Upstream-Upstream-Downstream: Downstream:

Dams, marshes and politics on Dams, marshes and politics on the Tigris and Euphrates Riversthe Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

WaterWater

► No substitutes No substitutes ► Imposition of bordersImposition of borders

Watersheds are a threat to national sovereigntyWatersheds are a threat to national sovereignty► Unlike other resources, it flowsUnlike other resources, it flows► Upstream-DownstreamUpstream-Downstream

Power differencePower difference Temporal differenceTemporal difference Pollution/evaporation exacerbated by extractionPollution/evaporation exacerbated by extraction Infrastructure development for self-sufficiency Infrastructure development for self-sufficiency

exacerbates tensionexacerbates tension► Dams as “weapons”Dams as “weapons”

Transboundary RiversTransboundary Rivers

► Regulation and Regulation and management are difficult, management are difficult, and in many systems there and in many systems there is no substantive is no substantive agreement over water agreement over water rights or use. rights or use.

► The natural geographical The natural geographical and management unit of and management unit of water, the watershed, water, the watershed, strains both institutional strains both institutional and legal capabilities often and legal capabilities often past capacity.past capacity.

Transboundary River Transboundary River ManagementManagement

► Interstate watershed management is in itself Interstate watershed management is in itself largely theoretical. largely theoretical.

► Also inherently problematic. Also inherently problematic.

‘‘Equitable use’ is the concern of upstream states; it Equitable use’ is the concern of upstream states; it permits consumption and production throughout the permits consumption and production throughout the system, not acknowledging the downstream effects of system, not acknowledging the downstream effects of upstream use. upstream use.

‘‘Obligation not to cause appreciable harm’ is the concern Obligation not to cause appreciable harm’ is the concern of downstream states; it implies that they should receive of downstream states; it implies that they should receive water of the same quality that upstream states do, which water of the same quality that upstream states do, which would in all likelihood place substantial constraints on would in all likelihood place substantial constraints on upstream states’ abilities to pursue their interests. upstream states’ abilities to pursue their interests.

Nile- Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, Nile- Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, EgyptEgypt

Tigris/Euphrates- Turkey, Syria, IraqTigris/Euphrates- Turkey, Syria, Iraq Jordan/Litani- Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan/Litani- Lebanon, Syria, Israel,

Jordan Jordan

Interstate Water War Hot Spots Interstate Water War Hot Spots in the Middle Eastin the Middle East

► At the dawn of the new millennium, the tragic loss At the dawn of the new millennium, the tragic loss of the Mesopotamian marshlands stands out as one of the Mesopotamian marshlands stands out as one of the world’s greatest environmental disasters. of the world’s greatest environmental disasters. Dams and drainage schemes have transformed one Dams and drainage schemes have transformed one of the finest wetlands, the fabled Eden of the Fertile of the finest wetlands, the fabled Eden of the Fertile Crescent that has inspired humanity for millennia, Crescent that has inspired humanity for millennia, into salt-encrusted desert. The ecological life-into salt-encrusted desert. The ecological life-support system of a distinct indigenous people support system of a distinct indigenous people dwelling in a rare water-world of dense reed beds dwelling in a rare water-world of dense reed beds and teeming wildlife has collapsed. Humanity’s and teeming wildlife has collapsed. Humanity’s impact on the planet’s fragile ecosystems could not impact on the planet’s fragile ecosystems could not be more dramatically illustrated. This be more dramatically illustrated. This Mesopotamian story is yet another wake-up call Mesopotamian story is yet another wake-up call alerting us to the fraying fabric of spaceship earth. alerting us to the fraying fabric of spaceship earth. We are again reminded that we need to act now to We are again reminded that we need to act now to restorerestore ecosystems on a global scale. ecosystems on a global scale.

► -UNEP, 2001: viii (italics added)-UNEP, 2001: viii (italics added)

Marsh LiteratureMarsh Literature► Thesiger, Wilfred. 1964. Thesiger, Wilfred. 1964. The Marsh Arabs.The Marsh Arabs. London: London:

Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd.Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd.

