
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4.3.19 Major problems of guards/PSCs … … … … … … 54
4.3.20 Possible suggestions to improve service delivery of the PSCs in Niger State 54
4.3.21 Do you feel more secured with guards … … … … … 55
4.3.22 Reasons why they feel more secured with guards … … … … 55
4.4.0 Test of Hypotheses … … … … … … … 56
4.4.1 Hypothesis one … … … … … … … 56
4.4.2 Hypothesis two … … … … … … … … 57
4.4.3 Hypothesis three … … … … … … … … 58
4.5.0 In-depth interview schedule for directors/supervisors … … … 59
4.5.1 Qualitative analysis of the in-depth interview … … … … 59
4.5.2 Status of registration of the ten (10) companies … … … … 59
4.5.3 Period of operation in the state … … … … … … 60
4.5.4 Personnel capacity of the companies … … … … … 60
4.5.5 Does your company have a training school … … … … 60
4.5.6 Running refreshers courses on security tips for the personnel … … 61
4.5.7 Sills impacted during workshops and seminars … … … … 61
4.5.8 Cars/motorcycles for patrols … … … … … … 61
4.5.9 Duration for promotion of staff … … … … … … 61
4.5.10 Duration on duty for the guards … … … … … … 62
4.5.11 Factors responsible for the increase in PSCs … … … … 62
4.5.12 The ways in which security needs of the people were provided
during the traditional era in Niger State … … … … … 62
4.5.13 Factors Necessitating the Establishment of PSCs … … … … 63
4.5.14 Achievement of your PSCs … … … … … … 63
4.5.15 Major constraints of the PSCs … … … … … … 64
4.5.16 Relationship of PSCs with Nigeria police … … … … … 64
4.5.17 Prosecution of cases in court … … … … … … 64
4.5.18 Suggestions for overcoming the constraints … … … … 64
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STUDIES
5.1 Summary … … … … … … … … 66
5.2 Recommendation … … … … … … … 67
5.3 Suggestions for future studies … … … … … … 68
References … … … … … … … … … 69
Appendix 1 … … … … … … … … … 73
Appendix 2 … … … … … … … …. … 76
Appendix 3 … … … … … … … … … 78
Appendix 4 … … … … … … … … … 79
Appendix 5 … … … … … … … … … 80
Appendix 6 … … … … … … … … … 81
Appendix 7 … … … … … … … … … 82
Appendix 8 … … … … … … … … … 83
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ACRONYMS
CIA: Criminal Intelligence Agency
EIU: Economic Intelligence Unit
FCE: Federal College of Education
GRA: Government Reservation Area
HND: Higher National Diploma
IBBUL: Ibrahim Badamasi Babagida University Lapai
LGAs: Local Government Areas
NA: Native Authority
NCE: Nigeria Certificate of Education
ND: National Diploma
NSCDC: Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps
PGCs: Private Guard Companies
PMFs: Private Military Forces
PSC: Private Security Company
PSCS: Private Security Companies
PSG: Private Security Guard
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SSCE: Senior Secondary Certificate Examination
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Human history has always been punctuated with societal concern for security at both the
individual and collective levels. This has particularly been the case because security affects
people’s livelihood. The privatization of security has now become a global phenomenon (Hyden,
1995). This is the result of a number of factors including general human insecurity, the
globalization phenomenon, the privatization of public enterprises, the professionalization of
armed and police forces, drive for profit maximization, liberalization of the arms trade, general
unending African conflict and the crashing of the twin towers and the pentagon on the 11th of
September, 2001 in United States (Holmqvist, 2005). In the contemporary world, the
privatization of security has spread throughout the world to an unprecedented level that it is no
longer possible to ignore, let alone comprehend (Howe, 1998).
The many types of modern private security outfits available today may be traced to Allan
Pinkerton, who founded Pinkerton’s security services in 1850 with the motto “we never sleep”
(Schmalleger, 1995). It was also the largest of the private firms headquartered in New York. The
Pinkerton Service had a logo which was an open eye, to signify constant vigilance on its office
doors. The term “private eye” is thought to have developed from the use of this logo. In another
development, Schmalleger (1995) affirmed that Henry Wells and William Fargo built their
popularly known Wells Fargo company in 1852 and supplied detective and protective services
(private guard and investigator) to areas of West of Missouri.
Thus, much has changed since the early days of private security firms (private policing).
Today, services are provided for hospitals, manufacturing plants, communication industries,
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retirement homes, hotels, casinos, exclusive communities and clubs. Others are nuclear storage
facilities and reactors, and many other types of businesses such as information security that aid
the protection of personnel.
Following a history of private guards and security practice in Nigeria which could be
traced to royalty, religion, social class or pedigree; the practice of private security gradually
attracted a deserved attention when it became commercialized and obviously conflicted with the
social contract idea which states that only the state is capable of arrest and punishment (Kuna,
1999). Thus, it became imperative that the practice had to be regulated within the confines of
duty, definition and laws. For instance, security in the traditional Nigerian society squarely lay
with the immediate and extended families; hence any member of the family that violates any of
the norms was in danger of being ostracized by the group until reparations and necessary
purification and cleansing rituals were undertaken by the family (Igbo, 2007).
Thus, changes have taken place from the traditional Nigerian societies to the present as a
result of ‘modernisation’. These changes occasioned the encroachment of western institutions on
moral standards of the society which has implications for general life and security particularly on
Nigerians. Other factors include urbanization, formal education and capitalist economic system.
As a result a range of crimes emanated quite different from what was known in the traditional
society, which may require more sophisticated security approach. Some of these crimes include
murder, theft, assault, and suicide, pick pocketing, drug abuse, counterfeiting, fraud, forgery,
smuggling, unlawful possession of dangerous weapons, prostitution, white- collar crime,
advanced fee fraud (419) corruption, rape, and a host of others which are all prevalent in modern
Nigeria(Ebbe, 1981 cited in Igbo, 2007).
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Thus, Ochefu and Idrees (2002), posited that, the Nupes and Gwagyis who are predominant
groups in Niger state with migrant Hausas’ prevent crimes through proper socialization of the
young ones i.e application of communal approach to socialization, instilling of the fear of pain in
punishment…later, other prevention measures include the organization of the Dogarai (local
police), the Ninety (90) days cleansing fast as reparation; Others include the use of scarecrows,
charms and fetish materials and the use of Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerade) popularly known
among the Nupes.
Also, according to Igbo (2007), the end of the civil war witnessed not only the return of
old criminals to the street; but also the ‘graduation’ of new and more sophisticated ones’. This
singular assertion indicates that the current state of security network in the country may be under
serious threat as crime waves continue to rise unabated.
The most recent of the threats to security in Nigeria is the emergence of kidnapping and
terrorism which have been enhanced by the widespread use of firearms by criminals. This indeed
facilitated the modus operandi of these criminals, thereby enhancing complete change in criminal
activities as cases of aircraft hijacking and assassinations of prominent Nigerians and bomb
explosions in various corners of the country became rampant.
In addition to earlier mentioned criminal activities, today law and order also pose serious
security challenges in the country. According to Sunday Ehindaro, the former Inspector General
of Police, “perhaps the most potent threat to national security of any country is crime”
(Dambazau, 2007: 152). This statement is also in line with the report of the Economic
Intelligence Unit (EIU) in a survey called “RISKWIRE” which concluded that,
Nigeria is an insecure environment for commercial operations. Security risk arises at three levels. The first comes from rising violent crime (from) simple armed robbery (to) carjacking and violent attacks….Second, companies can be subjected to direct attack or
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blackmail…facilities can be vandalized and staff kidnapped. Third, incidences of inter-communal violence have risen… Nigeria’s ill equipped police force … has been ineffective in stemming the crime wave. (Dambazau, 2007: 53).
Therefore, the ineffectiveness of the Nigeria police and the concern of Nigerians for
security led to the emergence of guards and private security companies in the country to augment
the activities of the security agencies and work in line with the laid down rules and regulations.
Just like the vigilante, private security companies are also an informal arrangement to keep with
the pace of rising crime rate in Nigeria.
However, as is the case in all countries, the citizens of Nigeria are highly concerned
about their security and this concern has been expressed through the growth of Private Security
Companies (PSCs). The last decade has seen a proliferation of PSCs in a country of about 140
million people (Census, 2006). The presence of these companies is conspicuous in the premises
of both private and public sector organizations. This is in spite of the fact that in both urban and
rural areas, security matters are largely in the hands of private actors than in those of the state.
Thus, the function of private security companies was handled by the Nigeria immigration service
in the Federal Ministry of Interior. Until 1st September, 2005 when the then Minister of Internal
Affairs handed over all documents of private guard companies to the Nigeria Security and Civil
Defense Corps (NSCDC, 2009).
There are two principal landmarks in the regulation of PSCs in Nigeria. The first is the
enactment and approval for creation of PSCs on 15th December 1986. This law was cited as Act
No 43 and consolidated under the laws of the Federation of Nigeria 1990 in chapter 367. The
second is the handover from the Nigeria immigration service to Nigeria civil defense corps cited
currently as chapter 30 in Private Guard Companies (PGC) Act (Laws of the Federation of
Nigeria, 2004). This law is specifically enacted for the “regulation and licensing of private guard
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companies which must be wholly owned by Nigerians and other matters-ancillary thereto”
(PGCs Act, Cap367, 1990).
Finally, the perception of ineffective policing and rising crime gave impetus to the
emergence of a plethora of non-state policing groups (Olaniyi, 2005). The state has shared its
security responsibility with a variety of non-political organizations including vigilante groups,
religious vigilante, ethnic militias and private security guards.
Based on the above and most especially considering its growing importance, the activities
of the PSCs necessarily became a subject of study. This has led the researcher to the choice of
private security companies and crime prevention in Nigeria with Niger state as a case study.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Law, order and security were maintained in the pre-colonial societies through thorough
socialization of members of the society using peer group, age grade and religious institutions
(Ogunbameru and Rotimi, 2006). Thus, violators of societal norms, customs, and traditions of
various communal groups faced serious sanctions which ranged from ostracizing, payment of
reparation and purification and consequently the performing of cleansing rituals (Igbo, 2007).
For instance in Niger state, criminals pay for their crimes through serving various punishment
such as digging of dungeons, working in the Emir’s farm, quarrying, and in cases which involve
witchcraft and murder, banishment or ninety (90) days cleansing fast was observed as reparation
(Idrees and Ochefu, 2002). The occurrence of these crimes was often at a lower rate because
these sanctions also helped in inducing fear into the people on the negative consequences of
committing crime in the society.
These roles changed during the colonial era following the introduction of formal social
control. The Native Authority (NA) police assumed the role of maintaining law, order and
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security, while the citizens simply became on-lookers because community security was seen as
the responsibility of the government. At this point, insecurity also started growing due to the
nature of native administration. This is because Nationalist activities were seen and conceived of
as an attack on the colonialists (Kuna, 1999). Therefore, the brutality of the NA police became
instrumental to the growth of the nationalist movement at this time in the society.
During the post-colonial era, especially after the civil war in Nigeria, the activities of
criminals grew almost out of hand as a result of the proliferation of firearms which were found in
all nooks and crannies of the country. This hastened the growth of crime on the one hand, and
also brought about the need to further secure the urban communities where robbery and the
nefarious acts of criminals were frequent. Therefore, urban areas like Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, and
Kano started having neighborhood guards due to the inefficiency of the police (Dambazau, 2007;
Igbo, 2007)
In describing insecurity in Nigerian urban cities, Osahon (1996 in Dogon-yaro, 1996)
stated that:
Actually we are under severe siege already as a people. Fear now rules our daily lives. Ugly, harrowing fear of the known and unknown. When we go out in the mornings, we are not sure we will return home safely and with our cars and other property including even the shoes on our feet or the ear-ring in our ears. If we are lucky to arrive to find our homes unraided in our absence, we sleep with one eye open expecting the worst any moment of the night. In other words, we do not sleep any more… in our ability to perform daily activities (Dogon-yaro, 1996:224).
This situation also existed in other growing cities in Niger state such as Minna,
Kontagora, Bida, Suleja, and a few other towns. The public response to perpetual fear and
insecurity was to take laws into its own hands. In July 1987, butchers, traders, and unemployed
persons in Minna vented their wrath over police harassment, intimidation, and extortion in a six-
18
hour rampage against police and soldiers that was quelled by military units (The library of
Congress Country Studies and CIA Factbook, 1991).
