us-china education review 2013(1a)

7/27/2019 US-China Education Review 2013(1A)

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US-China

Education Review

A

Volume 3, Number 1, January 2013 (Serial Number 20)

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Publication Information:US-China Education Review A(Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly inhard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA.

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US-China

Education ReviewA

Volume 3, Number 1, January 2013 (Serial Number 20)

Contents

Curriculum and Teaching

The Students Views Related to the Given Homeworks in the Science and Technology Courses:

A Qualitative Study 1

sa Deveci, smail nder

SoSTI Course: An Elective Science Course for Thai Upper Secondary School Non-science

Students 10

Chaninan Pruekpramool, Nason Phonphok, Orvil L. White, Kusalin Musikul

The UMR Conception Cycle of Vocational School Students in Solving Linear Equation 19

Shao-Ying Li, Shian Leon

Restructuring STM (Science, Technology, and Mathematics) Education for Entrepreneurship 27

F. O. Ezeudu, T. O. Ofoegbu, N. J. Anyaegbunnam

The Portrayal of Women in Israeli Arabic Textbooks on Druse Heritage 33

Janan Faraj Falah

The Effect of the Past on the Present: Cook Islands Teachers Perceptions of Language

Teaching 38

Frances Edwards

Learning Goals and Strategies in the Self-regulation of Learning 46

Martha Leticia Gaeta Gonzlez


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Educational Technology

Analysis of the Questions Asked Through Digital and Face-to-Face Reference Services 51

Keita Tsuji, Shunsuke Arai, Reina Suga, Atsushi Ikeuchi, Fuyuki Yoshikane

A Model for Using Service-Learning in Teacher Education Programs 59

Regena F. Nelson

Education Economics and Management

Note on an Approach to Preventing Rank Reversals With Addition or Deletion of an

Alternative in Analytic Hierarchy Process 66

Yong B. Shin, Seungho Lee


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STUDENTS VIEWS, GIVEN HOMEWORKS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COURSES2

successful in science, our science success is low (Uzun, Btner, & Yiit, 2010; zgn-Koca & en, 2002).

These results indicate a problem in practice of homework in the aspects of science and technology. It is seen

that the homeworks which are given randomly decrease the success; the homeworks which are given

purposively increase it (Bilen, 1999; Yeilyurt, 2006). Thus, when the fact that the practiced homeworks policy

in Turkey has an indirect impact on international exam success is regarded, it is thought that there is a problem

and the source of the problem can be revealed by the students views. Therefore, it is required an extensive

research to find the students reviews that are responsible for doing their homeworks that are given in science

and technology classes. By this way, it is believed that the homeworks practices will reach in an expected

structure, so in this research, it aims to find out the secondary school students views about the homeworks

given in science and technology courses.

Method

The Research Model

In this work, the case of science pattern (phenomenology) was used which is one of the qualitativeresearch pattern that is suitable for the nature of research. It is understood from the term qualitative research

that it is a type of research, findings of which are not reached by means of statistical operations or quantitative

tool (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Qualitative research patterns provide flexibility to the researcher, they also

contribute to research stages to be consistent (Yildirim & imek, 2008). Phenomenological studies are

researches which are created to clarify and interpret the experience of people who attend the study (Ary, Jacobs,

Sorensen, & Razavieh, 2010).

Participants

Participants consist of 1539 7th- and 8th- grade students at nine primary schools in the city center of

Osmaniye, which are under the control of Department of Education Ministry. In the selection of the study

group, typical case sampling model was applied. Typical case sampling requires choosing a typical situation

among the related situations which exist in the population, and then, getting data by using it (Yildirim &

imek, 1999; Bykztrk, akmak, Akgn, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2009).