► Salim, Shakir Mustafa. 1964. Salim, Shakir Mustafa. 1964. Marsh Dwellers of the Euphrates Marsh Dwellers of the Euphrates DeltaDelta. London: The Athlone Press at the University of London. . London: The Athlone Press at the University of London.

► Young, Gavin. 1977. Young, Gavin. 1977. Return to the Marshes: Life with the Return to the Marshes: Life with the Marsh Arabs of IraqMarsh Arabs of Iraq. London: Collins.. London: Collins.

► Nicholson, Emma and Peter Clark, Eds. 2002. Nicholson, Emma and Peter Clark, Eds. 2002. The Iraqi The Iraqi MarshlandsMarshlands. London: Politico’s Publishing. . London: Politico’s Publishing.

► France, Robert. 2007. France, Robert. 2007. The Iraqi Marshlands: Restoration and The Iraqi Marshlands: Restoration and Management.Management. Sussex Academic Press. Sussex Academic Press.

► -The Marshes circa 1973-1976. UNEP, 2001.-The Marshes circa 1973-1976. UNEP, 2001.

► NASA satellite imagery of the Marshes circa 1973 (left) and 2000 (right). Deep purple signifies permanent marsh. Red signifies NASA satellite imagery of the Marshes circa 1973 (left) and 2000 (right). Deep purple signifies permanent marsh. Red signifies

irrigated agriculture. Dark blue signifies permanent lakes. Light blue signifies seasonal lakes. Gray signifies barren or dry land.irrigated agriculture. Dark blue signifies permanent lakes. Light blue signifies seasonal lakes. Gray signifies barren or dry land.

Local-GlobalLocal-Global

► Global actors frame ‘local’ issues.Global actors frame ‘local’ issues. Activist groups, NGOs, engineers, economists, Activist groups, NGOs, engineers, economists,

social scientistssocial scientists If the problem is X, then the solution is NOT X, If the problem is X, then the solution is NOT X,

provided through some function of expertise.provided through some function of expertise.► No water? – Engineer builds a dam.No water? – Engineer builds a dam.► No water? – Economist assigns water rights.No water? – Economist assigns water rights.► No water? – Human rights group blames rights abuser.No water? – Human rights group blames rights abuser.

Who and where you are influences whether you Who and where you are influences whether you see X or Y.see X or Y.

► Multiple partial ‘truths’ emergeMultiple partial ‘truths’ emerge► No guarantee that local voice is ‘truth’ eitherNo guarantee that local voice is ‘truth’ either

The Marshes: Place, Origin, and The Marshes: Place, Origin, and ChangeChange

► 15,000-20,000km15,000-20,000km2 2 (extent fluctuated greatly)(extent fluctuated greatly)

► Garden of Eden, flood of Gilgamesh and Genesis, the birthplace of Abraham (links Garden of Eden, flood of Gilgamesh and Genesis, the birthplace of Abraham (links with "origins of civilization" are interwoven into almost every account of with "origins of civilization" are interwoven into almost every account of degradation and restoration)degradation and restoration)

► Geologically “recent” systemGeologically “recent” system

► Basra “narrowing”; alluvial fans descend from mountains and plateau, width of the Basra “narrowing”; alluvial fans descend from mountains and plateau, width of the plain is 45kmplain is 45km

► Seawater trapped following most recent glacial recession (consistent with early Seawater trapped following most recent glacial recession (consistent with early written sources that Ur and Eridu were in intimate proximity to the shoreline)written sources that Ur and Eridu were in intimate proximity to the shoreline)

► Sediment deposits pushed the coastal shore southeastward, contributing to “a Sediment deposits pushed the coastal shore southeastward, contributing to “a slow and progressive filling up of lakes and Marshes and ultimately to their long-slow and progressive filling up of lakes and Marshes and ultimately to their long-term disappearance” (Sanlaville, 2002: 145) term disappearance” (Sanlaville, 2002: 145)

► Marshes have grown and retracted “according to the amount of control exercised Marshes have grown and retracted “according to the amount of control exercised over the flood water and the amount of water used for irrigation in the north” over the flood water and the amount of water used for irrigation in the north” (Encyclopedia of Islam, (Encyclopedia of Islam, al-Batïhaal-Batïha))

