urban landscape article
TRANSCRIPT
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Urban landscapes as interpretative instruments to express political power
Daniela DUMBRVEANU1, Aurel GHEORGHILA1, Anca TUDORICU11 University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Human and Economic Geography Department
Romania
Abstract:
This article is interested in presenting the principle of using landscape, especially urban landscape to
express identities and political power. It discusses the fact that the process of understanding landscape is a matter
of interpreting a meaning which is always based on founded assumptions and speculations.
It is also discussing the idea that different things will hold a different meaning to different people
emphasizing perception as an important aspect in social constructs of landscapes. Starting form the point were
world is considered a huge album and society is basically a visual culture, the importance of images of places is
presented and considered as a base for further development for how landscapes are both managed and
communicated to people.Several case studies are considered to illustrate the argument of how urban landscapes can become
instruments to interpret and express political power.
Key words: urban landscape, interpretation, landscapes of power, national identity
1.INTRODUCTION
Despite what most of the people think and
believe, landscape, weather natural, rural orurban, it is not easy to decipher and
understand. Landscape is easy to look at and
find attractive, boring or dull. But it is
certainly difficult to understand its degrees of
complexity, its functions and the messages it
might be communicating to public, visitors or
tourists. In other words, landscape is difficult
to interpret, due to the fact thatreading itis not a matter of finding a typical culturalarea, but a matter of seeing how landscapes
come to mean different things to differentpeople and how their meanings change and are
contested (Crang, 1998). Understanding
landscape is a matter of interpreting a meaning
which is always based on founded
assumptions and speculations due to the
complexity of the concept. Even the natural
landscape would imply assumptions when it
comes to be interpreted by humans, but this
paper it is mainly interested and focused on
human built landscapes. Normally all
landscapes incorporate a built, tangible
environment, and also an immaterial
dimension attached to it which is normally
given by the readers point of view. This iscalled perception.
According to Crang (1998) andHolloway & Hubbard (2001), people make
sense of places or construct places in their
minds through three processes. First, through
planned interventions such as planning, urban
design; second, through the way in which they
or others use specific places; and third,
through various forms of place representationssuch as films, novels, paintings, news reports
and so on. It is generally acknowledged that
people encounter places through perceptions
and images. As Holloway & Hubbard (2001,p. 48) describe this, interactions with places
may be through direct experience of theenvironment or indirectly through media
representations. However, what is critical ishow this information is processed, namely, via
mental processes of cognition, to form stable
and learned images of place, which are the
basis in peoples everyday interactions withthe environment, built or natural. It is the
mental representations either in the form of
maps or images, that individuals create to
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allow them to navigate through complex
reality, because our surroundings are oftenmore complex than the sense we make of
them. Reading landscapes deals specificallywith such mental images. Understanding
landscapes centres on peoples perceptionsand images and puts them at the heart of
constructed, orchestrated activities, designed
to shape the place and its future. When it
comes to managing the landscape situation
could become an attempt to influence and treat
those mental maps in a way that is favourable
to the present circumstances and future needs
of the space.
2. URBAN LANDSCAPES ASSOCIAL CONSTRUCTS
Present society it is definitelydominated by its visual culture. Therefore
world can be looked at through its visual
dimension, red through it and also understood.
Hence it can be seen as an album with a
multitude of landscapes including thelandscapes: of everyday life, of power, of
conflict, even of the body, which are in a
strong interdependence, creating a vision ofreality for each one of its members.
According to anthropologist
Appadurai (1986), things create people as
much as people create things; therefore a
social relationship doesnt necessarily existexclusively between human beings thecomponents of landscapes hold metaphorical
meanings that can convey understanding and
insight into past, present and future societies.