Data Collection Tools

In this study, reaching a lot of participants was aimed. In this way, in the research, a questionnaire which

includes five open-ended questions was used in order to reveal the students reviews about homeworks. The

final form of the questionnaire which includes open-ended questions was organized after the views and offers

of the authority. The questions asked in the questionnaire form are given below:

(1) What does the homework mean for you? Clarify it, please;

(2) What kind of activities do the homeworks of science and technology courses include?(3) What kind of activities would you prefer in the homeworks given in science and technology courses?

Give the reasons, please;

(4) What kind of difficulties do you have while doing homeworks of science and technology courses?

(5) What are the contributions of given homeworks in science and technology courses?

Validity and Reliability

In order to provide the validity, five participants and an authority stated their thoughts about the accuracy

of the data and the comments about the data and their presentation were reviewed after the search report. Also,


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STUDENTS VIEWS, GIVEN HOMEWORKS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COURSES 3

the raw data obtained from the research was cited without adding any comments and quotations were frequently

used. To provide reliability, the researcher controlled whether the processes of data collection, codification, and

interpretation are consistent with each other. Besides, the researcher tried to confirm the results by checking the

raw data.

Data Analysis

In phenomenology studies, content analysis method is applicable (Yildirim & imek, 2008). The content

analysis sometimes means searching for repeating words and themes in a text, but it is generally used for

simplifying and making sense. In other words, it tries to define a series of qualitative data in the aspects of

consistency and the meanings (Patton, 2002). In this respect, after the content analysis, the themes, and codes

were composed related with each questions that take place in the interview form. Strauss and Corbin (1990)

stated that there are three types of codification and they array them as the codification according to the defined

concepts, the codification according to concepts obtained from the data and the codification done in a general

frame (Yildirim & imek, 2008).

Findings

In this part, the codifications and themes about the students views about science and technology

homeworks are given. As a result of the content analysis, the data obtained from the students views were

classified in five categories and 51 codes. These categories are: (1) the students perceptions for the homeworks;

(2) the content of the homeworks; (3) the students demands for the homeworks content; (4) the difficulties

experienced while doing homeworks; and (5) the contribution of the homeworks for students. The findings and

the comments obtained from the students views are provided below. It is necessary to say that the frequency

values of the given data available in the Tables 15 show the number of the codes, not the number of the

students. Each student was given numbers during the transfer process of direct quotations and their views were

coded according to the content. For example, S245Code: 2 (It shows that the students number is 245 and his/her

view is about the second codification).

Table 1

The Students Perceptions for the Homeworks

Theme code f

Perceptions about the homeworks

1. Studies for understanding the subject 2862. Studies for reviews 2163. Responsibilities 2114. Homeworks and studies 1905. Boring and meaningless studies 1376. Research 1307. Solving tests (preparation for the exams) 658. Studies for self-development 369. Studies for identifying what we learnt 14

In Table 1, the codifications related to the theme called homework perceptions are given. When the

codes which have the highest frequencies are examined, it is seen that the students consider homeworks as a

way to understand the subjects better, as reviews, responsibilities, homeworks to be done at home, and

researches. Samples from students views: S407Code: 1 It is something that makes me understand the subjects

related to the course; S854Code: 2 The first thing comes to my mind is: Review; S1611Code: 3 It is my


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creativity and critical thinking skills. The students cannot be aware of it and by focusing on exam success, they

want to be given multiple choice homeworks.

When the students homework choices are examined according to the order of priority, it can be inferred

that students want to be given homeworks, such as experiments, researches, interesting activities, multiple

choice questions, observations, and the homeworks about nature, animals, and daily life. Alada and Dou

(2009) stated that students want assignments which are about daily life and including laboratory applications.

Similarly, in Gedik et al.s (2011) study, the students said that the homeworks are useful for their daily life.

Besides, Corretjer (2009) stated that students enjoy research project homeworks because they highlight

flexibility and creativity. The reason for the students demands for experiments, observation, and interesting

activities are studying on funny activities without getting bored and learning by doing and experiencing. The

exams can be shown as the reason of demanding test-typed homeworks.

