urban poverty and livelihoods sa 460 – urbanisation & social planning - dr sunil kumar, social...
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URBAN POVERTY - Approaches
• Income – consumption poverty (absolute and relative)
• Deprivation – material – basic needs (structure) – means vs. ends
• Deprivation – capability (agency)
• Livelihoods – holistic but normative (structure and agency)
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MODERNISATION THEORY Income Poverty
According to modernisation theory urban poverty should be temporary, disappearing as urban consumption matches production & migrants become integrated into city life.
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MODERNISATION THEORY - Failure
But experience from the 1970s • increasing squatter settlements• expanding informal sector• declining access to water and sanitationLittle sign of a ‘trickle down’ economy reaching the vast majority of urban populations
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URBAN POVERTY – Changing Locations
• The urbanisation of poverty - spatial
• The feminisation of poverty - social
• Multiple agents acting to ameliorate poverty – practice and policy
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URBAN POPULATION
0 50 100
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
LEAST DEVELOPEDCOUNTRIES
LESS DEVELOPED REGIONS
MORE DEVELOPEDREGIONS
WORLD
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URBAN POPULATION BY REGION
0 20 40 60 80 100
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030 OCEANIA
WESTERN EUROPE
SOUTHERN EUROPE
NORTHERN EUROPE
EASTERN EUROPE
ASIA
NORTHERN AMERICA
LATIN AMERICA AND THECARIBBEAN
AFRICA
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POPULATION ON < 1$/DAY - 1998 (%)
0 20 40 60 80
East Asia & Pacific
Eastern Europe & Central Asia
Latin America & Caribbean
Middle East & North Africa
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Total
@ $2/day
1998 (est)
1987
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THE GROWTH OF INCOME POVERTY
• Studies in the 1980s showed that the incidence of poverty rose in cities and this has been confirmed by studies of the urban impact of structural adjustment since then (Chant, 1996; Kanji 1995; Moser 1996).
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CHINA – Urban Poverty 1988-1995
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
rural urban urban share
China
1988
1995
Adapted from: Haddad, L., M T Ruel and J L Garnett (1999), “Are urban poverty and undernutrition growing? Some newly assembled evidence”, World Development, 27(11), 1891-1904
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GHANA – Urban Poverty 1987-1992
05
1015202530354045
rural urban urban share
Ghana
1987
1992
Adapted from: Haddad, L., M T Ruel and J L Garnett (1999), “Are urban poverty and undernutrition growing? Some newly assembled evidence”, World Development, 27(11), 1891-1904
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INDIA – Urban Poverty 1977-1993
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
rural urban urban share
India
1977
1993
Adapted from: Haddad, L., M T Ruel and J L Garnett (1999), “Are urban poverty and undernutrition growing? Some newly assembled evidence”, World Development, 27(11), 1891-1904
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COLOMBIA – Urban Poverty 1977-1993
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
rural urban urban share
Colombia
1978
1992
Adapted from: Haddad, L., M T Ruel and J L Garnett (1999), “Are urban poverty and undernutrition growing? Some newly assembled evidence”, World Development, 27(11), 1891-1904
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Poor City Households 11 – 20 % range
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Ho Chi Minh
Leipzig
Providence
Quito
Tampa
Montevideo
Berlin
Bangkok
Rio de Janeiro
Armenia
Belize City
New YorkC
ity
Source: http://www.unchs.org/guo/gui/1998.zip
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0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Chennai
Kumasi
Tumbes
Lahore
Marinilla
Mombasa
Karachi
Cit
y
Poor City Households 21 - 40 % range
Source: http://www.unchs.org/guo/gui/1998.zip
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0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Maranguape
Dhaka
Recife
Nairobi
Maputo
Guayaquil
Lagos
Cajamarca
Ciudad Juarez
City
Poor City Households 41 - 80 % range
Source: http://www.unchs.org/guo/gui/1998.zip
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WHO ARE THE URBAN INCOME POOR?