In this respect, the urban landscape is
probably the most interesting case. City is thepoint of maximum concentration for the power
and culture of a community. The city does not
simply happen; it is rather the a cumulative
product, the creation of many lifetimes of
creative efforts(Lewis Mumford, cited inBowman 1995:44). The city is a palimpsest
and a landscape of power; it is a composite the sum of all the erasures and over-writings, an overview of the societys history.Urban landscape is a result of a temporal
process; each of its layers is a symbol of an
era. Cities are complex places, they never
present a clear historical picture that can be
comprehended at a glance; they are a collage
of landscapes changing through time thatembody meaning.
Sometimes urban landscapes are more
than just a creation, they are psychological
tools, which can subtly impose points of view.
According to Winchester (2003:66) one ofthe key ways in which power can be
expressed, maintained and indeed, enhanced,
is through the control and manipulation of
landscapes and the practices of everyday life.This is how the powerful social groups are
trying to impose their versions of reality to theothers, shaping the environment after their
own interests and affecting the entireaxiological system of the community by
proposing their own values.
Therefore the landscapes of power are
meant to reflect and reveal the power of thosewho construct, define and maintain them,
having the capacity to legitimise the powerful
by affirming the ideologies that created them
in the first place(Winchester, 2003:67).Cities provide many examples oflandscapes of power, such as buildings,
monuments and even street names.
Architecture has always been an easy way to
express political power since the ancienttimes; pyramids were built to shelter the
coffins of the kings, symbolising their rank
and importance. Magnificent churches and
cathedrals were constructed to express faith of
communities, fortresses, monuments and other
edifices were built to reflect power, tocelebrate importance, to commemorate
golden ages. Buildings have been used toexpress power of communities, power of
events and also to evoke history, normaly
through style, size, colour, shape etc..
3. CASE STUDIES OF LANDSCAPES OF
POWERNowadays some buildings have kept
size to expressing and suggesting the power of
their creator. Size it is also used in buildings to
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Figure 2: Casa PoporuluiThe House of the People,
today: Source:http://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.html
Frequently this type of building goes
hand in hand with creating a whole urbanlandscape through which the political power is
suggested. Commemorative street names,
especially in urban areas are the most used
element to evoke power. Their reading and
interpretation could also be difficult, as theyare public memorialisation of a nation,
introducing the national history into theeveryday consciousness of the urban
populace(Light, 2004:155).According to Azaryahu (1997:479),
as a ritual of revolution, the is a demonstrative act of substantial
symbolic value and political resonance,introducing the political-ideological shift into
ostensibly mundane and even intimate levels
of human activities and settings. Hence, thecommemorative street names are not only
instrumental for mapping of the geography ofthe city, but also provide an official and
authorised mapping of history(Azaryahu,1997:480).
The collapse of communist regime
has involved the redefinition of whole life,
society economy, political system, including
the axiological system of the population and
its national identity.
The reborn society focuses onrejecting the socialist past as much as on
shaping a new reality. This also implies the
reconfiguration of the landscapes, whichincludes the removal of the public statuary and
monuments relevant for the communism and
the reconstructions of the iconic buildings that
had previously been demolished by socialist
regimes. (Light, 2004) Moreover, the
renaming of the streets is an important
exercise of power for the new authorities,
being meant to bury the recent past and tocommemorate the relevant events for the
history of the nation. For example, in
Bucharest there were 288 street name changesbetween 1990 and 1997 in order to
demonstrate Romanias post-socialistorientation and aspiration(Light, 2004:161).