Again, in May, 2009, two lecturers from School of Nursing Bida were bathed with acid in
their staff quarters by students suspected to have been withdrawn by the institution for having
failed in all their first semester examinations. It was noted that the staff quarters lacked security
guards unlike the school premises and the culprits were not apprehended (Sunday Trust, May 17,
2009). However, in July, 2009, Newline news paper reported that, the family of one Mr. James
Omeize, the proprietor of Brighter International School in Minna was kidnapped in Minna and
the kidnapper demanded 20 million naira for his release in far away Benin City in Edo state.
Other insecurity instances abound in the state as many cases are not even reported to the
police or captured by any vigilant watch dog. The Nigeria police has always came under severe
criticism; being accused of falling victims to every negative unfavourable character, devoid of
any measure commensurate to their oath of office. In other words, this weakened capacity of the
Nigeria Police to fight crime (i.e shortage of staff, obsolete equipment, corruption, defective
training programmes, police discretion etc) has led to increase in other policing agencies across
the country over the years. It is due to the importance attached to security of lives and property
that both the professional and non-professional security outfits came into existence in these
urban centres.
After about two decades of the flourishing of private security industry in Niger State, it
appears PSCs have not received much scholarly attention in terms of the services they provide.
One wonders if the seeming increase in the number of private security companies in Niger state
is caused by the desire for improved security or other ulterior motives. It is in the light of the
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above problems, that this research work is aimed at examining the private security companies in
Niger state.
1.3 Research Questions
The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:-
I. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional
era?
II. What factors necessitated the establishment of PSCs?
III. How effective are these PSCs in their security functions?
IV. What are their major constraints in carrying out these functions?
V. What are the strategies for overcoming these constraints in order to make them more
efficient?
VI. What is the relationship between PSCs and the Police?
1.4 Research Objectives
The general objective of this research is to determine how effective private security
companies are in crime prevention in Niger state.
The following are the specific objectives of the research;
I. To find out how security needs of people in Niger state were provided during the
traditional era.
II. To determine the factors that necessitated the establishment of PSCs
III. To assess the effectiveness of these PSCs in their security functions
IV. To examine the major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions.
V. To identify the strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery.
VI. To examine the relationship between PSCs and the Police
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1.5 Significance of the Study
This study has both theoretical and practical significance.
(a) Theoretical significance: this study will contribute to existing literature on PSCs/PSGs
especially in the area of crime prevention in Nigeria. The study will also provide the
baseline information on typologies of crime prevention in Niger state and stimulate
research in the field by other researchers and academicians. Moreover, the study will
provide reference document to other scholars who want to engage in studies of PSCs and
crime prevention.
(b) Practical significance: the findings of this study will enhance the understanding of
policy makers on strategies and dynamics of crime prevention companies. This will lead
to a design of programmes that will enhance crime prevention and improve security of
lives and property in Niger state. This study is also significant for the fact that the
findings will assist in extending and deepening the understanding of policy makers to
improve crime prevention through the PSCs. This will reveal, if any, the challenges of
working with wide range of Private Security Companies and provide suggestions on
how the challenges identified can be overcome.
1.6 Operationalisation of Concepts
The following terms are used in this research and are defined based on their usage in this context.
Beneficiaries: Refers to individuals, private and public enterprises, ministries, agencies,
directorates etc who subscribes to the services of the PSCs.
Crime: Refers to wrongdoing that threatens the security or well-being of society and usually
considered an act (evil) punishable by law.
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Crime Prevention: It refers to a pattern of attitudes and behaviours directed both at reducing the
threat of crime and enhancing the sense of safety and security to positively influence the quality
of life…and to develop environments where crime cannot flourish
Formal Security Sector: Refers to police and the army which the constitution of a country
formally recognizes for the defense, peace, total security and integrity of the country.
National Security: Refers to safeguarding the interest of the citizenry and providing the type of
atmosphere that is free of threats that could inhibit the pursuit of the good of all. It is about the
processes and measures required to preserve law and order.
Private Security: Refers to those self-employed individuals and privately funded business
entities and organizations providing security –related services to specific clientele for a fee, for
the individual or entity that retains or employs them, for themselves, in order to protect their
persons, private property or interests from various hazards.
Private Policing: This refers to the performance of policing functions by individuals or agencies
other than those directly owned and controlled by the state.
Security: This means protection from physical or direct violence, and freedom from fear; a sense
of safety and relative wellbeing in political, legal, socio-economic and cultural terms, it is also, a
measure of protection from structural violence and security of lives and properties as enshrined
in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
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CHAPTER TWO
Review of Related Literature
2.1. Review of Empirical Studies
In a survey by Macucci (1988), titled ‘Typology of private policing operational styles’ in
the United States of America, respondents totaling 1,665 were of the view that the policing styles
of private security companies were changed as a result of several factors among which 821
(49.3%) ticked, rising crime rates, 603 (36.2%) went for, increasing fear of crime, 109 (6.5%)
responded to, shrinking police budgets and 132 (7.9%) declared for, growing of support for more
positive criminal justice measures and these factors have also enhanced the growth of private
security sector around the world today.
In another study conducted by Lee (1971), Scott and Macpherson (1971) and Liles and
Mc Clintock (1972), the aforesaid authors challenged the taken for granted assumptions of the
contemporary policing as exclusively state policing and argued that private policing was an
important contemporary phenomenon that needed to be recognized and understood. These wide
ranging studies not only described the extent, scope and nature of private policing and its
relations to the public police but developed an influential policy stance that directly challenged
the earlier conception of corporation police as “Private armies”. The study revealed a favour for
PSCs to formal policing by 1,923 (87.4%) of the total sample to 277 (12.6%).
The transformation of private policing from a threat to an asset was accomplished by
conceptualizing private police as junior partners in the business of policing, who were working
to assist their senior partners, the public police in keeping the peace (Shearing and Stenning
1981). They argued further by correlating the growth of private security with “Shift in property
relationship” and called it “new corporate federalism” which shifted proactive resources from
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public to private sector. In validating the above stand, the study used Likert Scale to sample
2,091 respondents. The study strongly concluded that public areas be protected by public Police
and private areas by Private security companies as strongly agree respondents recorded 803
(34.4%), agreed, 924 (44.1%), disagree, 264 (12.6%) and strongly disagree 100 (4.7%).
The emergence of private policing was not a cause for alarm since it did not threaten the
state’s claims to monopoly over the definition of peace. This position was validated by recourse
to the earlier acceptance of the notion of legitimate self help (Beeker, 1974). This position was
supported by Kakalik and Willdhorn (1972) that the industry did not pose a challenge to the state
and that the major functions of private guards according to the sample of 318 among formal
police and private guards: 167 (52.5%) agreed that the functions of PSCs are to prevent, detect,
and report criminal acts on private property, 76 (23.8%) to provide security against loss from
fire, or equipment failure, 32 (10.0%) to control access to private property, and 43 (13.5%) to
enforce rules and regulations of private employers.
Chaiken and Chaiken (1987) opined that in assisting public police managers to decide
which policing functions can be privatized, they reject the claim that there are some tasks which
belong in principle to the public police and cannot be privatized. They reject for example, the
argument that function requiring the legal status of “Peace officer” cannot be privatized instead
they insist that division of labour must be determined on pragmatic ground. They further stated
that, tasks that required a multiplicity of skills should remain with the public police because the
training equips them for such tasks and those that do not require a combination of skills can and
should be transferred.
With the alarming growth in the private security sector around the world, developed
countries such as United Kingdom, USA etc. are beginning to cut down the population of the
24
state police force and delegating responsibility to private security sector in order to enhance and
promote internal revenue generation for the state and qualitative crime prevention (Marc, 1981).
In a seminar series in Swaziland by Simelane (2007), he concluded that, while PSCS have
been an answer to the security needs of the citizens and investors, their growth and development
have certain implications for the state. The state has abdicated its responsibility of providing
security to its citizens. The inefficiency of its institution entrusted with the task of providing
security has forced it to shift responsibility to the private sector. In so doing, it has allowed itself
to be undercut and sovereignty to be limited.
The argument that private security emerged because of the failure of the state to provide
protection for its citizens as Wairagu, Kamenju and Singo (2004) had argued, was not the case in
the crashing of Twin Towers and the Pentagon in United State on September, 11th 2001 but this
factor also fueled the growth of private security companies as Singer (2008) concluded.
In his study entitled ‘local communities and crime prevention’ Dogon-yaro (1996)
enunciated that the magnitude of the gross deficiency of the Nigeria police commands faced in
terms of manpower shortage, obsolete fighting equipments for crime prevention and control ,
lack of incentive, and the diminishing moral fabric of the society, to which the force belong . He
conceived that the police force alone can not prevent crime in society effectively except with the
effort of members of communities and agencies such as the vigilantes and PSCs in collaboration
with police force. The findings of the study indicated that between 1990 and 1995, 78% of
communities studied in Nigeria had one form or another of community based crime prevention,
as against only 22% of the inhabitants of the communities subscribing for formal
policing…PSCs comes to the rescue.
25
2.1.1 The Establishment and Growth of the Private Security Sector in Africa (Nigeria)
PSCs first emerged in African as a result of general human insecurity. Indeed threats
have always imperiled the continent and rendered it insecure, by tribal conflicts, border conflicts,
disputes over mineral resources, terrorism, genocide, wars, foreign domination, apartheid etc
Kuna (2004). The general insecurity that results from failed or weak states (where the state is
unable or fails dismally to provide security to the people and enterprise) has led to the growth of
private security sector.
Cold war also intensified human insecurity. Singer (2003), and Gumedze (2007) argue
that the end of the cold war created security gap that the private market rushed in to fill. This no
doubt led to the proliferation of private security outfits by individuals and corporate bodies. In
addition, Globalization engendered private security companies in Africa than in any other
continent. As Udombana (2004) argued, capital, power and the need for profit maximization
(that characterized the notion of globalization) equally brought about the unprecedented growth
within the private security sector. In line with the above argument, Singer (2004) opined that
Private Military Forces (PMFs) operate globally in more than fifty countries and have been the
central force in a number of conflicts, playing a role in winning wars for example in Angola,
Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, among others.
On the other hand, private security emerged because of the failure of the state to provide
protection for its citizens. In some instances, the states institutions may be too weak to provide
security for its citizen. Therefore, private security sector in the form of PSCs intervene to fill the
gap. Wairagu, Kamenju and Singo (2004) posit that private security is focused on client
protection and loss prevention.
26
Another factor responsible for the establishment and growth of PSCs is that the private
sector is organized along the capitalist mode of production which stipulates that any one who
engages the services of the private security must be willing to pay for them to ensure profit
maximization. Similarly, according Zedner (2006), vast security companies seek to exploit
market opportunities, expand their turnover and maximize returns to their shareholders.
The downsizing of the armed forces after the cold war contributed significantly to the
growth of private security sector. Schreier and Caparini (2005), stated that since the end of cold
war, more than 7 million service men have been thrown into the employment market with little
to peddle but their fighting and military skill. After any conflict or war situation, there is
normally a sudden influx of cash associated with peacekeeping force and other external funded
operations. The private security sector seizes the opportunity to compete for considerable share.
They added that, armed forces that were downsized from national armies possess not merely
ordinary fighting and military skills but professional fighting and military skills. Corporate
business principles dictate that their professional skills must meet the demands of the client who
is willing to pay for professional and quality services.
Another important point raised by Schreier and Caparini (2005) is that of trade
liberalization. They noted that the international arms trade has been opened up to an increasing
number of buyers and sellers which has not only permitted a larger number and broader variety
of actors to access weaponry, but also provided more and easier ways for PSCs to profit from
conflict through their involvement in the arms trade, thus, facilitating arms proliferation.
Furthermore, insecurity of aid workers plays a major role in the growth of PSCs. The greater the
number of conflicts in Africa, the greater the need for aid workers, the greater the involvement of
27
aid workers in humanitarian situations and the greater the need for private security companies to
ensure the security of humanitarian personnel and their property.
To crown it all, the crashing of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon in the United States on
September 11th, 2001 as earlier stated, not only changed the world but also fuelled the growth of
private security sector in general. Singer (2003) maintained that, it also created the need to
establish undercover agents outside the formal authorities and only private security sector is
contracted to carry out these operations
In summary therefore, the forces that led to the emergence and growth of PSCs in Africa
and Nigeria in particular are multifaceted as enunciated by various postulates. They all agreed that
not only general home insecurity raised and aided the establishment and growth of PSCs but also
the presence of Personnel to be recruited into these companies.