► The future survival of the marshes must, therefore, The future survival of the marshes must, therefore, be in question merely as a result of the changes be in question merely as a result of the changes which have occurred, or are likely to occur, in the which have occurred, or are likely to occur, in the upper parts of the basin in Turkey, Syria and Iraq… upper parts of the basin in Turkey, Syria and Iraq… Given the political standing of Saddam Hussein in Given the political standing of Saddam Hussein in the West it is not surprising that many Western the West it is not surprising that many Western commentators have placed all the blame on Iraq for commentators have placed all the blame on Iraq for the potential disruption of the ecology of the the potential disruption of the ecology of the marshes of the Shatt al-Arab. This is, however, a marshes of the Shatt al-Arab. This is, however, a rather extreme view of the situation as the future of rather extreme view of the situation as the future of the marshes has already been threatened by the the marshes has already been threatened by the major new irrigation works in the upper part of the major new irrigation works in the upper part of the basin. In reality, the Iraqi actions have merely basin. In reality, the Iraqi actions have merely exacerbated what was already a critical situation.exacerbated what was already a critical situation.

-Beaumont, 1998: 182-Beaumont, 1998: 182

Four DangersFour Dangers

► Simultaneous Globalization and Localization Simultaneous Globalization and Localization of the Marshesof the Marshes

► The Exaggerated Agency of Saddam HusseinThe Exaggerated Agency of Saddam Hussein

► Homogenization and Victimization of the Homogenization and Victimization of the Marsh InhabitantsMarsh Inhabitants

► Arbitrary Time and “Nature” Arbitrary Time and “Nature”

Simultaneous Globalization and Simultaneous Globalization and Localization of the MarshesLocalization of the Marshes

► ““Mesopotamian Marshlands” binds a Mesopotamian Marshlands” binds a regional concern with a distant audience by regional concern with a distant audience by creating a global or “civilizational” creating a global or “civilizational” ownership.ownership.

► Mesopotamia, the “cradle of civilization,” is Mesopotamia, the “cradle of civilization,” is no longer a real place, but an imagined no longer a real place, but an imagined ancestral home for most cultures of the ancestral home for most cultures of the Middle East and Europe.Middle East and Europe.

► Implications of “Eden” Implications of “Eden”

Simultaneous Globalization and Simultaneous Globalization and Localization of the MarshesLocalization of the Marshes

► All told... recreating All told... recreating Iraq's marshesIraq's marshes will be an even bigger will be an even bigger challenge than restoring Florida's Everglades.. The key challenge than restoring Florida's Everglades.. The key difference... is that the Everglades already has both a robust difference... is that the Everglades already has both a robust inflow of water and an agreed-upon plan to fix the mess. For inflow of water and an agreed-upon plan to fix the mess. For now, now, IraqIraq has neither. has neither.

► -Jacobson, -Jacobson, The Washington PostThe Washington Post, 04/28/03, 04/28/03► Before Hussein's drainage project, Before Hussein's drainage project, Iraq's marshesIraq's marshes were the were the

Middle East's largest wetland, covering about 7,500 square Middle East's largest wetland, covering about 7,500 square miles. By the late 1990s, satellite images indicated that less miles. By the late 1990s, satellite images indicated that less than 10 percent of than 10 percent of Iraq's marshlandIraq's marshland had any water. had any water.

► -Chandrasekaran, -Chandrasekaran, The Washington PostThe Washington Post, , 10/11/0310/11/03

► Few places on Earth have a stronger hold on the imagination Few places on Earth have a stronger hold on the imagination than do the than do the Iraq marshesIraq marshes... Those marshes exist mostly in... ... Those marshes exist mostly in... memory, however; in an unprecedented ecological and human memory, however; in an unprecedented ecological and human disaster, some 90% of the famed disaster, some 90% of the famed Iraqi wetlandsIraqi wetlands were destroyed were destroyed by 2000.by 2000.