When students views about difficulties they have while doing the homeworks are examined according to

the order of priority, they have difficulty in reaching the information in the resources, providing the tools, doing

the hard ones, and doing the homeworks without understanding the subject. Ari (2010) concluded that studentsmake others do their performance and project homework. Also, Corretjer (2009) stated that 4th- and 5th- grade

students find the homeworks boring and hard. This situation pushes the students to get support. Therefore, it

can be said that students are not instructed enough about how to reach information. On the subject of the

equipments necessary for the homeworks, it is seen that it is important to give homeworks which require

readily available equipments at each home. Not giving that kind of homeworks force students to look for the

equipment out of home. At this point, the families becoming a part of the activity without being aware of the

teachers expectations and their effort to create a qualified work for their children may cause problems for the

students. It is seen that another trouble is the hard homeworks. In this case, teachers should vary the

homeworks, such as preparation, exercise, and reinforcement and give the suitable ones for the students who

cannot understand the subject well. Reinforcement homeworks can also be given to the students who

understand the subject very well. Otherwise, the homeworks given for the students who cannot understand the

subject well may cause trouble and boredom for them.

When students views about the contributions they have while doing the homeworks are examined, it is

understood that the students understand the subject better, develop their skills (hand, research, observation,

experiment, reading, and writing skills), get information about the natural events and living beings, solve tests

in a shorter time, and get information about current events. In the study of etin and akan (2010), it is found

that students learn more and develop their research skills and they understand the subject better with the

performance and project works, so students believe that the homeworks are beneficial to themselves.

Conclusions

Consequently, it can be said that the homeworks have an educational goal by means of the students

perceptions about the homework given in science and technology course. Different from the homeworks given

by the teachers, it can be concluded that students want to do interesting homeworks which require observation

and which are about nature, animals, and daily life. It is understood that during the homework period, students

have troubles about reaching the information in the resources, providing the tools, doing the hard homeworks,

and doing the homeworks without understanding the subject. Also, students state that the homeworks have

significant contributions to themselves.


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STUDENTS VIEWS, GIVEN HOMEWORKS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COURSES8

Implications

The implications of the study are as follows:

(1) Students demands for homeworks can be taken into consideration;

(2) Interesting homeworks which require observation and which are about nature, animals, and daily lifecan be given;

(3) Students can be guided about how to reach the sources related with the subject of the homeworks;

(4) Homeworks can be given when the subject is understood well;

(5) Readily available homeworks should be considered while giving homeworks;

(6) Homeworks which are suitable for the students level (6th-, 7th-, or 8th- grade) can be chosen.

References

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Ari, A. (2010). Dufficulties which teachers face in mplementing projects and performance tasks. Electronic Journal of Social

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Beaton, A. E., Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Smith, T. A., & Kelly, D. L. (1996). Science achievement in the

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Bilen, M. (1999). Teaching implement to plan. Ankara: Ani Publishing.

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Byktokatli, N. (2009). Investigation of teachers opinions on primary homework (Masters thesis, Selcuk University, Institute

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Cooper, H. (2001). The battle over homework: Common ground for administrators, teachers, and parents (2nd ed.). Thousand

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Corno, L. (1996). Homework is a complicated thing.Educational Researcher, 25(8), 27-30.

Corretjer, G. L. (2009).Listen to me! An exploration of the students voices regarding homework. Walden University, College of

Education.

Department of Education. (2005).Helping your child with homework. ERC: ED498937.

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Gedik, N., Altinta, E., & Kaya, H. (2011). Students views about homework in science and technology courses. Journal of

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Hizmeti, S. (2007). An investigation on the relationship between the styles of homework of 5th grade elementary school students

and their academic achievement (Master of science thesis, Cukurova University, Institute of Social Sciences, Adana).