2.1.2 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PSCs
It is now obvious that private security guards are everywhere both in public and private
sectors. The big challenge however, is to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of these
PSCs in discharging their primary duties to their clients. According to Singer (2003) private
security companies have played important roles in detecting crime at different levels. He argued
that the effectiveness of the PSCs could be seen in the roles they play as undercover agents
outside the formal authorities especially among industrialized countries. The PSCs have assisted
in reporting and suppressing cult activities in some of the tertiary institutions across the country’s
universities. The involvements of these PSCs have in no small measures helped in curbing the
menace of cultism in Nigerian campuses. Dambazau (2006) argues that the presence of a security
man is effective to the extent that it is capable of retarding criminal activities. Therefore, a secure
or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime (Igbo, 2007).
28
Furthermore, PSCs have also contributed their quota in repelling student unrest by
reporting to appropriate authorities before such riots get out of hand. Macucci (1998) argues that
hints about suspects and illegal gatherings of people and wanderers are reported before nefarious
activities are hatched. He stressed that PSCs services are available in urban cities and major town
for the protection of lives and properties. They also serve as witness when criminals are arrested
and arraigned before the court of law for prosecution.
2.1.3 Major Constraints of the PSCs
One of the major constraints of the PSCs as seen by Musah (2002) is illiteracy. He
stressed that illiterate guards may lack the ability to express themselves in the general language
of instruction of such community. For instance in Nigeria, guards should communicate
effectively in English so that they will be able to carry out their work effectively. He also
stressed further that lack of mobility could also hinder effective performance of the PSCs. In
most cases in Nigeria, PSCs lack vehicles and motorcycles to be used for combating crime.
The section 17 of the Private Guard companies Act which prohibits guards from
possessing firearms and ammunition is a serious hindrance to effective performance of the
guards. This is because they may not be able to repel serious criminal acts where exchange of
fire is involved. In most crime situations, criminals are always fully armed with sophisticated
weapons; therefore the police/guards in such situations become prey and have to run for their
lives (Dambazau, 1997).
Lack of refresher courses, workshop, and seminars, trainings to update the knowledge of
the guards on security tips could also affect their performance. In a typology of private policing
operational styles, Macucci (1998) opined that guards were very unhappy with the lack of crime
29
control in-service training. As a result, the most influential members in the group pressured
security administrators to implement additional police training.
Wages are seen as motivating factor in a working situation; therefore, for effective and
efficient delivery of service the wages must be encouraging. The guards are paid stipend by their
employers and therefore, they are not motivated to carry out their work efficiently. Similarly,
most of the PSCs do not promote their personnel’s accordingly. Macucci (1998) enunciated that
some of the factors restricting such promotion include: the flat status hierarchy, lack of
unionization, and a policy that has favoured hiring into the security administration retired Police
officers from outside the occupational structure. According to Musah (2002), some of the guards
perform other functions like watering of flowers, going on errands, etc which actually distract
them from the primary assignment of guarding.
2.2 Theoretical Literature Review
Behaviour becomes a crime when the state enacts a sanction against it. Crime prevention
involves the disruption of mechanisms which cause criminal events. Maguire, Morgan and
Reiner (1997) opined that criminologists that have devised several ways of preventing crime in
the society rest on three principles. Thus:
i. Since crime consists of diverse behavior, we should not look for universality in
techniques of prevention.
ii. Because an action is a crime, this does not mean that the best way to control it is through
the police and the courts. The behavior itself must be understood, to determine where
change could best be brought about.
iii. The scope of the criminal law is morally problematic. A society in which more crime is
prevented is not necessarily a more pleasant society. The burdens and restrictions
30
imposed on people to prevent crime must be balanced against the harm caused by the
crime prevented.
It is pertinent to note that theories of crime causation are also theories of crime
prevention. (Maguire et al., 1997). Therefore two broad perspectives on crime prevention can be
distinguished; (a) concentrate on structure, and (b) psyche or circumstance.
The structural approach: Here, crime prevention takes the debate straight into politics
(Maguire et al, 1997). Crime prevention is defensible as a free-standing discipline only when
minimum standards of social justice are perceived to apply. That is, the enabling environment
for citizens must be feasible, because, for example, it does not make sense for one to move to
stop shop theft when the alternative for the thief is to starve or be undernourished. But again,
to insist on a totally fair society before crime prevention is deployed is to leave people
unnecessarily vulnerable to harm and loss.
The Psyche or Circumstance Approach: Maguire et al, (1997) stated that this approach has
been classified by Brantingham and Faust (1976) into primary prevention, secondary prevention
and tertiary prevention.
Primary prevention reduces crime opportunities without reference to criminals or
potential criminals. Secondary prevention seeks to change people, typically those at high risk of
embarking upon a criminal career, before they do so while tertiary prevention is focused upon
the truncation of the criminal career in length, seriousness of frequency of offending. It deals
with the “treatment” of known offenders.
Thus, in reassessing these models, private security companies could be located in primary
prevention which is considered as everybody’s business. Odeniyi (2005) observed that appalling
social and security facilities compounded this situation (insecurity). Therefore, through
31
communal efforts, especially landlords and the tenants Association, alternative arrangements
were made to provide security through other sources such as vigilantes, ethnic militias, and
private security guards, companies, etc.
Dambazau (2007) posited that crime prevention methods have developed out of different
traditions across the world and at different era. For instance, the Virginia Crime Prevention
Association advanced the idea that, the punitive prevention attempts by law enforcement to
forestall crime through the threat of apprehension and punishment is manifested by the
enactment of tougher laws, longer sentence, and preventive patrol. The fear of getting caught has
a deterrent effect, especially among the population that has the tendency to be law abiding.
The corrective type is buttressed by the structural approach to crime prevention too.
According to Dambazau (2007) a basic premise of corrective crime prevention is that criminal
behaviour is caused by various social conditions such as poor housing, poverty, lack of
education, family problems and drug or alcohol addiction. Those who subscribe to this approach
believe that crime can be avoided if the conditions under which crime is thought to flourish in
alleviated.
On the other hand, the organized type involves the need for law enforcement agencies,
other government agencies and the community to initiate an organized process for reducing or
removing the opportunity for crime through data collection and analysis, the accurate
identification of problems by a number of factors, development of crime control objectives and
strategies, and implementation of the strategies.
2.3. Review of Relevant Theories
Theories of crime causation are also theories of crime prevention and as enunciated by
Maguire et al. (1997) primary crime prevention is underpinned by theories of the crime event.
32
Four theories of central interest here are: (1) the routine activities theory of Cohen and Felson
(1979), (2) rational choice position of Cornish and Clarke (1986) and (3) the Ecological theory of
Haralambos, Holborn and Heald. Therefore, because the causes of crime are rooted in the
details of life; control is also focused upon everyday life, rather than diverted in to a separate
system of blame and punishment.
Routine activity theory
This theory began as an explanation of predatory crime but was extended to cover other
crime types. It holds that three elements must converge in time and space for a crime to occur
thus:
a. A motivated offender
b. A suitable victim
c. The absence of a capable guardian.
Felson (1993) cited in Maguire et al (1997) noted that routine activity dispersed people
away from their families and household and as such offenders will find targets lacking capable
guardians. He added that economic changes encourage people to leave their homes for offices
and business centres which lack serious securities and therefore become prey to offenders. In this
theory, provision of security could be a deterrent to an offender because of the fear of arrest and
punishment. Therefore, criminals easily strike in communities lacking capable guardian. He
added that, the decline of conventional community weakens the informal social controls which
supply capable guardianship.
Jones (2000) opined that this theory is weak because of it inability to explain what motivates
people to commit crime and for conceiving every other person that may be jobless as a potential
33
criminal and for recognizing petty crimes and ignoring assassinations, armed robbery and other
heinous crimes such as murder as crime.
Rational choice theory
This theory begins with an assumption that offenders seek to benefit themselves by their
criminal behaviors. This entails making decisions and choices, however rudimentary their
rationality might be, being constrained by limits of time, ability and the availability of relevant
information (Maguire et al, 1997). Clarke and Cornish (1985) cited in Maguire et al (1997)
formulated the initial ideals of someone becoming involved in crime and with the decision to
commit a particular crime in a particular context. In the light of this, the search for time and
relevant information is to determine whether their target is secured or not before attack.
Therefore, a secure or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime; and perhaps this
singular reason may have led to the proliferation of PSCs in Niger State as the case may be. In
summary therefore, crime prevention and security are intertwined in such a way that the
weakness of one, predisposes the other.
The theory also failed to account for sociological, psychological and psychiatric factors
in the criminal at the time of committing crime and also the structure of the society in which the
criminal has lived.
Ecological theory
The ecological theory originally refers to a branch of biology interested in the special
relation of organisms to their environment. It stressed on the habits of living organisms and in
their physical environment. With the growth in crime, social scientists turned their attention to
the impact of physical and geographical factors on social life and deviant behavior.
34
In their study of Chicago, Haralambos, Holborn and Heald (2004) posited that the
subculture theories explain deviance in terms of the subculture of a social group. They were of
the view that certain group develops norms and values which are to some extent different from
those held by the large members of the society mostly through their interaction in slum and
ghetto areas of the city. In addition, subculture theories argued that deviance is the direct
consequence of the conformity of members of Social groups to their rules of behavior which
often contradicted the norms of the larger society. And it is the conformity to values and norms
which often bring members of such groups into conflict with law enforcement agents such as
PSGs and the police etc. Ugwuoke (2010) has cited the activities of members of the banned
campus cults in Nigeria as a good example of the conflict that often exists between the norms of
subculture group and that of the larger society.
This theory has been criticized for conceiving criminals in society to be only members of
the subculture groups and the poor who resides in slums and the poverty stricken individuals.
The theory fail to take into account individual differences, neglect variations in opportunity,
neglect of passionate and impulse crime and for it ambiguity.
2.4. Theoretical Framework
Two theories were adopted as the theoretical framework. These theories, despite their
deficiencies explain the role of PSCs in crime prevention more than other theories. Therefore,
Routine Activity Theory basically establishes that for a crime to take place three elements must
be present. These elements are; a motivated offender, a suitable victim and the absence of a
capable guardian. Felson (1993) established that routine activity and economic changes increase
suitable targets especially for property crime. The use of routine activity theory is considered
useful on the account that a motivated offender may be constrained by the fact that suitable
35
targets are not available at all or available but guarded by a capable security guard or security
apparatus (such as heavy padlocks, police dogs etc).
The second theory is the rational choice theory which began with an assumption that
criminals are intelligent people hence; they subject their victims to a rational/logical thinking
process in order to maximize profits. Location and relevant information about the victim are also
thought of in order to brandish their nefarious ambition.
The use of rational choice theory in this study is considered useful in the sense that, the
presence of a capable guard will cost the criminal more than when a capable guard is not part of
his calculations and may find it even more difficult if such context is close to either military or
police barracks.
2.5 Research Hypotheses
i. There is a positive relationship between the growth of PSCs and reduction of crime in
Niger State.
ii. Those who employ the services of PSCs tend to feel more secured than those who do not.
iii. Guards who have undergone training and retraining are likely to be more effective in crime
prevention than those who did not.
36
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The research adopted survey design which focuses on large populations. The special
interest in survey lies in the breath of coverage and representativeness of the population under
study. Obikeze (1990) and Berbie (1997) opined that survey implies using a selected sample
from a fraction to analyze a large population such as PSCs, guards and individual beneficiaries
which constitute the sociological unit of analysis in this study.
3.2 Area of the Study
Niger State is a state in the middle belt of Nigeria and It was created on 3rd February,
1976 when the then North-western state was divided into Niger state and Sokoto state. The
State’s capital is Minna and other major cities are Bida, Kontagora, Suleja, Mokwa, and New-
Bussa. The State is named after the River Niger. It has two of Nigeria’s major hydroelectric
power stations (the Kainji Dam and the Shiroro Dam). Also situated there, is the Kainji National
park, the largest national park in Nigeria and it contains Kainji lake. (Niger State Diary, 2009).
According to the Diary, the State has a population of 3,950,249 which ranked 18 of the total
population of the country.
Niger State is presently divided into twenty five local government areas namely: Agaie,
Agwara, Bida, Borgu, Bosso, Chanchaga, Edati, Gbako, Gurara, Katcha, Kontagora, Lapai,
Lavun, Magama, Mariga, Mashegu, Mokwa, Munya, Paikoro, Rafi, Rijau, Shiroro, Suleja, Tafa,
and Wushishi. The major socio-economic activities of Niger State people include agriculture,
wood-carving, calabash-carving and decoration, weaving, such as traditional cloth weaving,
raffia and straw weaving and embroidery. Others are glass, brass, and stone-beads, tanning and
37
dyeing, etc. This study will be carried out in Niger State using only Six Local Government Areas
(L.G.A.) as representative sample of the State namely: Bosso LGA, Chanchaga LGA, Bida LGA,
Suleja LGA, Kontagora LGA, and Lapai LGA.