Some of these streets names have
focused on the commemoration of the 1989
revolution when more than 1000 persons lost
their lives in order to put the basis of a new
Romania. Places like the location of the
former Communist Party headquarters (and a
main field of battle during the revolution) became national symbols: RevolutionSquare. Even in front of the massive buildingof House of the People the street signs
celebrate the new era Romania hasentered Bulevardul Libertii (LibertyBoulevard) and Bulevardul Naiunilor Unite(United Nations Boulevard). (Figure 3)
Figure 3 - Street signs in front of the
House of the People; Source:http://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.html
http://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.htmlhttp://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.htmlhttp://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.htmlhttp://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.htmlhttp://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.htmlhttp://theraconteur.blogspot.com/2007_01_01_archive.html -
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Other streets were renamed after
cities where many had died in the fighting
(Timioara, Braov, Sibiu) or after individuals
who have died in the revolution.On the other hand, pre-socialist
political personalities overshadowed by the
communism regime were also commemorated,
important boulevards being named after liberal
politicians (like Ion C. Brtianu) or afterRomanias kings (Carol I, Ferdinand).Moreover, figures from culture and science
especially from the period of Greater Romania
(1918-1938, when Romania was as its great
territorial extent) were celebrated, including
musicians (George Enescu), painters (TheodorPallady), architects (Petre Antonescu, Ion
Mincu), actors (George Vraca), philosophers(Constantin Stere), scientists and many others.
The same change happened in Berlin after the
fall of the wall; the German reunification that
followed led to the renaming of East BerlinsGDR past, demonstrating the politicaltransformation and emphasizing the aspect of
democratisation as the quintessence of the
process (Azaryahu, 1997:491).The process of decommemoration hadtwo different stages the first one, in 1991,represented the effort of the district politicians
to erase the Stalinist past from the cityscape,
and the second one, more complex, was
prompted by the Senate later on. The
Independent Commission which was set up in
1993 was meant to examine the street names
in the city centre and to suggest alternatives
where needed. After the decision that Pierk,
Marx and Engels must disappear(BerlinerZeitung, cited in Azaryahu, 1997:490) and
many disputes among the politicians, Marx-
Engels Platz and Wilhelm-Pieck-Strasse were
renamed, restoring their former names:
Schlossplatz and Torstrasse. In this way, thetraces of the former communist German state
were erased from the cityscape, showing the
beginning of a new era.
Another way in which the political
power can be materialized is through themonuments that can contribute to the social
constructions of ideologies. Although most are
emblems of the past, the present still offers
examples of using prominent sites to make
political statements. Danish architect JohanOtto von Sprecklesens Arche de La Dfense(Figure 4) is one of the recent symbols of
Paris, which contributes to the cityscollection of monumental architecture. Part of
Francois Mitterands ambitious buildingprogram, les Grands Travaux, the Grande
Arche is situated in the centre of the new
Parisian business and financial district, stating
its signification in the realm of French
capitalism.
It is obvious that the buildingembodies public investment, but it accentuates
governmental control and imposes its politicalpower through its manipulation of the past.
The Grande Arche is related to the Arch de
Triomphe and uses this symbolism not only to
identify the citys northwestern extension, butalso to welcome new business interests to La
Dfense (Chaslin, 1989). Moreover, thesuccess of this monument made Francois
Mitterrand continue the series of grandprojects, including the extension of Louvre,
adaptive reuse of Muse dOrsay, variousprojects for la Villete, LInstitute du MondeArabe, Le Ministre des Finances andLOpra de la Bastille.
Figure 4 - La Grande Arche de la Dfense
Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_d
e_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_de_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_de_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_de_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_de_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grande_Arche_de_La_D%C3%A9fense_et_fontaine.jpg -
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Furthermore, La Grande Arche de la
Dfense is expressing Francois Mitterrandsintention to create modern monuments that
underline Frances central role in art, politics,and the world economy at the end of the 20
th
Century.
One another significant concerning
the reading of the landscape is the fact that the
monuments are used to communicate along
history specific messages. Normally,
monuments are designed by artists who are
using suggestion and symbols to communicate
to express their signification, commemorating
the period or the personality they represent,
while the buildings amplify more theirarchitectural value.
Referring back to capital City ofBucharest one significant example is the
Revolution Square with a complex of
monuments. The most visible monument is
also the most recent, namely Memorial of
Rebirth or Revivals Memorial as itsinterpretation states. Revolution Square also
accommodates Iuliu Manius statue, Corneliu
Coposu statue and the Memorial Flame.
Figure 5: Revolution square. Source :
http://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-
revolutiei.jpg
The Square it is a typical case of a
landscape being used to commemorate a
historical period/event and people. Memorial
of Rebirth though heavily contested does
communicate the whole message of the place.