Conventional Wisdom Empirical Reality
• Informal Sector Workers
• Casual Workers
• Women-headed households
• Women-maintained households• Residents of
peripheral settlements
• Residents in a range of low –income settlements
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• Focus on private behaviour• Focus on attitudes to social participation• Major Disciplines - psychology, sociology
and community development• Main exemplar - Oscar Lewis - ‘culture
of poverty’ and ‘underclass’ position
EXPLANATIONS – 1950s and 1960sIndividual Social Problems
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POLICIESIndividual & social problem oriented
• Compensatory measures• Food for work programmes• Labour intensive development
strategies• Targeted approaches – e.g.
problem areas; street children; women-headed households
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INCOME IS IMPORTANT BUT …
• Urban life is highly monetised– Money is important to purchase
food and shelter– this take a greater proportion of
poor household incomes
• spatial issues are more
important– access to land, housing and
services– more crucial to urban well-
being
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EXPLANATIONS - 1970sSectoral Approaches
• Focus on insufficiency of resources for economic and social participation – basic needs
• Major disciplines - economics, sociology, geography and traditional social policy
• Main exemplars - Amis (urban labour markets); Castells (collective consumption)
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• Migration policies• Labour market policies• Area-based interventions - slum
upgrading or urban basic services programmes
• Some forms of community participation
OVERALL POLICY RESPONSESSectoral Approaches
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• Intervention in labour markets• Labour intensive strategies• Enabling the informal sector• Micro-enterprise and credit schemes• Skills development
POLICY RESPONSESEmployment Creation & Income Generation
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• Enabling strategies in housing provision
• Increased security of tenure and occupation
• Housing finance• Appropriate urban design
POLICY RESPONSESHousing and Shelter
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• Water supply, sanitation, drainage, Street lighting and garbage collection
• Primary health care and education• Affordable transport• Appropriate policing
POLICY RESPONSESInfrastructure & Services
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CHANGING UNDERSTANDING OF POVERTY
PCPC + CPR
PC + CPR + SPC
PC + CPR + SPC + Assets
PC + CPR + SPC + Assets + Dignity
PC + CPR + SPC + Assets + Dignity + Autonomy
PC = Private Consumption (Income)CPR = Common Property ResourcesSPC = State Provided Commodities
Source: Baulch (1996), Editorial, IDS Bulletin, 27(1), 1-10
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• Focus on social relations• Focus on situational and
institutional analysis• Major Disciplines - political science,
anthropology, interdisciplinary approaches
• Main exemplar - Perlman (marginalisation), Chambers (livelihoods)
EXPLANATIONSSystems and Relational Approaches
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CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN POVERTY• Restricted access to labour markets• Limited opportunities in the informal
sector• High cost of living in a monetised
economy• Exclusions through the operation of
land markets• Poor housing and living
environments• Food insecurity and malnutrition
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URBAN INEQUALITY
• As well as recognising that many poor people live in cities, we also need to recognised that these are often very unequal cities
• The urban poor may have greater proximity to facilities and services than in the countryside, but this does not mean they can necessarily afford or access them
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CUMULATIVE IMPACTS OF URBAN POVERTYSource: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/poverty/defining.html
Sense of insecurity,
isolation and disempowermen
t
Lack of employment, inability to have a job, lack of regular income and social
security, poor nutrition
Lack of access to credits for business
or house
Inability to afford
adequate housing
Tenure insecurity,
evictions, loss of small savings
invested in housing
Unhygienic living
conditions, low quality public
services
Poor health,
poor education
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• Cross-subsidisation initiatives• City-wide and sector-wide responses• City mandates developed with
sufficient resources and in liaison with national governments and sectors
• Participatory development approaches
POLICY APPROACHESSystems and Relational Approaches
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RESPONSES - GOVERNANCE
• Rights and resources to participate in urban governance
• Access to information• Access to expertise• Legal and planning literacy• Access to decision-making forums• Access to judicial system
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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
• ‘A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living’ (Carney, 1998)
• ‘… is the mix of individual and household survival strategies, developed over a given period of time, that seek to mobilise available resources and opportunities’ (Grown and Sebstad, 1989)
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LIVELIHOODS
Origins in rural poverty where households:• have a portfolio of assets
– Tangible (stores of cash and food, land, skills)– Intangible (claims on others and government,
access rights to welfare services)
• decide on portfolio use– For earning, by disposal, for kinship
obligations, development of mutual support networks, or changes to diet.