The choice of Niger State is due to proximity in the sense that, the researcher lives in the
State, this make easy for movement during data collection exercise since the researcher is
familiar with the area of the study. The idea of using the Six LGAs becomes appropriate since
the researcher felt that the PSCs are still few; and aside from the State Capital and a few LGAs,
the presence of the PSCs can only be felt in Government Institutions like Hospitals, LGAs
Headquarters, Banks, Hotels and LGAs Chairmen’s residences. To bring out the fact, it is only in
the six (6) LGAs that PSCs are concentrated because they are the most developed ones. And
accessibility of the respondents will be much easier in other to give much representativeness for
generalization.
3.3 Population and Scope of the Study
The population of this study comprises all adults of eighteen (18) years and above, male
and female who fall into the following categories:
i. Director/Supervisor,
ii. Beneficiary,
iii. Guards, and
iv. Other members of the communities
The Directorship of PSCs is attached to those PSCs with headquarters in Niger State
while Supervisorship is attached to those PSCs with headquarters outside Niger State, but with
branches in the state. The beneficiaries are those clients who subscribe to the services of PSCs.
On the other hand, the Guards are the personnel available for employment and end up as security
38
men/guards. And the other members of the community are people those who lived and see these
companies operate in their various communities.
There are Twenty five Local Government Areas in Niger State, and fifty percent of the
PSCs that have their presence at the local Government areas will be chosen based on the
assumption that whatever view is obtained from the sampled population can be inferred to the
entire population. Using the statistics made available to the researcher by the Niger State Civil
Defense Corp Office (NSCDC, 2010) as sampling frame, a figure of 20,087 constitutes the
population of the Guards in the 20 PSCs with presence in Niger State.
There are also 20 directors/supervisors heading these companies. The beneficiaries who
are categorized into the following: Individuals, Private and Public enterprise, Ministries,
Agencies, and Directorates. These beneficiaries are considered as confidential therefore their
population can not be disclosed on security grounds. However, they lead the researcher through
the expected sample beneficiaries of PSCs when the researcher conducted the survey.
Furthermore, personnel in-charge of security posting in corporate beneficiaries such as
Ministries, Agencies, and Enterprises, etc were sampled because of their direct contact with the
guards and the companies.
The focus of this study includes an examination of the relationship between the PSCs and
crime reduction, in addition to revealing the roles of these companies in terms of their efficiency
in maintaining security, law and order in Niger state.
3.4 Sample Size
The total number of the PSCs in Niger State is currently 20, with a total population of the
guards in the 20 companies put at 20,087. However, the population of the 10 PSCs to be studied
is 11,370. Using Salant and Dillman (1994), a 50/50 split at 3% sampling error was used to select
39
a sample of 660 respondents for the study. (See Table in the Appendix iii) Fifty percent of the
PSCs formed the sample for the study. Fifty percent represents 10PSCs. Salant and Dillman
(1994) argued that, when a population is unidentifiable such as is the case in the population of
the beneficiaries then 50/50 split becomes the best option. The researcher considers this sample
size large enough for the study, taking into consideration the statistical package to use. The
sample is also considered appropriate for management by the researcher due to time and
financial constraints.
3.5 Sampling Method
The research adopted three methods of sampling to select respondents for the study. These
include stratified sampling method, simple random sampling, and purposive sampling method.
The stratified random sampling method was used to select the location and respondents for the
study. The researcher was guided by officials of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps
(NSCDC) Office in Minna to identify category ‘A’ PSCs and the location, the wards,
enumeration areas, streets and houses to be used; through this method 20 beneficiaries were
selected from 10 PSCs each totaling 200. 150 other members of the benefitting communities
were drawn randomly for questionnaire administration totaling 350. While purposive sampling
method was used to select 300 guards. Each of the 10 PSCs will identify at least 30 houses or
establishments who patronize them where Questionnaires were administered.
The researcher used the simple random sampling to select the sample for study. The cards
shuffling method was used to select the PSCs to be included in the study (Asika, 2006). Names
of PSCs were written on cards, and then shuffled the cards and taking the top card each time the
cards are shuffled continuously until 10 PSCs were drawn. For the purpose of easy
40
administration of questionnaires, the PSCs that formed the study population are arranged in
alphabetical order.
Table 3.5.1 Sample PSCs
S/N NAMES CATEGORY/POPULATION
01 Archile Security services A 1,016
02 Bolay Security Services A 1,371
03 Bolobolo Security Services A 1,212
04 C.O.E. Security service A 810
05 Gaskiya security service A 1,725
06 Kalabo security service A 650
07 Kings guards A 1,071
08 Kuta guards A 1,512
09 Mayfare agencies A 578
10 Profile Security A 1,425
Source: NSCDC Minna 2010 Total Population: 11,370
3.6 Instruments for Data Collection
The data for this research were collected from primary sources. Primary sources
involved going to the field to obtain data from the respondents. The researcher designed two sets
of questionnaires for the respondents, (beneficiaries and guards) in order to obtain responses to
research questions formulated. The questionnaires were carefully designed with both close ended
and a few open ended questions to seek the opinion of the respondents on the services provided.
The questionnaire contains two Sections, A and B. Section A contained information on
personal data while section B was designed to elicit information covering the objectives,
capacity, effectiveness, activities and constraints of the PSCs as well as services/facilities
provided by them in their communities. In-depth interviews were conducted on the
Directors/Supervisors of the ten PSCs in some six Local Government Areas in Niger State. The
Directors/Supervisors gave convenient time for the conduct of the interview in order to avoid
41
excuses and emergency calls. The sources of secondary data relied on PSCs News Bulletins,
Journals, Periodicals, Magazines, Textbooks and other internet extractions.
3.7 Administration of Instruments
Three research assistants were engaged. These research assistants and the researcher
covered the Six Local Government Areas of Niger State. The research assistants were drawn
from the Faculty of the Social Sciences, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai.
(IBBUL). In addition, one-day training on questionnaire administration was organized for the
research assistants by the researcher. The researcher supervised the entire data collection
exercise.
Pre-testing of instruments leads the researchers to agree on common terms to be used
while in the field as the questionnaire was self administered. In addition, the researchers meet the
respondents in the places of their primary assignments where the questionnaires were distributed
to those selected for the study between the hours of 8am to 12 noon and 4pm to 6pm daily. For
instance, the researchers began with the guards of Archile Security Service, then its beneficiaries.
After having gone through all the PSCs, the interviews for the Directors/Supervisors were
conducted. All the research assistants including the researcher took part in the data
administration process. At the end of each day, both the researcher and his assistants reviewed
the day’s activities with the aim of correcting necessary mistakes ahead of the following day.
3.8 Methods of Data Analysis
The researcher applied Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) such as frequency
distribution and percentages (%) for the analysis of quantitative data. The hypotheses of the
study was tested using the chi square (X2) statistical analysis to find out the relationship between
the dependent and independent variables, qualitative data from In-depth interviews were
analyzed using descriptive techniques based strictly on what respondents said during the data
collection process.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES
4.1. Data Presentation and Analyses
This chapter presents and analyses the data collected for the study. Six hundred and Sixty
(660) questionnaires were administered to respondents in the six (6) local government areas,
namely Bida, Bosso, Chanchaga, Kontagora, Lapai and Suleja Local Government areas. These
Local Government Area’s constituted the representative samples of Niger state. After all possible
efforts by the researcher, the three (3) researcher assistants, NSCDC official and an officer from
each of the PSCs, we were able to retrieve all the six hundred and sixty questionnaires
representing 100 percent.
Therefore, the analysis is based on six hundred and sixty (660) questionnaires. The analysis
is divided into sections thus; Questionnaires for guards, Questionnaires for beneficiaries and
other members of the communities, testing of hypothesis and qualitative analysis from interviews
of directors and supervisors of private security companies.
4.2 Questionnaires for Guards
4.2.0 Section A: Bio-Data Information
4.2.1 Age Range of Respondents
Table 1
Age Range Frequency Percentage % 18-25 93 31 26-33 131 43.6 26-41 52 17.3 42 and above 24 8 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaires data 2011
43
Table 1 indicates that the age ranges of 26-33 and 18-25 have the highest percentages of 43.6%
and 31% respectively. The age range of 34-41 has 17.3% and only 8% for 42 years and above.
This table also shows the number of youth employed by these companies as guards. In other
words, security companies can not be run by aged people.
4.2.2 Educational Qualification of Respondents
Table 2
Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage % 1st school leaving Cert. 157 52.3 SSCE 128 42.7 Dip/NCE/HND 15 5 B.Sc/BED - - Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 2 shows the educational qualifications of guards in the ten (10) private security companies.
This also shows that 157 and 128 respondents representing 52.3% and 42.7% respectively have
only primary school and secondary school education, while those with ND/NCE/ HND were just
15 representing 5%. There were no graduates serving as guards in all the duty posts visited
4.2.3 Marital Status of Respondents
Table 3
Marital Status Frequency Percentage % Single 125 41.8 Married 116 38.6 Divorced 59 19.6 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 3 shows that 125 respondents representing 41.7% of the sampled were singles, 88
respondents representing 29.3% were married. Those divorced constitute 17% while, 12%
represents the widow/ widowers. The ratio of single guards could also be related to those with
44
primary school leaving certificates and senior secondary school certification that have the larger
percentage of all guards sampled.
4.2.4 Sex of guards Table 4
Source: Questionnaire data 2011 Table 4 indicates sex status of guards in the 10 PSCs. This table shows that 81 guards
represented by 27% were females (which constitute both singles and widows). While, the male
were 219 respondents represented with 73% of the guards.
Section B
4.2.5 Companies Involved in the study and frequency of Representation
Table 5
Companies Frequency Percentage % Achile Security Services 30 10 Bolay Security Services 30 10 Bolobolo Security Services
30 10
COE Security Services 30 10 Gaskiya Security Services 30 10 Kalabo Security System 30 10 Kings guards 30 10 Kuta guards 30 10 Maryfare Agencies 30 10 Profile Security 30 10 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
In this table 5, the companies were given equal ratio of representation, so that each will be
adequately represented with equal slots especially in terms of the responses that are company
based.
Sex Frequency Percentage% Female 81 27 Male 219 73 Total 300 100%
45
4.2.6 Local Government Areas of Service
Table 6
LGA’S Frequency Percentage % Bida 45 15 Bosso 50 16.7 Chanchaga 50 16.7 Kontagora 45 15 Lapai 45 15 Suleja 65 21.6 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 6 shows that Suleja LGA which is a satelite town to the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja)
has the highest number of representation of 21.6% for the fact that eight (8) out of the ten (10)
companies under study have their presence in Suleja and perhaps, for the fact that crime rate is
likely to be higher than in any other LGA in Niger State. Bosso and Chanchaga LGAs which are
located in the state capital have 16.7% representation each. Bida, Kontagora and Lapai LGAs are
represented with about 15% each which translates to 50 respondents each.
4.2.7 Guards Working Duration
Table 7
Working Duration Frequency Percentage % 6 hourly 90 30 9 hourly - - 12 hourly 180 60 24 hourly 30 10 Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 7 indicates that 30% of the PSCs operates shift of its guards on 6 hourly bases while 60%
also shifts its guards on 12 hourly bases and only 10% of guards operate shift on 24 hourly bases.
These operating hours are enshrined in the PGC ACT 17 of 1990
46
4.2.8 Number of Guards Posting
Table 8
Number of guards Frequency Percentage % One (1) 90 30 Two (2) 60 20 Three (3) 30 10 Four (4) and above 120 40 Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 8 shows that most of the companies are more likely to post four (4) guards and above to a
particular place at a particular point in time, especially places like Ministries, Banks, Markets,
Hotels, and during Ceremonies were their services are often required. This is represented by 40%
followed by companies that post only one guard (30%). Those who post two guards are only20%
while only 30 companies post three guards to point and they are represent 10%. Most of the
companies posting individual to certain points are usually personal residences and casinos etc.
4.2.9 Training and Retraining of Guards
Table 9
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 9 indicates the ratio of guards that have undergone training and retraining on security tips
since they were employed. 245 respondents represented by 70% were of the opinion that they
had been once trained either at point of entry into the security job or shortly after then. Some of
them were of the view that they received their training at Lagos before reposted to Niger State.