► --Lawler, --Lawler, ScienceScience, 02/05, 02/05

The Exaggerated Agency of The Exaggerated Agency of Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein

► In one of the greatest ecological crimes of the 20th century, In one of the greatest ecological crimes of the 20th century, Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein managed to drain, poison, and desiccate the lush wetlands that were home to managed to drain, poison, and desiccate the lush wetlands that were home to 250,000 Ma’adanis, as well as a crucial stopover for birds… Saddam launched 250,000 Ma’adanis, as well as a crucial stopover for birds… Saddam launched a punitive assault in 1991 that brought desertification to one of the world’s a punitive assault in 1991 that brought desertification to one of the world’s most valuable delta regions.most valuable delta regions. Pat McDonnell Twair, Pat McDonnell Twair, Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs, 9/03Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs, 9/03

► Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein launched an attack on the wetlands and their inhabitants… launched an attack on the wetlands and their inhabitants…the Iraqi leader’s method of revenge not only forced the mass migration of the the Iraqi leader’s method of revenge not only forced the mass migration of the marsh dwellers into the cities, but triggered an environmental catastrophe.marsh dwellers into the cities, but triggered an environmental catastrophe. Daniel Del Castillo, Daniel Del Castillo, Chronicle of Higher EducationChronicle of Higher Education, 10/03, 10/03

► The sheer scale of the destruction is of biblical proportions…Three wars and The sheer scale of the destruction is of biblical proportions…Three wars and one insurrection played a big role, as did a concerted effort in the 1990s by one insurrection played a big role, as did a concerted effort in the 1990s by Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein to drain the marshes. to drain the marshes. Andrew Lawler, Andrew Lawler, ScienceScience, 02/05, 02/05

► For almost 5000 years, people in southern Iraq have been living in marshes, For almost 5000 years, people in southern Iraq have been living in marshes, their livelihood depending on the waters, the buffalo and fishing. their livelihood depending on the waters, the buffalo and fishing. Saddam Saddam destroyed their way of life in a campaign between 1992 and 1993.destroyed their way of life in a campaign between 1992 and 1993. Iraqi Prospect Organisation, Iraqi Prospect Organisation, www.iprospect.org.uk

The Exaggerated Agency of The Exaggerated Agency of Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein

► Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein was destined to forget the history of this cradle of civilization was destined to forget the history of this cradle of civilization and did everything in his power to neglect the agricultural industry of his and did everything in his power to neglect the agricultural industry of his country. Iraqi agriculture research, improvements to infrastructure and country. Iraqi agriculture research, improvements to infrastructure and advancements in technology were essentially nonexistent during Saddam’s advancements in technology were essentially nonexistent during Saddam’s tenure…Saddam also destroyed one of the world’s largest wetland tenure…Saddam also destroyed one of the world’s largest wetland ecosystems when he drained the marshlands of southern Iraq, displacing ecosystems when he drained the marshlands of southern Iraq, displacing thousands of Iraqi farmers.thousands of Iraqi farmers. -U.S. Representative Bob Goodlatte, “Review Iraq Agriculture”, 06/04-U.S. Representative Bob Goodlatte, “Review Iraq Agriculture”, 06/04

► What is important to understand about this situation is that this disaster was What is important to understand about this situation is that this disaster was manmade. It was the product of the corrupt, terror-ridden government of manmade. It was the product of the corrupt, terror-ridden government of Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein. This region, known as the “Eden of Iraq,” was destroyed…. This region, known as the “Eden of Iraq,” was destroyed…Saddam did more than evict thousands of people from their homes. He Saddam did more than evict thousands of people from their homes. He brought ecological devastation to this ancient area… Now that Saddam brought ecological devastation to this ancient area… Now that Saddam Hussein and his criminal regime are par of an unhappy history, attention must Hussein and his criminal regime are par of an unhappy history, attention must turn to restoring the marshlands.turn to restoring the marshlands. -U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, “United States and the Iraqi -U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, “United States and the Iraqi

Marshlands: An Environmental Response”, 02/04Marshlands: An Environmental Response”, 02/04

The Exaggerated Agency of The Exaggerated Agency of Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein

““In little more than a decade, the regime In little more than a decade, the regime of of Saddam HusseinSaddam Hussein nearly destroyed one nearly destroyed one of the largest and most important of the largest and most important wetlands in the world” (USAID’s Iraqi wetlands in the world” (USAID’s Iraqi Marshlands Restoration Program, 2004: Marshlands Restoration Program, 2004: 13). 13).