Hofferth, S. L., & Sandberg, J. F. (2000). Changes in American childrens time, 1981-1997. Ann Arbor, M. I.: University of

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Kaplan, B. (2006). The effect of homework to success of students and learning concepts in unit of electricity which directs our

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Van Voorhis, F. L. (2001). Interactive science homework: An experiment in home and school connections. NASSP Bulletin, 85,

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Van Voorhis, F. L. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement.

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Van Voorhis, F. L. (2004). Reflecting on the homework ritual: Assignments and designs.Theory Into Practice, 43, 205-211.

Warton, P. M. (2001). The forgotten voices in homework: Views of students.Educational Psychologist, 36(3), 155-165.

Yeilyurt, S. (2006). A study on high school students attitudes towards biology assignments. Erzincan Journal of Education, 8(1),

37-53.

Yildirim, A., & imek, H. (1999). Qualitative research methods in social sciences. Ankara: Sekin Publishing.

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US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X

January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 10-18

SoSTI Course: An Elective Science Course for Thai Upper

Secondary School Non-science Students

Chaninan Pruekpramool,

Nason Phonphok

Srinakharinwirot University;

Thailand Center of Excellence in

Physics (CHE), Bangkok, Thailand

Orvil L. White

State University of New York

College at Cortland,

New York, USA

Kusalin Musikul

Institute for the Promotion of

Teaching Science and Technology

(IPST), Bangkok, Thailand

This study is aimed to develop the interdisciplinary SoSTI (science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments)

course for Thai non-science upper secondary school students to study the students attitudes toward science before

and after studying from the course. The SoSTI course development is based on the interdisciplinary concept model

and constructivist theory. The research study is divided into five phases: (1) pre-developing the course, (2)

developing the course, (3) conducting the pilot study, (4) implementing and evaluating, and (5) analyzing data and

writing the conclusion, respectively. The SoSTI course is an elective course corresponding to the Basic Education

Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008). This course was conducted with 35 12th-grade non-science students in the

second semester of the 2010 academic year at a school in Bangkok, Thailand, for a whole semester. The research

instruments were students attitude toward science questionnaire, and students opinions toward the SoSTI course

questionnaire. The results of this study presented that, after completing the SoSTI course, the students attitudes

toward science comparing before and after studying the SoSTI course were not significantly different at the .05

level. However, they have positive opinions toward the course.

Keywords:elective science course, non-science students, students attitude toward science

Introduction

The development of science curriculum is one of the most interesting fields in science education research.

This is because science reflects the growth of every country and related to the daily life of every person.

However, the progression of science always comes with the development of technology. Many of the

developments have been affected the people to overlook something important which are the root of their owncontext, such as culture, art, and local wisdom. Keeping pace with the world of science and technology brings

Acknowledgements:This work was financially supported by the Institute for Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology(IPST), Bangkok, Thailand. The authors would like to thank to the Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics (CHE), Science

Education Center, and Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), Thailand, for all supports during the completion of this paper.Chaninan Pruekpramool, Ed.D., Science Education Center, Srinakharinwirot University; Thailand Center of Excellence in

Physics (CHE).Nason Phonphok, Ph.D., Science Education Center, Srinakharinwirot University; Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics

(CHE).Orvil L. White, Ph.D., State University of New York College at Cortland.

Kusalin Musikul, Ph.D., Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST).

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SOSTI COURSE, THAI UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS 11

more benefit to the nation like a tree spreading its branches to grow. Culture is comparable with the plant root

and stalk to support those brunches. In Thailand, IPST (Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and

Technology) has been continually developing Thai science curriculum since 1970 (IPST, 2002, p. 1). Later,

under the theme A science for all, science subject becomes more essential to all students (Klainin &

Soydhurum, 2004). The National Science Curriculum Standards, the basic education curriculum 2001, states

the characteristics of curriculum and teaching/learning in science. Firstly, science curriculum should have the

connection among content, concepts, and cultural context. Moreover, the flexibility and diversity of the

curriculum are also concerned. Secondly, science curriculum should support learners thinking skills and

learning abilities. For a particular community, integrating science with society, culture, and tradition is

indispensable (The Ministry of Education, 2008). The learners surrounding communities can support students

to understand science in their own context and see the relation between science and the world situations (AAAS

(American Association for the Advancement of Science), 1998, p. 126).