While 105 respondents represented by 30% responded NO to the question which indicates that
they have not undergone any form of training.
Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 210 70 No 90 30 Total 300 100%
47
9b. The 70% respondents held the view that they were trained in physical fitness, methods of
pursuing a criminal, Taekwondo skills, use of electronic Baton, surveillance. etc.
4.2.10 Relationship of Guards to their Boss (host)
Table 10
Responses Frequency Percentage % Very Cordial 51 17 Cordial 103 34.3 Fairly Cordial 96 32.9 Not Cordial 50 16.7 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 10 indicates that 51 and 103 respondents represented by17% and 34.3% respectively have
smooth and cordial relationship with the landlords of where they provide security, while 32.9%
and 16.7% indicate fairly cordial and not cordial relationship with their host respectively. Most
of those with very cordial relationship were of the opinion that their hosts provided three (3)
square meals for them while on duty.
4.2.11 Do you think the Presence of Guards has Reduce Criminal Activities in Niger State?
Table 11
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 11 shows whether presence of guards has reduce criminal activities or not in Niger state. A
total of 246 guards’ respondent represented by 82% confirmed that the presence of guards is
capable of reducing criminal activity, while only 18% said that the presence of guards has not
impacted on criminal activities in Niger state. This table confirms the assertion of Dambazau
Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 246 82 No 54 18 Total 300 100%
48
(2006) who argued that the presence of a security man is effective to the extent that it is capable
of retarding criminal activities.
4.2.12 Give reason for the growth in number of PSCs
Table 12
Reasons Frequency Percentage% Societal demand 72 24 Company owners are making money
84 28
Police incapable of policing crime
103 34.3
To create job opportunity 41 13.4 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 12 shows that a higher proportion of the respondents were of the view that the police are
insufficient in number to police crime in the society and the figure are 34.3%. This singular
factor has led to continues growth of the PSCs in Niger State. Again, 28% attributed it to the
nature of capitalism which permits company owners to enrich them through their services
while24% indicated a strong societal demand for security. Those who perceived it as a job
creation opportunity were only 13.7% of the total respondents.
4.2.13 Do guards meet their personal basic needs on the job
Table 13
Source: Questionnaire data 2011 The data on table 13 clearly show that 71.3% of the guards are not meeting their personal basic
needs on this security job. The implication is that, guards may not be motivated to discharge their
responsibilities effectively, while only 28.7% claimed to meet their basic needs on the job.
Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 86 28.7 No 214 71.3 Total 300 100%
49
4.2.14 Why some of the guards are unable to meet their needs on the job
Table 14
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 14 explains the 71.3% who are unable to meet their basic needs on table 12. This table
indicates that 84.6% are unable to meet their needs due poor wages/salaries, while 33
respondents represented by 15.4% do not like the job at all, but had other alternatives therefore
meeting their basic needs may never be on this job even with improved welfare packages.
4.2.15 Does your boss assign other jobs to you?
Table 15
Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 102 34 No 198 66 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 15 above shows 34% of the respondents go on errand for their bosses or other members of
the household, while, 66% of are not sent on errands. The implication for security is that
criminals may target when guards have gone on errand to attack a target.
4.2.16 Types of Errand guards undertake
Table16
Types Frequency Percentage Sanitation 22 21.6 Go to market 34 33.3 Go to vendor 46 45.1 Total 102 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Reasons Frequency Percentage% Poor wages/salary 181 84.6 Do not like the job 33 15.4 Total 214 100%
50
Table 16 shows types of errands Guards undertake order than providing security. 21.6% of them
undertake sanitation and, 33.3% undertake errands to the market, and guards who go to the
vendors for newspapers are represented with 45.1%.
4.2.17 How often do Directors / Supervisors visit Duty Posts?
Table 17(a)
Duration/Time Frequency Percentage% Weekly 30 10 Monthly 270 90 Quarterly - - Yearly - - Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 17(a) shows that 90% of the respondents agreed that Directors/Supervisors visit monthly
except for 10% who held the view that the supervisor/ Director insist on weekly visit. The 90%
of the respondents were of the opinion that the supervisor/ Directors visit when monthly salary
/wages are due.
4.2.17 Things Directors/ Supervisors Check /do on Visits to Guards’ Post
Table 17(b)
Things they check/do Frequency Percentage% Visitors’ Books 20 6.7 Appearance 15 5 Surrounding - - Listen to Complains 33 11 Pay Salaries 232 77.3 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 17(b) shows that about 77% of guards agreed that Directors / supervisors only visit to pay
salary/wages, 11% were of the view that they listen to complains while checking of visitors
books and checking appearances had 6.7% and 5% respectively
51
4.2.18 Problems of Guards
Table 18
Types of problems Frequency Percentage% Poor salary - - Lack of training - - Lack of promotion - - Long working duration - - Lack of equipment - - All of the above 300 100% Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
It can be observed from Table 18 above, that all the guards (100%) indicated that they were
faced by all the problems listed above. This is in line with the view of Maccuci (1998) that the
flat rate promotion and poor working conditions of guards are capable of affecting their
productivity.
4.2.19 Guards were Asked if they had ever Encountered Criminal Activities During or
Since Employment
Table 19
Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 81 27 No 219 73 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 19 shows that only 81 respondents (27%) indicate that they had witnessed or encountered
criminals since they were employed, while majority of them (73%) said they had not
encountered any. One is tempted to assume that the presence of guards may actually be scaring
criminals away.
52
4.2.20 Response of Guards to Criminal Activity
Table 20
Response Frequency Percentage% Report to nearest police station
21 25.9
Report to your landlord - - Escaping for dear life 6 7.4 Blowing whistle and going after the criminal
54 66.7
Total 81 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 20 revealed that 21 respondents (25.9%) indicate that they report crime activities to the
police station nearest to them, while 6 respondents (7-4%) said they will run for their dear lives
because according to them the criminals are always armed. Those who will blow their Whistle
and pursue the criminals were 66.7% of the respondents.
4.2.21 Guards Reasons for Establishing PSCs
Table 21
Reasons Frequency Percentage% To make money 102 34 To provide security 110 36.7 To provide employment - - Population of police is small
88 29.3
Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 21 above shows that guards held different views for the establishment of the PSCs. Thus,
34% were of the opinion that they were established for company owners make to money. A
higher proportion of 36.7% (110) agreed that they were established for security purposes, while
29.3% were of the view that PSCs were established because the number of police force is too
small to provide adequate security for the people. Kuna (2004), and Gomedze (2007) adduced
other reasons that impacted on security and the establishment of PSCs in Africa and Nigeria their
53
reasons included general human insecurity, the globalization phenomenon, the privatization of
private enterprises, professionalization of armed and police forces, general unending African
conflict and the crashing of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon on the 11th September 2001 in the
United States.
4.2.22 Methods of Providing Security During the Traditional Era in Niger State.
Table 22
Methods of providing security Frequency Percentage% Through voluntary services by the youths (Banga) 47 15.7 Through the Dogarai local police 25 8.3 Placement of charms, scarecrows and fetish materials. 97 32.3 The use of Ndakogboya/ Kuti (Masquerade) to detect criminals
47 15.7
Instilling fear of pain in punishment 84 2 28 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 22 above indicates that during the traditional era in Niger State, the predominant Nupes’
and Gbagyis’ prevent crime through placement of charms, fetish materials and scarecrows, and
this indicated by 97 respondents (32.3%). This is followed by instilling fear of pain of
punishment which account for 28% while the use of Ndakogboya/kuti (Masquerade) to detect
crime and voluntary services by the youth inform of vigilante each account for 15.7%. The least
used method was the dogarai (local police) which accounted for only 8.3%. This finding on the
use of charms, fetish materials and scarecrows, fear of punishment and the use of masquerades
are in line with those of Ochefu and Idrees (2002) in their earlier study among the Nupe, Gwagyi
and migrant Hausa people.
54
4.2.23 Guards Opinion on Level of Subscribers’ Satisfaction
Table 23
Responses Frequency Percentage% Highly Satisfied 71 23.7 Satisfied 61 53.6 Unsatisfied 68 22.7 Highly unsatisfied - - Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 23 above shows the opinion of guards on level of satisfaction of subscribers/beneficiaries.
71% respondents represented by 22.7% assumed that their host(s) were highly satisfied with
services they provide, 53.6% of the guards also agreed that their benefactors were satisfied while
only 68 respondents represented by 22.7% agreed boss might not be satisfied with their services
because, some of the subscribers have change their subscribers twice or thrice. one of the guards
said the landlord confessed to him that their company was the third to be consulted for services
at his residence; while one landlord complained that his children usually stay with security guard
and the security guard smokes cigarette and for other several other factors lead to unsatisfactory
service by the PSCs.
4.2.24 Relationship between PSCs and the Nigeria Police
Table 24
Responses Frequency Percentage% Very cordial 43 14.3 Cordial 52 17.3 Fairly cordial 185 61.7 Not cordial 20 6.7 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 24 shows 14.3% and 17.3% as representing very cordial and cordial relationship
respectively between PSCs and the police. The 61.7% respondents were of the view that the
55
guards of PSCs and the police have fairly cordial relationship and about 6.7% believed the
relationship is not cordial. This finding (93.3%) of some what cordial relationship concord to the
earlier postulate of Chearing and Steaning (1981) who were of the view that the relationship of
PSCs and the formal police officers is always cordial for the fact that private guards are seen as
junior partners in the business of policing and who are working to assist their senior partners.
4.2.25 Do Guards Prosecute Cases in Court?
Table 25
Responses Frequency Percentage Yes - - No 300 100 Total 300 100
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 25 shows that none of the guards (100%) has ever expressed that they prosecuted any court
case before. They argued that, usually such cases were transferred to either the police or lawyers.
This finding is contrary to the findings of Maccuci (1998) who posited that guards also served as
witnesses or prosecute criminal cases in courts.
4.2.26 Do you think your Boss is satisfied with your Services?
Table 26
Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 232 77.3 No 68 22.7 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 26 reveals that 232 of guards’ respondent represented by 77.3% were of the opinion that
their Bosses are satisfied with the services of PSCs and only 22.7% responded negatively. Some
of those who responded negatively said their Bosses sometimes complain of their lateness to
duty and sleeping while on duty.
56
4.2.27 Suggestion on Overcoming Problems of the Companies
Table 27
Responses Frequency Percentage% Increase of Salary 190 63.3 Training and Retraining 38 12.7 Change of Uniforms - - Need to introduce the use of Batons
72 24
Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 27 shows that 63.3% of the respondents believe that increase in guards’ wages/salary will
reposition the PSCs for improved services while 12.7% and 24 % represent training and
retraining of guards and introduction of the use of Batons by the guards respectively.
4.3 Questionnaire for Beneficiaries and other Members of the Community
4.3.0 Section A: - Bio-data Information
4.3.1. Age range of Beneficiaries.
Table 28
Age Range Frequency Percentage% 18-25 26 7.4 26-33 47 13.4 34-41 116 33.2 42 and above 161 46 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 28 shows age range of beneficiaries, the age range of 18-25 years were represented by
7.4%, those of 26-33 were 13.4% while 26-41 and 42 years and above were 33.2% and 46%
respectively.
57
4.3.2 Educational Background of Subscribers/Beneficiaries
Table 29
Education Qualification Frequency Percentage% Primary Certificate 20 5.7 SSCE 55 15.7 Diploma/NCE/HND 104 29.8 Graduates above 171 48.8 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 29 shows educational qualification of beneficiaries. First degree graduates and above were
represented by (48.8%), followed by ND/NCE/HND holders represented by 29.8% while SSCE
and Primary School Cert. holders were 15.7% and 5.7& respectively.
4.3.3. Marital Status of Respondents
Table 30
Marital status Frequency Percentage% Single 62 17.7 Married 251 71.7 Divorced 37 10.6 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 30 reveals that 251 represented by 71.7% of the respondents were married, those who were
still singles is represented by 17.7% and 37 respondents (10.6%) were divorced.
4.3.4. Occupation of Beneficiaries.
Table 31
Occupation Frequency Percentage% Civil Services 48 13.7 Business / women 127 36.3 Banks 31 8.9 Private operators 116 33.1 Retirees 18 5.1 Farmers 10 2.9 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
58
Table 31 shows occupation of beneficiaries, respondents from the Civil Service include
(Ministries, Parastatals, and Agencies etc) represented with 48 respondents equivalents to 13.7%
of the total sample, the businessmen and women were 127 respondents with 36.3%. Banks that
subscribed to the PSCs services constitutes 8.9%, the private operators (i.e. owners of private
companies and small scale businesses) were represented by 33.1%, while retired civil servants
were represented by 5.1% and some farmers who also subscribes to the PSCs services were
represented by 2.9%.