Homogenization and Homogenization and Victimization of the Marsh Victimization of the Marsh

InhabitantsInhabitants► “…“…new opportunities and aspirations make new opportunities and aspirations make

subsistence existence completely unattractive subsistence existence completely unattractive to those with better prospects. Technology has to those with better prospects. Technology has moved on, making the old-fashioned way…moved on, making the old-fashioned way…painfully burdensome and unrewarding.painfully burdensome and unrewarding. Ochsenschlager, 2004Ochsenschlager, 2004

► ““the people of al-Naser… are now fed up. They the people of al-Naser… are now fed up. They would rather, they say, stay put and carry on would rather, they say, stay put and carry on farming- provided local services are improved- farming- provided local services are improved- then return to a rehabilitated marsh” then return to a rehabilitated marsh” Economist, 2003 Economist, 2003

Arbitrary Time and “Nature” Arbitrary Time and “Nature”

► 1973 = “pre-Husseinian”= Nature1973 = “pre-Husseinian”= Nature

► ““You need to try to allow You need to try to allow naturenature to reclaim to reclaim the area…If you’ve ever been in the Marsh the area…If you’ve ever been in the Marsh the way it was, you’d know that it’s a temple the way it was, you’d know that it’s a temple to God, it’s a temple to to God, it’s a temple to nature.nature.” ” Azzam Alwash, quoted in Azzam Alwash, quoted in Foreign CorrespondentForeign Correspondent, ,

2004 2004

The presumption that follows is that the Marshes The presumption that follows is that the Marshes existed in a “climax” form until the influence of the existed in a “climax” form until the influence of the unnatural disturbance of Saddam Hussein. unnatural disturbance of Saddam Hussein.

Table 1.1- Expected Reduction of Waters in the Tigris and Euphrates System

Annual Flow in the Shatt Al-Arab, Mm3/yr

Tigris River Annual Flow to the Shatt Al-Arab, Mm3/yr

Euphrates

“Natural” 49,200 “Natural” (at Hit) 32,720

Pre-Project (circa 1970)

24,300 Pre-Keban Dam (circa 1974)

16,800

2000+ 9,700 2000+ -6,441

- Reproduced from Kolars, 1992: 107-108

Salination Salination

►““Irrigation has been practiced in Irrigation has been practiced in Mesopotamia for 6,000 years and Mesopotamia for 6,000 years and already an ancient text of 2,000 B.C. already an ancient text of 2,000 B.C. mentions that ‘the earth turned white’” mentions that ‘the earth turned white’” (Rzoska, 1980: 6).(Rzoska, 1980: 6).

►““This highly dynamic ecosystem is This highly dynamic ecosystem is

therefore dependent on spring floods therefore dependent on spring floods for its replenishment and very for its replenishment and very existence” (UNEP, 2001: 12). existence” (UNEP, 2001: 12).

2003-20062003-2006

►Bush replaced Bush replaced Hussein Hussein

►Dykes were Dykes were broken down and broken down and dried marsh dried marsh flooded.flooded.

►70% of original 70% of original footprint?footprint?

►Water quality Water quality concerns.concerns.

2006-present2006-present

►Drought, climate change and TurkeyDrought, climate change and Turkey►Growing realization that solutions to Growing realization that solutions to

the marshes will not be found in the the marshes will not be found in the marshes alone.marshes alone.

►Growing realization that marsh Growing realization that marsh management will require technological management will require technological solutions – dozens of water control solutions – dozens of water control structures to regulate water levels.structures to regulate water levels.

What’s to learn from all this?What’s to learn from all this?

►Rivers flow downstream. That means Rivers flow downstream. That means problems and solutions flow problems and solutions flow downstream as well.downstream as well.

►Loud is not the same as right.Loud is not the same as right.►““Nature” and permanence are Nature” and permanence are

dangerous concepts. dangerous concepts.