Thailand is a country that has its own unique cultural history. One thing that reflects the uniqueness of

Thai arts and culture is traditional Thai music. Traditional Thai music has influenced the Thai people and

presented the simplicity of the society. Traditional Thai music and musical instruments are assumed to be a

valuable cultural heritage of Thailand from the past to present (Indhawong, 2003). Additionally, Thailand

cultivates the youth of the nation to learn traditional Thai music and instruments since they were young (The

Ministry of Education, 2008). This is guaranteed the familiarity and basic knowledge of the Thai youth towards

Thai music. Thus, if we can design the science course integrating with students familiar things like musical

instruments, it will promote students liking and interesting in science (Pruekpramool, C., Phonphok, N., White,

O. L. & Musikul, K., 2011).

Moreover, it is arguable that music and science are intimately related. The science of sound and music

shares some relationship in understanding sound and can present the basic ideas for investigating musicalinstruments scientifically (Vijayalakshmi, K., 2007). In addition, Eger, J. (2007), a musician, stated that physics

and music are an interdisciplinary complement of each other (Tanrattanakula, J., 2007, p. 410). Browne (2007)

additionally affirmed that the science of sound can easily understand with musical instruments. Musical

instruments can provide many comprehensible examples in the topic of sound (Knight, 2004). For that reason,

the researcher believes that using traditional Thai musical instruments will help students who are afraid of

science to like science.

According to various students learning styles, specifically considering to the upper secondary school

non-science students, the core science curriculum cannot promote students liking and interesting in science.

Whether the non-science students like or dislike science, they are still required to enroll courses in science. This

requirement certainly makes almost non-science students earn low GPA (grade point average) in science

(Pruekpramool et al., 2011).

Consequently, the researcher was inspired to design a science course dealing with music, in order to make

this course suitable for non-science upper secondary school students. In addition, the course corresponded to

the basic core curriculum B.E. 2551 of Thailand (A.D. 2008). Besides, this course was an interdisciplinary

work following the interdisciplinary concept model proposed by Jacobs (1989) which blended the science

content from physics, chemistry and biology (sound and material concepts), music content (Traditional Thai

musical instruments), mathematics (equations of sound wave), and human culture.


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SOSTI COURSE, THAI UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS12

Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are to develop the science of sound interdisciplinary course for non-science

upper secondary school students by applying traditional Thai musical instruments and using integrated teaching

approach and to compare students attitude toward science before and after studying from the course.Participants

The participants of this study were 35 non-science students who were studying in Mathayomsuksa 6

(Grade 12) of a school in Bangkok, Thailand, in the second semester of 2010 academic year.

Variables

Independent variable is: using the SoSTI (science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments) course

via integrated teaching approach.

Dependent variable is: students attitudes toward science and students opinion toward course.

Methodology

The course development process is divided into five main phases by using the R & D (research and

development) as the research design in this study.

Figure 1. Interdisciplinary concept model of SoSTI course.

Phase 1: Pre-developing the Course

The aim of this phase was to investigate the fundamental data and information about the science of sound,

music, traditional Thai musical instruments, and the relationships among them. It was also designed to explore

how non-science upper secondary school students think about science and traditional Thai musical instruments.

This phase was divided into three steps:

(1) Step 1: Studying documents and related literatures;

Chemistry(Matter and

materials)

Biology

(Hearing process and

some part of human body)

Human culture

(Thai context)

Music(Traditional Thai

music and musical

instruments)

Mathematics(Measurement and

equations of sound wave)

Physics

(Sound concept)

Science of sound


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(2) Step 2: Interviewing the guru of traditional Thai musical instruments;

(3) Step 3: Conducting a survey with non-science upper secondary school students about their opinions

toward science and traditional Thai musical instruments.