4.3.5 Religious Affiliation of Respondents
Table 32
Religion Frequency Percentage% Islam 224 64 Christianity 84 24 Traditionalism 42 12 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 32 shows religious affiliation of respondents. Those represented by Christian faith were
24% of the respondent, Islamic faith represented with 64% and the traditionalists represented
12% of the total sample.
Section B
4.3.6 Local Government Areas of Respondents
Table 33 LGA Frequency Percentage% Bida 54 15.4 Bosso 60 172 Chanchaga 60 17.2 Kontagora 54 15.4 Lapai 54 15.4 Suleja 68 19.4 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
59
Table 33 indicates that Suleja Local Government Area has the highest sample of 68 respondents
represented by 19.4% this is due to fact that it is a satelite town to the federal capital territory.
Bosso and Chanchaga Local Governments which are situated in the state capital both have
17.2% each while Bida, Kontagora and Lapai Local Government Areas had 54 .4% respondents.
4.3.7 Areas/Streets of Sampled Residents
Table: 34
LGS’S Areas Frequency Percentage% Bida -G.R.A
-Banwuya -Esso
18 18 54` 18
13.4
Bosso -Bosso - F-layout -Maitumbi and Shango areas
20 20 60 20
17.2
Chanchaga -Tunga -Tunga Lowcost -Shango
20 20 60 20
17.2
Kontagora -Mamman -Kontagora Rd FCE. Staff Qurt and Yauri Rd -Sudan Rd
18 18 54 18
13.4
Lapai -Daudu maza road -Jantabo road - IBB Univ. Qtrs. & Kobo road
18 18 54 18
13.4
Suleja -Kantoma Bridge area -Hassan Dallatu Rd -Kwamba
22 22 68 24
19.4
Total 350 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 34 shows the distribution of questionnaires by the researcher and his assistant’s per-LGA
and areas/streets in which research sample was generated. In Bida Local Government Areas 54
respondents representing 15.4% where sample from the GRA, Banyuwa and Esso areas.
Kontagora and Lapai have the same ratio of 13.4% representations. The areas visited were
Manman Kontagora road, FCE Staff Quarters, Yauri road and Sarkin sudan road, and Daudu
maza road, Jantabo road, IBB Univeristy and Kobo road were visited, while for Suleja which has
60
the highest of 68 respondents of 19.4% was conducted in Kantoma bridge area, Hassan Dallatu
road, Anguwan London and Kwamba respectively.
4.3.8. PSCs Engaged
Table 35
PSCs Frequency Percentage% Achile Security. Service 35 10 Bolay Security Service 35 10 Bolobolo Security Service 35 10 COE Security Service 35 10 Gaskiya Security Service 35 10 Kalabo Security. Service 35 10 King’s Guards 35 10 Kuta Guards 35 10 Mayfare Agencies 35 10 Profile Security 35 10 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 35 shows representation of PSCs as engaged by subscribers. Each company has a sample
of 35 respondents representing 10% multiply by the ten PSCs equal to 100%.
4.3.9 Types of Residence
Table 36
Types of Residence Frequency Percentage% Bungalow 132 37.7 Private/public places 158 45.1 Ministries 12 3.5 Directorates/Agencies 48 13.7 Total 350 100%
Source; Questionnaire data 2011
Table 36 shows 132 respondents representing 37.7% of the sampled population lived in
Bungalows, 158 respondents representing 45.1% lived in private/public places of six LGAs.
Ministries and Directorates/Agencies were represented by 3.5% and 13.7% respectively.
61
4.3.10 Duration of engagement
Table 37
Duration of engagement Frequency Percentage % 6 hourly 105 30 9 hourly - - 12 hourly 210 60 24 hourly 35 10 Total 350 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011
Table 37 indicates that 30% of the PSCs operate shift of its guards on 6 hourly bases, while 60%
also shifts its guards on 12 hourly bases and only 10% of guards operate shift on 24 hourly bases.
These operating hours are enshrined in the PGC ACT 17 of 1990.
4.3.11 Increase/Growth in Number of PSCs will lead to Reduction in Crime Activities
Table 38
Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 213 60.1 No 137 39.1 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 38 reveals that 60.1% of subscribers agreed that the growth of PSCs has led to reduction in
criminal activities in their host communities, while 39.1% disagreed because according to them
some forms of petty crimes are still common in some communities.
4.3.12 Reasons for Reduction of Criminal Activities
Table 39
Reasons Frequency Percentage% Presence of Guards 154 51.3 Guards Patrol Teams - - Police patrol team 68 22.7 Vigilante/ Neighborhood Guards 70 23.3 Presence of Dogs 8 2.7 Total 300 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
62
Table 39 revealed reasons that led to reduction of criminal activities in the society by
subscribers. Those who agreed that the presence of private security guards is capable of reducing
crime rate have the highest representation of 134 respondent’s equivalent to 51.3% of the
sampled population. Other factors that have enhanced Crime reduction are Police Patrol Teams,
Vigilante/Neighborhood guards and the presence of Dogs are represented as follows 22.7%
23.3% and 2.7 respectively, while the PSCs patrol team were not known to the host
communities.
4.3.13 Level of Satisfaction with the Services of PSCs by Subscribers.
Table 40 Response Frequency Percentage % Highly satisfied 49 14 Satisfied 262 74.9 Unsatisfied 39 11.1 Highly unsatisfied - - Total 350 100%
Source Questionnaire data 2011
Table 40 indicates level of satisfaction of the PSCs subscribers in Niger State. 49 respondents
represented by 14% and 262 respondents represented by 74.9% were highly satisfied and
satisfied with the services of PSCs respectively, while only 39 respondents represented by 11.1%
were partially satisfied. No subscriber ticked ‘not satisfied’.
4.3.14 Reasons for PSCs Establishment
Table 41
Reasons Frequency Percentage % To make money 37 10.6 To provide security 187 53.4 To provide job opportunity 35 10 Population of police inadequate 91 26 Total 350 100 %
Source Questionnaire data 2011
63
Table 41 reveals respondents reasons for the establishment of PSCs. 53.4% of the total
respondents uphold the opinion that PSCs were established to provide security. 26% adduced its’
establishment to inadequate police personnel’s 10.6% and 10% indicated its establishment to
money making by the proprietors’ and to create job opportunity to the unemployed respectively.
4.3.15 Means of obtaining Security before the Emergence of PSCs
Table 42
Means Frequency Percentage% Vigilante/ Neighborhood guards 71 20.3 Through Dogarai (Local police) 12 3.4 Through charms scarecrow and fetish materials 179 51.2 Instilling fear of pain in punishment 88 25.1 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 42 indicates that 20.3% of the respondents got security services through vigilante or
neighborhood guards, 3.4% through local police (Dogarai) provided by Chief and Emirs, 51.2%
established that they got security during the traditional era through charms, scarecrows and fetish
materials, while 25.1% perceived security as an element of prevention therefore they considered
instilling fear of pain in punishment as a great measure towards providing security for their
communities.
4.3.16 Other Duties Assigned to Guards
Table 43
Duties Frequency Percentage % Sanitation 6 1.7 Go to Market 8 2.3 Go to Vendor 41 11.7 Assigned no duty Total
295 84.3
350 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011
64
Table 43 shows other duties assign to guards by subscribers other than providing security. 1.7%
of the subscribers order the guards to sometimes sweep the compound and cut down
surroundings grasses (sanitation), 2.3% send the guards to the Market and11.7% send them to the
Vendors to purchase newspapers for them, while 84.3% of subscribers do not assign to them any
other duties other then providing security.
4.3.17. Other Benefits derived from PSCs by their Host Communities
Table 44 Community benefits Frequency Percentage%
Help in controlling crowd 188 53.7 Help in controlling traffic 60 17.1 Settling minor disputes 31 8.9 Assist on sanitation days 71 20.3 Total 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 44 indicates other benefits communities derived from the activities of the guards. 53.7% of
guards often assist in ceremonies especially in controlling crowds, 17.1% also assist in
controlling traffic, while 8.9% and 20.3% indicates settling of minor disputes in their host
communities and also assist in sanitation days respectively.
4.3.18 Would you Consider your Security Guards as well Trained?
Table 45
Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 186 53.1 No 164 46.9 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 45 indicates that 53.1% of the total subscribers of PSCs services held the view that their
security guards are well trained while 46.9% of the subscribers do not see guards as people who
have undergone any form training or retraining.
65
4.3.19 Major Problems of Guards/PSCs
Table 46
Problems Frequency Percentage % Lateness 48 13.7 Guards are unarmed 129 36.9 Illiterate guards 42 36.9 Lack of training 33 12 Poor salary /wages 98 28 Total 350 100 %
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 46 reveals major problems of guards and PSCs face in accordance with perception of the
respondents. 13.7% of subscribers see lateness to duty post as a problem, 12% of the total
respondents indicated illiteracy as problem facing guards and PSCs, while 9.4% lack of any form
of training as a security guard,. 28% perceived the salary and wages of PSCs as poor and
therefore indicates poor motivation of the guards, 36.9%.of subscribers attributed the inability of
guards to be armed as their major problem. This agreed with the position of Musah (2002) who
observed that, lack of providing arms and ammunition could lead to inefficiency in security
performance of security guards.
4.3.20 Possible Suggestions to Improve Service Delivery of the PSCs in Niger State
Table 47
Suggestions Frequency Percentage% Guards to be allow to carry Baton
120 34.2
Guards be made literate 51 14.6 Guards be trained and retrained
31 14.6
Guards need to be well paid and motivated
98 28
Lateness be discouraged 30 8.6 Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
66
Table 47 reveals that 34.2% of respondents will desire guards to carry at least a baton. 14.6%
each for guards to be made literate and for guards to be train and retraining on security tips, 28%
desires improvement in guards’ wages/salary to motivate them and only 8.6% of the
beneficiaries suggested that companies need to improve on lateness to duty by guards.
4.3.21 Do you Feel more Secured with Guards
Table 48
Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 350 100 No - - Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 48 shows that all the subscribers totaling (100%) expressed that they feel more secured
with the presence of security guards.
4.3.22 Reasons why they Feel more Secured with Guards
Table 49
Reasons Frequency Percentage%
They are hard working 108 30.9 A feeling of somebody watching over one’s life and property
142 40.5
They are dedicated 83 23.7 They can prevent fire outbreak
17 4.9
Total 350 100%
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
Table 49 reveals reasons why subscribers feel more secured with guards. 30.9% of subscribers
feel more secured because they feel security guards from these PSCs are hard working, 142
represented by 40.5% held the view that a mare feeling of somebody is watching over one’s life
and property make then feel more secured than when there were no PSCs’ guards. 23.7% and
67
4.9% feel more secured because the guards are dedicated and can prevent fire outbreak
respectively.
4.4.0 TESTOF HYPOTHESES
4.4.1 Hypothesis One: There is a positive relationship between the presence of PSCs and
reduction of crime in Niger state.
To carry out this test, item 11 on the questionnaire for guards and 11 on questionnaire for
beneficiaries are used where responses on ‘whether the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in
the community’ is cross tabulated with the category of respondents (i.e guards and subscribers)
reveals;
Table 50
Presence of PSCs has reduced crime in the society
Respondents
Percentage%
Guards Subscribers
Yes 246 (82%) 213 (60.9%) 459 (71%)
No 54 (18%) 137 (39.1%) 191 (29%)
Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)
X2 =34.800; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002
Source : Questionnaire data 2011
X2 calculated =34.800
P-value < 0.001
Conclusion:
It can be observed that in table 50 above, out of the 650 respondents administered
questionnaires, 300 and 350 were guards and subscribers respectively. Out of the
300guards,246(82%) agreed that the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in the society, while an
68
equally high percentage of subscribers 60.1% which is 213 out of 350 agreed with the statement.
A total of 459 (71%) out of 650 agreed with this statement. The table shows that a greater
percentage of both the guards and the subscribers share the opinion that the presence of PSCs has
reduced crime in Niger state. The chi-square value of 34.800 also confirms the fact that the
hypothesis of a significant relationship between the presence/growth of PSCs and the current
crime wave in the state. The result on table 49 corroborate the earlier finding on table 11 and 37
which shows statistical significance on the relationship between the presence of guards and
reduction in crime. The findings on table 49 are in line with the view of Dambazau (2006) who
said that the presence of a security man is effective to the extent that it is capable of retarding
criminal activities. Therefore, a secured or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime
(Igbo; 2007).