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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
• Depends on the portfolio held• Capability to find and make use
of livelihood opportunities– influenced by household’s composition
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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
Strategies adopted aim to:• cope with and recover from
stresses and shocks– stinting, hoarding, protecting,
depleting or diversifying the portfolio • maintain or enhance capabilities
and assets• provide sustainable livelihood
opportunities for the next generation
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Poverty is thus characterised by:
• Lack of assets and the inability to accumulate a portfolio of them
• Lack of choice of alternative coping strategies
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• Labour market involvement• Savings• Borrowing and investment• Productive and reproductive activities• Income, labour and asset pooling• Social networking
Urban livelihoods involve mobilising resources and combining them through a mix of:
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• Their circumstances – age, life cycle, education tasks
• The changing context where they live and work
The mix of strategies are adjusted by individuals and households depending on:
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• Migration• Maintenance of rural ties• Urban food production• Decisions about accessing education,
health and housing • Participation in social networks
Although economic activities are the main livelihood strategy of urban households, they may be supplemented by:
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But it rests on two problematic concepts• HOUSEHOLD• STRATEGY
Livelihoods concept recognises multiple activities for survival and improving well-being
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HOUSEHOLD
Whilst many urban households fit this definition – many do not – even those who do fit – households change over time due to:
A group of people who contribute to and (or) benefit from a joint economy in either cash or domestic labour
• life cycle and ageing• Culturally prescriptions• Decisions about the movement of members• Distribution of power within the household• Relations with others households and groups
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STRATEGY
But strategy also implies control over assets and environment to pursue goal-oriented behaviour – therefore do the poor
The concept of strategy restores agency – the poor are not passive victims
• React opportunistically to changing circumstances
• Defend themselves against further impoverishment
• Keep themselves on even keel• Engage in risky but potentially profitable
activities• Who makes the decisions within the
household?
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URBAN LIVELIHOODS FRAMEWORK
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Five livelihood assets
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Natural Capital
The natural resource stocks from which
resource flows useful for livelihoods are
derived
• land• water• wild life• biodiversity• environmental
resources
Carney 1998, p. 4
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Natural capital is of importance in peri-urban setting
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Social Capital
Carney 1998, p. 4
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
The social resources upon which people
draw in pursuit of livelihoods
• networks• membership of groups• relationships of trust• access to wider
institutions of society
• Bonding social capital (strong ties)• Bridging social capital (weak ties)• Linking social capital - vertical links with those in positions of
influence
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Human Capital
Carney 1998, p. 4
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
The skills, knowledge, ability to labour and
good health important to the ability to pursue
different livelihood strategies
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Physical Capital
The basic infrastructure and the production
equipment and means which enable people to pursue their livelihoods
Carney 1998, p. 4
• transport• shelter• water• energy• communications
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
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Financial Capital
The financial resources which are available to
people and which provide them with different livelihood
options
Carney 1998, p. 4
• savings• credit• private transfers• pensions
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
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VULNERABILITY CONTEXT: Trends 1
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Resource Stocks
What is happening to natural resource stocks and quality?
Population Density
What is the current density and how is it changing
Technology
What technologies exist which are of likely benefit to people in the area
Carney 1998, p. 4
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VULNERABILITY CONTEXT: Trends 2
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Politics
How are people in the area placed in terms of political representation
Economics
How do economic trends affect livelihoods
Carney 1998, p. 4
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VULNERABILITY CONTEXT: Shocks
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Climate
How does the climate affect peoples livelihoods and well-being (rainfall and rainfall variability)
Conflict
Is there any civil or resource conflict (or likelihood of such conflict) in the area
Carney 1998, p. 4
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VULNERABILITY CONTEXT: Culture
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Culture
What effect, if any, does culture have on the way people manage their assets and the livelihood choices they make• unexplained
differences between areas
• ways in which things are done and constraints
Carney 1998, p. 4
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STRUCTURES & PROCESSES
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Transforming Structures and Processes
STRUCTURES
PROCESSES
• levels of government
• private sector
• civil society
• Laws
• policies
• Incentives
• institutions
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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Transforming Structures and Processes
Structures
Policies
Processes
LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
Infrastructure and services
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LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
Vulnerability Context
Physical
Social
Human
Natural
Financial
Trends
Shocks
Culture
Transforming Structures and Processes
Structures
Policies
Processes
LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
Infrastructure and services
LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES
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CARE – Livelihood Framework
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/003/X9371e/x9371e12.htm
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CARE – Livelihood Security
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/003/X9371e/x9371e14.htm
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CARE – Livelihoods Analysis
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/003/X9371e/x9371e14.htm
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LIVELIHOODS APPROACH IN POLICY TERMS
• A critical response to the inadequacy of income/consumption approaches to poverty
• An approach which recognises social and institutional relations
• Identifies and recognises vulnerabilities but builds on strengths of the poor themselves
• In policy terms - an enabling approach
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Web sites
CARE International – Make Cities Counthttp://www.careinternational.org.uk/resource_centre/urban/makecitiescountseries.htm
CARE – Livelihoodshttp://www.careinternational.org.uk/resource_centre/livelihoods.htm