Phase 2: Developing the CourseThe researcher designed and developed a draft of the course, which is primarily composed of three

important parts:

(1) Part 1: Developing course, outlining and creating the whole course structure by using seven steps of

Tabas curriculum development (Taba, 1962, pp. 9-14) and the interdisciplinary concept model developed by

Jacob (1989) to identify the organizing theme and content of the curriculum as shown in Figure 1.

The course content of the SoSTI course consists of:

(A) Introduction of the science of sound;

(B) Introduction of traditional Thai musical instruments (see Figure 2): (a) Stringed instruments: Saw--,

Saw-da-ng, and Jkhy-; (b) Wind instruments: Khli, P-nw-k, and P-chwa-; and (c) Percussion

instruments: Grp sy-pha-, Rn-t y-k, T pho-n, Khw-ng wong yi, and Chng;

Figure 2. Traditional Thai musical instruments.


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SOSTI COURSE, THAI UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS16

Students Opinions Toward the SoSTI Course

The students opinions toward SoSTI course after studying was measured by using students opinions

toward SoSTI course questionnaire created by the researcher. The questionnaire was divided into two parts: the

general information part and the students opinions toward the SoSTI course after studying this course. The

results can be seen in the following.

(1) Part 1: General information: The participants composed of 35 students (14 males and 21 females).

They were studying a non-science major program in Matthayomsuksa 6 (Grade 12) in the second semester of

the 2010 academic year from Rattanakosin Sompoch Bangkhen School, Bangkok, Thailand. Students GPA can

be seen in Table 2.

From Table 2, there are nine students (25.7%) have GPA between 2.00 and 2.50, 14 students (40.0%) have

GPA between 2.51 and 3.00, 12 students (12.0%) have GPA between 3.01 and 3.50, and no one has GPA

higher than 3.51;

(2) Part 2: Students opinions toward the SoSTI course: This part was divided into three aspects, content,

learning process, and teachers characteristics, respectively. The researcher used the criterion scores to interpret

the data. The results can be seen in the Table 3.

From Table 3, the results revealed that students have positive opinions toward the SoSTI course. Students

were satisfied with the SoSTI course in all three aspects, content, learning process, and teachers characteristics,

respectively. The students thought that the contents and activities in the SoSTI course are understandable and

not too difficult. Moreover, they enjoyed studying the course.

Discussion

After completing the SoSTI course, students attitudes toward science is not certainly changed.

However, the students attitude toward science is change in some items. Attitude is a part of human thinking,

feeling, and doing in either positive or negative ways (Butler, 1999; Grote, 2005). For science area, attitudes

toward science play an important role in success in science (George, 2000; Junck, 2002; Osborne, 2003;

Prokop, Tuncer, & Chud, 2007; Foley & McPhee, 2008). Attitudes toward science have relationship with

students achievements (Kan & Akba, 2006; Malaysia & Tan Yao Sua, 2007). In the same tone,

Papanastasiou and Zembylas (2002) claimed that positive attitudes can promote higher achievement in

science while low achievement in science came from students negative attitudes toward science. However,

students who have high achievement in science do not infer that they have positive attitudes toward science.

For science education area, Osborne (2003) stated that attitudes toward science are one of the interesting

issues to study. In order to evaluate students attitudes toward science, there are few factors that influencestudents attitudes toward science, gender, classroom or teacher factors, instructional strategies, and

students beliefs and perceptions about science (Osborne, 2003). Conversely, there are some research

studies revealed that gender has no effect on students attitudes toward science (Prokop et al., 2007; Glynn,

Taasoobshirazi, & Brickman, 2007). It is arguable that if we need high achievement in science, we have to

promote positive attitude toward science to the students. Foley and McPhee (2008) revealed that hands-on

activities and various kinds of learning experiences can positively promote students attitude toward science.