Firstly it has been designed to be land
mark of the 1989 Romanian Revolution andthe core of the historical space from within the
square. Secondly it was specifically designed
to continue in telling the modern story of the
nation by subtly and unconventionally
incorporating the other statues already existing
in the area. The other two statues, of Iuliu
Maniu and Corneliu Coposu, on one hand are
evoking the personalities of the famous
politicians on the other are the symbol of anti
communist battle, both during interwar and
post communist period. The lay out of thewhole square with former Royal Palace on its
western side (presently Romanian NationalMuseum of Art); Central Committee of the
Communist Party on the eastern one (presently
Ministry of Interior and Administrative
Reform); was the explanation of the events of
the Romanian Revolution. The same lay out it
is presently very convenient to express the
story of those events in a commemorative
way. The Memorial of Rebirth through its
four components , design and inclusion of all
the other square memorial elements is an
example of using urban landscape to interpret
history and national identity. The very firstmemorial component is The Victory Path,
routed in the painful failure of Iuliu Maniu(prominent Romanian politician, National
Peasant Christian Democratic Party, well
known for his anti communist idea) to defeat
communism, under the sad looks ofCorneliu Coposu ( same Peasant Christian
Party, anti communist, better known after
1989 as politician and for his actions to reform
post communist politics), leads the young
heroes The Reminiscence Wall and
Recollection Square. Reminiscence Wall does
list the name of all people who died during
December 1989 events. Recollection Square is
restating the faith of the nation through theorthodox cross cast in wooden inside the
marble pavement of the square. The core of
http://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-revolutiei.jpghttp://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-revolutiei.jpghttp://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-revolutiei.jpghttp://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-revolutiei.jpghttp://tibinews.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/piata-revolutiei.jpg -
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the Recollection Square and the Revolution
Square is the core of the orthodox cross from
which it springs The Pyramid of Victory to
commemorate both the people who haveobtained it and the collapse of communism
and express hope of a free future.
4. CONCLUSIONSThe power of this landscape and the
symbols used to express it, is complex. This
space evokes history, commemorates events
and people, states national identity and tells
the story of the place. Interpreting such a
landscape is a challenge and almost always a
controversy, which has been the case ofRevolution Square and the Memorial of
Rebirth.As mentioned above, power is
constructed through space; landscape is a
social creation, a consequence of attitudes and
actions and a witness of a nations layers oflife. According to Bourdieu (1997), the
construction and the distribution of the built
environment allow the transmission of the
meaning from one generation to the next,therefore landscape can only be interpreted in
its own context, in terms of time and space.
This is one of the reasons that make the public
memorialisations of a nation become a
subject to multiple readings andinterpretations (Bell, 1999, cited in Light,2004:155).
5. REFERENCES
Appadurai, A., 1986, The Social Life ofThings: Commodities in Cultural Perspective,
Cambridge: Polity Press
Azaryahu, M., 1997, German reunification
and the politics of street names:the case of
East Berlin, Political Geography, vol. 16, no.
6, 479-493
Bourdieu, P., 1997, Pascalian meditations,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Bowman, A. and Pagano, M., 1995,
Cityscapes & Capital, The Politics of Urban
Development, Baltimore and London: John
Hopkins University Press
Chaslin, F., 1989, A monument in
perspective, La Grande Arche de la Dfense,Electra Moniteur, 19-125
Holloway L. & P. Hubbard (2001), People
and Place: The Extraordinary Geographies of
Everyday Life. Harlow
Light, D., 2001, Facing the future: tourismand identity-building in post-socialist
Romania, Political Geography 20, 1053-1074
Light, D., 2004, Street names in Bucharest,
1970-1997: exploring the modern historical
geographies of post-socialist change, Journal
of Historical Geography, 30, 154-172Winchester, H., 2003, Landscapes: Ways of
imagining the world, Pearson Education