4.2.2 Hypothesis Two: Those who employ the services of PSCs tend to feel more secured than
those who do not.
To test this hypothesis item 23 of guards’ questionnaire and 13 of beneficiaries questionnaire are
used, which states that whether the beneficiaries/subscribers are satisfied with the services and
feel more secured with the PSCs or not. A cross-tabulation between the guards and subscribers
reveals:
Table 51
Level of satisfaction of subscribers
Respondents Percentage% Guards Subscribers
Satisfied 232 (77.3%) 311 (93.9%) 543 (84%) Unsatisfied 68 (22.7%) 39 (11.1%) 107 (16%) Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)
X2 =15.600; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
X2 calculated =15.600
69
P-value < 0.001
Conclusion:
Table 51 above shows out of the 650 respondents, 300 and 350 were guards and subscribers
respectively. Of the 300 guards, 232 (77.3%) were satisfied with the services provided by the
PSCs thereby feeling more secured than those who did not subscribe. A much higher respondents
among subscribers 311 (93.9%) also agreed that they were satisfied with the services represented
satisfaction of both guards assumption of their bosses and the subscribers themselves is
supported by the X2 value of 15.600 which also supported the hypothesis that there is strong
statistical relationship between those who employed and those who do not as revealed by the
opinion of the guards and the subscribers in the study.
4.4.3 Hypothesis Three: Guards who have undergone training and retraining on security tips
are more effective in crime prevention than those who did not.
This table is tested by cross-tabulating items 9 (guards’ questionnaire) and 18 (beneficiaries
questionnaire) are used where responses on whether guards have undergone any training or
retraining since they were employed by the companies.
Table 52
Training and retraining of
guards since employed
Respondents Percentage%
Guards Subscribers
Yes 210 (70%) 186 (53.1%) 396 (61%)
No 90 (30%) 164 (46.9%) 254 (39%)
Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)
X2 =19.282; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002
Source: Questionnaire data 2011
X2 calculated =19.282
P-value < 0.001
70
Conclusion:
Data on table 52 above shows that a total of 396 (61%) agreed that they have had one form of
training or another since employed, while 254 (39%) had not received any form of training since
employed. The chi-square value of 19.282 shows a significant relationship on the effectiveness
between those trained and those who were not trained. Effective crime prevention training is
capable of affecting the performance of guards on duty. The above table concurred with the
initial assumption that guards who have undergone training and retraining on security tips are
more effective in crime prevention than those who did not.
4.5.0. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DIRECTORS/SUPERVISORS
4.51. Qualitative Analysis of the in-Depth Interview
This section of data analysis relates to in-depth interviews. As the third instrument in this study,
the aim was to obtain more information from Directors/Supervisors of PSCs in Niger State. The
interview were conducted with ten (10) Directors/ Supervisors of PSCs therefore, the data from
interviews are analyzed together as follows.
4.5.2. Status of Registration of the ten (10) Companies
At the time of conducting this In-depth Interview, the ten (10) companies in this study were fully
registered with NSCDC for the year 2009/2010. This is also confirmed by NSCDC data given
during the preliminary studies of the companies registered.
71
4.5.3 Period of Operation in the State.
The companies in operation identified their operational years in the following table.
Table 53
Companies Years of Establishment Achile Security Service 2002 (8yrs) Bolay Security Service 2003 (7yrs) Bolobolo Security Service 2003 (7yrs) C OE Security Service 1992 (18yrs) Gaskiya Security Service 2003 (7yrs) Kalabo Security System 2006 (4yrs) Kings Guards 2009 (2yrs) Kuta Guards 2000 (10yrs) Mayface Agencies 2004 (6yrs) Profile Security 1995 (14yrs) Source Questionnaire data 2011
Thus, the explosive growth of these PSCs began in the new millennium since the year 2000,
before than they were not rampant. The above Table shows that only COE security service and
Profile security were in operation since 1992 and 1995 respectively. Others that were in
existence since 1997 are Technocrime and Hankuri securities which did not make the study
sample.
4.5.4. Personnel Capacity of the Companies
The ten companies under study had capacity of more than five hundred men (500). This implies
that they have enough manpower to provide wide range of services relating to security in the
state, this also has impact on annual registration fee paid by these companies to NSCDC. This
information is also in line with NSCDC record provided for preliminary review on this study.
4.5.5 Does your Company have a Training School?
Based on the ten (10) PSCs under study, only profile security has a training school in Minna and
Kontagora in Niger State. Others such as Achile security service, kings guards, and Mayfare
agencies have their training school in Lagos while Gaskiya security has training in Kaduna, Kuta
72
guards have their training school at Ilorin in Kwara State. As for COE security service their
personnel’s are trained by the commandant of the 12th military cantonment Minna.
However, the remaining companies such as Boley Security and Mayfare agencies are yet to have
the training school for their personnel’s training.
4.5.6. Running Refreshers Courses on Security Tips for the Personnel.
The Directors/Supervisors responded in differently, it is only profile security that runs refreshers
courses quarterly for its personnel’s. Others run partial retraining course except for Boley
securities, Mayfare agencies and Kalabo security company service who retrain her personnel’s
through military cantonment in Minna Niger State.
4.5.7. Skills Impacted During Workshops and Seminars
The directors/supervisors of the ten companies were unanimous on physical training like
Taekwondo skills, running skills, fighting skills while other has to do with identifying suspects
of crime and intelligence test are also run for the personnel’s. They are also taught how to use
electronic baton, gadgets and monitoring /surveillance camera in community.
4.5.8. Cars /Motorcycles for Patrols
The ten Directors/Supervisors all agreed that they have cars, motorcycles use in running day to
day activities of the company but not provided for patrol. Because the NSCDC still insisted that
patrol is still part of the schedule of Nigerian police force and not to be delegated or privatized to
any company for now.
4.5.9 Duration for Promotion of Staff
The directors/supervisors of the ten (10) companies agreed that their personnel’s are promoted
after every three (3) years, but it must be noted that they may never be promoted to the position
of the directors/supervisors, because these positions are exclusively for retired military or police
73
officers due to previous training and experience in service. Which validate the argument of
Macucci (2002) that PSCs have flat hierarchy for promotion which may never the take any staff
to Directors/Supervisorship of any PSCs.
4.5.10 Duration on Duty for the Guards
According to the directors/supervisor of the PSCs; only one (1) company runs 24 hours shift.
And three (3) companies runs 6 hours shift, while the remaining six (6) companies runs 12 hours
shift for their personnel’s. This is also in line with Act No 43 consolidated 1990 chapter 367 of
Private Guards Companies in Nigeria.
4.5.11 Factors Responsible for the Increase in PSCs
All the ten (10) directors/supervisors were unanimous on the fact the police officers may not be
stationary on every citizens home as guards either because of their number or because it is not
part of their statutory responsibility. Other factors mentioned include societal demand for crime
prevention and above, all, creation of jobs for teaming youths to engage their energy instead of
becoming a problem to their own society. According Spitzer, (1987) jobless youth which are
likely to become social dynamite could be contained, refined and turn into defense line for the
state as resources. These factors are in line with information provided on 4.2.10 and 4.3.12.
4.5.12. The ways in which Security needs of the People were Provided in Niger State during
the Traditional Era.
The ten (10) directors/supervisors concord on the quality of socialization, the cultural norms and
values of groups and collective communal socialization has almost eliminated deviance in the
society. Thus, people still fear their gods (such as Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerades), especially
for those who believe in it, they agreed that it is capable of identifying a guilty person in any
crime situation. Others opined that the use charms, fetish materials and scarecrows to scare away
74
criminals were another measure. The role of the Dogarai (Local Police) in the Emir Palace is also
considered very significant in preventing crime as the Dogarai and instill the fear of pain in
punishment to young ones could serve as a deterrence. This position has further confirmed data
on table 4.2.21 and 4.3.15 on traditional method of crime prevention in Niger State.
4.5.13 Factors Necessitating the Establishment of PSCs
On the establishment of guards companies, the ten (10) directors/supervisors were unanimous on
rising crime profile in the country to a level where everybody is affected and the police alone can
not keep homes safe in our absence. Also the patterns of property theft in the country call for
serious attention of all citizens as PSCs provide job opportunity to our teaming youth and
unending societal demand for security of lives and property due to small number of the Nigerian
Police Force.
4.5.14 Achievement of your PSCs
The directors/supervisors opined that these companies have achieved a lot especially in the
following areas:
(i) Detection of crime in the society
(ii) Help in controlling crowd and traffic.
(iii) Settling minor disputes
(iv) Government also employs us to play the role of undercover agent.
(v) Brought a stop cult to activities and suppressing student riots in some Nigerian
university through surveillance.
(vi) Assist on Sanitation Days etc.
75
4.5.15 Major Constraints of the PSCs
The directors/supervisors posited that the following are the major constraints of the PSCs.
(i) The section 17 of PGC Act which prohibits guards from possessing firearms and
ammunition.
(ii) Poor training and retraining of guards.
(iii) Poor Staff salary/wages.
(iv) Inability of the PSCs to get a permit for patrol.
(v) And poor state of materials and equipments made available for effective service
delivery such as batons, lack of stationeries etc.
4.5.16 Relationship of PSCs with Nigeria Police
They all agreed to have smooth and cordial relationship with the police. Hence, their service is
considered not in conflict with that of the police force. Except for cases of arrest which they turn
to the police for further investigation.
4.5.17 Prosecuting of Cases in Court
None of the companies’ guards had ever prosecuted any court case.
4.5.18 Suggestions for Overcoming the Constraints
Their suggestions were as follows:
- Company owners should provide adequate working materials and equipment for
effective service delivery.
(i) Training and retraining be encourage and carried out timely to enhance the success
of the PGCs.
(ii) Staff welfare, salary/wages is improved upon.
76
(iii) Government to pass a bill to permit them to PSCs to undertake patrol in some
communities as pilot test, especially where the Police Officer do not visit often.
(iv) They will also want government to revisit the section 17 of PGC Act which
prohibits guards from possessing firearms and ammunitions.
77
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STUDIES
5.1 Summary
Chapter one began with the background of the study which explains societal concern for
security at both the individual and collective levels and tracing the origin of many types of
modern private security outfits through Pinkerton’s security services to the introduction of
private security guards/companies and the current challenges in Nigeria. Statement of the
problem, Research questions, Research objectives, Significance of the Study and the
Ooperationalisation of concepts were clearly stated.
In the chapter two of the study, empirical studies were reviewed indicating the relevance
and importance of PSCs in the society. Factors responsible for the establishment and growth of
PSCs in Africa and Nigeria were evaluated through it effectiveness and major challenges in
Nigeria. Theoretical literature was reviewed through the structural and psyche or circumstances
approaches and relevant theories were reviewed, in addition to the Statement of Hypothesis.
Chapter three explains the research design, area of the study, population and scope of the
study, sample size, sampling method, instrument for data collection, administration of instrument
and method of data analysis through SPSS and chi square (X2) used in testing hypothesis.
Chapter four is divided into four segments namely: questionnaire for Guards,
Questionnaire for Subscribers/Beneficiaries, Test of hypothesis and Indepth interview analysis.
The analysis reveals that the presence or growth of PSCs have a significant relationship to crime
wave in the State, that satisfaction of those who employed the services PSCs and those who do
not and also that guards who are trained are more effective than those who have not undergone
any training or relating employed.
78
Chapter five summarizes the entire work, and proffering recommendations to the findings
of this study and suggestions were also advanced for future studies.
5.2 Recommendations
From the findings (from questionnaires and interviews with guards, beneficiaries and other
members of the community and directors/supervisors of PSCs). That there is a positive
relationship between the growth of PSCs and reduction of crime in Niger State; also those who
employed the services of PSCs tend feel more scared than those who do not and that guards that
have undergone training and retaining on security lips are likely to move effective than those
who did not. It is recommended therefore that;
Working during among guards companies be unified and standardized as required by
PGC ACT section 17 which stipulates minimum of 6 hours and maximum of 12 hours.
The need for Federal Government to recruit and equip Nigerian Police Force in order to
improve the security of lives and property or to permit guards to use arms and
ammunitions in combating crimes in the society
There is also the need for Directors/Supervisor to enlighten their clients on sending
guards to perform other activities order the security job assign to them.
The Directors/Supervisors need to improve on their supervisory roles as table 13 and 14
has showed in other to improve the quality of security provided to clients and also to
promote the welfare of guards.