In the same way, Adesoji (2008) stated that problem-solving method can also promote positive attitudes


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toward science to the students.

According to the development of the science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments

interdisciplinary course for non-science upper secondary school students by using integrated teaching approach,

this research was developed under the constructivist theory. The various instructional strategies and activities in

the SoSTI course can help be students interested in science. The SoSTI course was created specifically for

non-science upper secondary school students and they may or may not like science. However, non-science

students learned many science courses, the difficulties in science still affect to the students (Cook & Mulvihill,

2008). From the questionnaire statistic results, there are some changes presented that the students attitudes

toward science have changed after they learned from the SoSTI course. Moreover, non-science students

realized that learning through real life situations or materials will help them understand science better

corresponding to the research study of Glynn et al. (2007), which revealed that the real world situation or

familiar things will increase motivate students in learning science.

ReferencesAAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). (1998). Blueprints for reform: Science, mathematics, and

technology education/project 2061. New York: Oxford University Press.

Adesoji, F. A. (2008). Managing students attitude towards science through problem-solving instructional strategy.Anthropologist,

10(1), 21-24.

Browne, J. (2007). How musical instruments make music: Studying music and physics can bring art and science together.

Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://curriculalessons.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_musical_instruments_make_music

Butler, B. M. (1999). Factors associated with students intentions to engage in science learning activities. Journal of Research in

Science Teaching, 36(4), 455-473.

Cook, M., & Mulvihill, T. M. (2008). Examining US college students attitudes towards science: Learning from non-science

major.Educational Research and Review, 3(1), 38-47.

Eger, J. (2007).Einsteins violin translated by Jittraporn Tanrattanakula. Bangkok, Thailand: Matichon Publishing.Foley, B. J., & McPhee, C. (2008). Students attitudes towards science in classes using hands-on or textbook based curriculum.

AERA 2008. Retrieved March 4, 2010, from http://www.csun.edu/~bfoley/Foley&McPhee%20AERA08.pdf

George, R. (2000). Measuring change in students attitude toward science over time. Journal of Science Education and

Technology, 9(3), 213-225.

Glynn, S. M., Taasoobshirazi, G., & Brickman, P. (2007). Non-science majors learning science: A theoretical model of motivation.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(8), 1088-1107.

Grote, D. (2005). How to solve an attitude problem.HR Magazine. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www. workinfo.com

/articles/Solve_Attitude_Problem.pdf

Indhawong, P. (2003). Thai classical music knowledge. Bangkok, Thailand: Chomromdek Publishing House.

Jacobs, H. H. (1989).Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation. V. A.: ASCD (Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development), Edwards Brothers.

Junck, J. (2002). Attitude is everything. The keynote address presented at the Leadership and Education Seminar, Minnesota.

Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www.wesquaredance.com/JerryJunck/Articals-Speeches/AttitudeIsEverything.pdf

Kan, & Akba. (2006). Affective factors that influence chemistry achievement (attitude and self efficacy) and the power of these

factors to predict chemistry achievement-I.Journal of Turkish Science Education, 3(1).

Klainin, S., & Soydhurum, P. (2004). Science education in Thailand: The results from SISS to TIMSS. Bangkok, Thailand: IPST.

Knight, R. D. (2004). Five easy lessons: Strategies for successful physics teaching. San Francisco, USA: Pearson Education.

Malaysia, K., & Tan Yao Sua. (2007). Attitudes and achievement orientations of students towards learning of science and

mathematics in English.Journal of Learning Design, 25(1).

Osborne, J. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implication. International Journal of Science

Education, 25(9), 1049-1079.


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VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION20

and (3) 4 = 7.