Perhaps, because of competing priorities both the guards and other members of the
community have misunderstood reasoned for establishing the PSCs. Therefore, the need
to spell clearly reasons for establishing the PSCs by emphasizing on it objectives has
become very essential
79
There is need for clear demarcation of functions between the formal police and the PSCs
as showed on table 20 and 21 and to promote education on the role of both the formal
police and the PSCs toward improve security service to the citizenry.
Improve wages/salary was also suggested as one of the panaceas to the problems of both
the guards and PSCs
The PSCs are beneficial to society in many ways. Therefore, government should support
these companies to strive by creating an enabling environment for them.
There is need for companies yet to be fully registered with NSCDC to do so timely to
avoid operating illegally and proscription
PSCs must establish training schools if they must remain in competition in global world
of security because more and more companies are coming up and are seeking relevance
in the security world.
There is the need to abolish the flat hierarchy of promotion in the PSCs and allowed
guards to reach the climax of their career either as Supervisors/Directors.
5.3 Suggestions for Future Studies
It is suggested that more companies be studied especially those identified “not registered”
in order to create a balanced view of both registered and non-registered PSCs. Another
dimension critical to mention is to examine the typologies of crime prevention and how these
companies implement their own style of policing crime in the society in-order to ascertain a
more effective crime prevention method suitable for Nigeria Society. It will also be interested to
find out how these PSCS recruit their staff and how bad eggs are avoided in the recruitment
processes. Finally a larger sample size in a study of this nature is also capable of revealing new
challenges in the evolution of PSCs in Niger State and Nigeria as a whole.
80
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire for Guards
Department of Sociology/Anthropology
University of Nigeria Nsukka.
Letter of introduction
Dear Sir/Madam
The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above named institution. He is currently
conducting a research work on private security companies and crime prevention. The research is
part of the requirement for the award of M.sc. degree in criminology in the above University.
You have been chosen as one of the respondents in this study and kindly required to give
your honest responses to the questions. The information you provide will be treated with strict
confidentiality. Kindly respond to the following questions by expressing your own views by
ticking the boxes representing your opinions
Thanks for your co-operation
Yours faithfully
Hassan, Ibrahim M.
Section A
1. Age: (a) 18 – 20 ( ) (b) 21 – 30 ( ) (c) 31 – 40 ( ) (d) 41 and above ( )
2. Educational Qualification: (a) Primary certificate ( ) (b) SSCE ( ) (c)
Diploma/NCE/HND ( ) (d) Graduate and above ( )
3. Marital status: (a) Single ( ) (b) married ( ) (c) Divorced ( )
4. Sex of respondents: (a) Female ( ) (b) Male ( )
5. Your Employer: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section B
6. Local Government Area of Service: ----------------------------------------------------------------
7. Working duration per-day :( a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( ) (d) 18hrs ( )
85
8. How many of you are posted to a point at a time? (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( )
(d) 4 and above ( )
9. Any training/Retraining since employed? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
(b) If yes mention please----------------------------------------------------------------------
10. What is your relationship with your boss like? (a) Cordial ( ) (b) very cordial ( ) (c)
Not cordial ( )
11. Do you think the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in Niger state?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
12. What do you think is the reason for the increase in the number of PSCs?
(a) Societal demand ( ). (b) Company owners are making money ( ). (c) Police is
incapable of policing crime ( ). (d) To create job opportunity ( ). Others specify:---
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. Do you meet your personal basic needs on this job? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
14. If “No”, why are you unable to meet your needs in this job?
…………………………….………………………………………………………………
15. Does your boss assign other jobs to you? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
16. If yes, what type of other jobs do you do? (a) Errands ( ) (b) Gardening ( )
(c) Sanitation ( ) (d) All of the above ( ) (e) others (specify)……………………
17. How often do you see your supervisors at your duty post? (a) Weekly ( )
(b) monthly ( ) (c) Quarterly ( ) (d) Yearly ( )
(b). What do they check?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. What problems do you face in your work? (a) Poor Salary ( ) (b) Lack of training ( )
(c) Lack of promotion ( ) (d) Long working duration ( ) (e) Lack of equipment ( )
(f) All of the above ( )
19. Have you encountered any criminal activities since you were employed?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
20. If “Yes”, what did you do? (a) Arrest the criminal ( ) (b)Report to the nearest police
station ( ) (c) Report to your landlord ( ) (d)Escaping for your dear life ( )
(e) Others (specify)……………………………………………………………….........
86
21. Why do you think the PSCs are established? (Please tick as appropriate)
(a)To make Money ( ) (b).To provide security ( ) (c). To provide employment ( )
(d). Others specify------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22. How were the security needs of the people in Niger State provided during the traditional
era? (A). through voluntary services by youth ( ) (b). Through the ‘Dogarai’ local
police ( ) (c). Placement of charms on property ( ) (d). Others specify---------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23. Do you think your boss is satisfied with your services? (a) Highly satisfied ( ).
(b) Satisfied ( ) (c) Unsatisfied ( ). (d) Highly unsatisfied ( ).
24. How would you describe your relationship with the Nigeria Police? (a). Cordial ( )
(b). Very Cordial ( ). (c). Not Cordial ( ) (d). Others (specify) ----------------------
25. Do you prosecute cases in court? (a) Yes ( ) (b). No ( )
26. Suggest ways for overcoming the problems of with your company
(a)……………………………………………..
(b)……………………………………………
(c)…………………………………………….
(d)…………………………………………....
87
Appendix 2
Questionnaire for supervisors/Beneficiaries
Department of Sociology/Anthropology University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Letter of introduction
Dear Sir/Madam
The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above named department. He is currently
conducting a research work on private security companies and crime prevention. The research is
part of the requirement for the award of M.sc. degree in criminology in the above University.
You have been chosen as one of the respondents in this study and kindly required to give
your honest responses to the questions. The information you provide will be treated with strict
confidentiality. Kindly respond to the following questions by expressing your own views by
ticking the boxes representing your opinions
Thanks for your co-operation
Yours faithfully
Hassan, Ibrahim M.
Section A
1. Age: (a) 18 – 20 ( ) (b) 21 – 30 ( ) (c) 31 – 40 ( ) (d) 41-50 ( )
(e) 51 -60 ( ) (f) 61 and above ( )
2. Educational Qualification: (a) Primary certificate ( ) (b) SSCE ( )
(c) Diploma/NCE/HND ( ) (d) Graduate and above ( )
3. Marital status: (a) Single ( ) (b) married ( ) (c) Divorced ( ) (d)
Widow/Widower ( )
4. Occupation: (a) Civil servant ( ) (b) Businessman/woman ( ) (c) Banker ( ) (d)
Others specify------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Your Religion: (a) Christianity ( ) (b) Islam ( ) (c) Traditionalist ( ) (d) Others
specify---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section B
6. What is your Local Government of area? ______________________________________
7. Name of Area of residence: _____________________________________________
8. Name of PSC you engaged: _____________________________________________
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9. Identify type of residence: (a) Bungalow ( ) (b) Private/Public places ( )
(c) Ministries, Directorates and Agencies ( )
10. What is the duration of engagement? : (a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( )
(d) 18hrs and above ( ) (e) others specify ( )
11. Do you think that the presence of these PSCs has reduced criminal activities in your
community? Yes ( ). (b) No ( )
12. Please tick your reason: (a) Presence of guards ( ). (b) Guards patrol teams ( )
(c) Police patrol team ( ). (d) Vigilante/neigbourhood guards ( ).
(e) Presence of Dogs ( ) (f) Others specify:------------------------------------------------
13. How satisfied are you with PSCs services? (a) Highly satisfied ( ). (b) Satisfied ( )
(c) Unsatisfied ( ). (d) Highly satisfied ( ).
14. Why do you think the PSCs were established? (a) To make money ( ) (b) To provide
security ( ). (c) To provide job opportunity ( ) (d) Others
specify________________________________________________________________
15. How did you get security before the emergence of these companies?
(a)Vigilante/neigbourhood guards ( ) (b) through ‘Dogarai’ Local Police ( )
(c) through charms or other fetish materials ( )
(d) other specify __________________________________________________
16. List other duties assigned to the guards: (a)______________________________
(b)__________________________________ (c) _______________________________
17. List other benefits you have derived from the PSCs in your community
(a)----------------------(b)---------------------(c)----------------------------(d)-----------------------
18. Would you consider your security guards as well trained? (a) Yes ( ). (b) No ( )
19. What would you consider to be the major problems of the guards and PSCs? (a) Lateness
to duty ( ) (b) Unarmed guards ( ) (c) Illiterate guards ( )
(d) Others specify: __________________________________________________
20. Suggest possible ways of improving services delivery for PSCs.
(a) _____________________(b) ______________________(c) ____________________
21. Do you feel you are more secure with guards? (a). Yes ( ) (b). No ( )
22. Give reasons for your answer …………………………………………………
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Appendix 3
In-Depth Interview Schedule for Directors/Supervisors
1. What is the status of your company’s registration? (a) Fully Registered ( ) (b)
Partially Registered ( ) (c) Not Registered ( )
2. How long has the company been in operation in Niger State?
3. What is the personnel capacity of this company? (a) Less than 500 ( ) (b) above 500 ( )
4. Does this company have a training school? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
5. How often does your company run refresher courses on security tips for the personnel?
(a) Often ( ) (b) Quarterly ( ) (c) Twice a year ( ) (d) Once annually ( )
(e) Never at all ( )
6. What skills are impacted during these workshops? ----------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. How many cars/motorcycles does your company use for patrol? …………………..
8. Promotion of staff takes place (a) After 1 year ( ) (b) 2 years ( ) (c) 3 years ( )
(d) 4 years and above ( ).
9. What is the duty duration of the guards? (a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( )
(d) 18hrs ( )
10. What do you think has led to the increase in PSCs?
11. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional
era?
12. What factors do you think necessitated the establishment of PSCs?
13. In what ways do you think your company has been able to effectively provide the
security functions?
14. What are your major constraints in carrying out these functions?
15. How would you describe your relationship with Nigeria Police?
16. Does your security company prosecute cases in the court of law?
17. What strategies do you suggest for overcoming these constraints in order to make your
company more efficient?
Note: The interviewer should summaries key issues rise during the discussion and thank
the interviewee.
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APPENDIX V: HYPOTHESIS I
Chi-square test
The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.
The row/column association is statistically significant.
Calculation details:
Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 34.800
Degrees of freedom = 1
Relative Risk
Relative risk = 1.896
95% Confidence Interval: 1.489 to 2.413
(using the approximation of katz.)
Difference between the two proportions
Top row (YES):
Fraction in the left column: 0.5359
95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.4894 to 0.5817
Bottom row (No):
Fraction in the left column: 0.2827
95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.2201 to 0.3524
Difference:
Difference between the fractions: 0.2532
Standard error of the difference: 0.04293
95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.1691 to 0.3374
Data analyzed
GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total
YES 246 213 459
(38%) (33%) (71%)
NO 54 137 191
(8%) (21%) (29%)
Total 300 350 650
(46%) (54%) (100%)
APPENDIX VI: HYPOTHESIS II
Chi-square test
The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.
The row/column association is statistically significant.
Calculation details:
Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 15.600
Degrees of freedom = 1
Relative Risk
Relative risk = 0.6723
95% Confidence Interval: 0.5652 to 0.7996
(using the approximation of katz.)
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Difference between the two proportions
Top row (SATISFIED):
Fraction in the left column: 0.4273
95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.3858 to 0.4700
Bottom row (UNSATISFIED):
Fraction in the left column: 0.6355
95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.5372 to 0.7268
Difference:
Difference between the fractions: 0.2083
Standard error of the difference: 0.05273
95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.1049 to 0.3116
Data analyzed
GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total
SATISFIED 232 311 543
(36%) (48%) (84%)
UNSATISFIED 68 39 107
(10%) (6%) (16%)
Total 300 350 650
(46%) (54%) (100%)
APPENDIX VII: HYPOTHESIS III
Chi-square test
The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.
The row/column association is statistically significant.
Calculation details:
Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 19.282
Degrees of freedom = 1
Relative Risk
Relative risk = 1.497
95% Confidence Interval: 1.237 to 1.810
(using the approximation of katz.)
Difference between the two proportions
Top row (YES):
Fraction in the left column: 0.5303
95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.4804 to 0.5811
Bottom row (No):
Fraction in the left column: 0.3543
95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.2954 to 0.4163
Difference:
Difference between the fractions: 0.1760
Standard error of the difference: 0.04007
95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.09741 to 0.2545
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Data analyzed
GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total
YES 210 186 396
(32%) (29%) (61%)
NO 90 164 254
(14%) (25%) (39%)
Total 300 350 650
(46%) (54%) (100%)