From these, Foster (1994) found that the third equation was the most difficult for students, because

students cannot use the strategies of arithmetic to solve it. If use letter to instead of in the same questions,

some students will consider that they are different. In recent years, Lima and Tall (2008), Freitas (2002), and

Vlassiss (2002) researches showed that 15-16 years old high school students performance was not well on

linear equations, and that will affect their fellow learning about application of equation. In Taiwan, there are

many high school students who do not understand letter or how to get the solution of linear equation that makes

them down in mathematics. According to the above, the authors want to explore the students conceptions and

find out the UMR (unistructural-multistructural-relational sequence) conception cycle by SOLO (structure of

the observed learning outcome) taxonomy in solving linear equation during remedial teaching. The authors

think that it is necessary to understand what kind of difficulties and conception students have when learning

linear equation, so that they can help them to overcome it.

Literature Review

Tall and Thomas (2001) distinguished three levels of algebra:

(1) Evaluation algebra: the evaluation of algebraic expressions, such as 4A1 + 3 as in spreadsheets or in

the initial stages of learning algebra. Tall and Thomas (1991) used BASIC program to express A+3, and let

students produce meaning through input A. The experimental group is more superior than control group in

concept problem-solving. By computer sheet, students could strengthen their conception of operating letter and

find the same results between different equations;

(2) Manipulation algebra: where algebraic expressions are manipulated to solve equations;

(3) Axiomatic algebra: where algebraic systems, such as vector spaces or systems of linear equations are

handled by definition and formal proof.

It can be found that evaluation algebra is the easiest to learn and axiomatic algebra is the most difficult to

learn to students. Thurston (1990) thought different arithmetic methods to calculate 3 + 4, including

count-all, count-both, count-on, count-on from larger, derived fact, know-fact etc.. Gray and Tall

(1994) accorded with Thurstons conception, and suggested procept which indicates that the symbol acting

was the pivot of processes and concepts. Therefore, the produce and operation of procept are the abilities of

operating symbols.

In successful learners with algebra, they have some characteristics: (1) Crowley (2000) found that those

who continued to be successful had readily accessible links to alternative procedures and checking

mechanisms and had tight links between graphic and symbolic representations; and (2) when asking

students to draw maps of their developmental conceptual structures, the higher achievers revealed conceptmaps which grew organically from previous maps whilst the low achievers tended to draw each successive

concept map anew without connecting ideas coherently (McGowen & Tall, 1999).

Learning of algebra by using a collection of procedures may help students to pass exams in algebra, but it

may not prepare them for future developments. In practice, students give their own cognitive meanings to

algebraic operations (MacGregor & Stacey, 1993). Therefore, many students fail to give meanings that agree

with standard mathematical meanings. They used short-term strategies that can (seem to) help at one stage, but

fail in subsequent learning. For instance, the subject is still widely introduced by a technique that is called fruit

salad algebra in which letters stand for objects, such as 3a + 2b being interpreted as 3 apples plus 2 bananas.


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VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION 21

This can give short-term success, such as adding 3a + 2b to 4a + 3b gets 7a + 5b by imagining apples and

bananas were put together. Such an image soon outlives its usefulness when expressions, such as 3ab are used.

Are they three apples and bananas? It certainly is not three apples times bananas. So, how to understand letters

and use them correctly is important in learning linear function.

In contrast, Kieran (1981) gave evidence that the equal symbol is often seen as a do something

symbol rather than a sign to represent equivalence between the two sides of an equation. Such as 2 + 3 =

5 means add 2 to 3 gets 5 and an equation, such as 4x1 = 7, is seen as an operation to find a number

which multiplied by 4 and 1 is subtracted, gives 7. Lima and Tall (2008) used three linear equations to 68

1516 year-old students, as shown in Table 1. Their performance was not well. Question 1 and 2 were

adapted from Freitas (2002) and Vlassiss (2002) researches, question 3 was designed by Lima and her

colleague. 5t3 = 8 could be undone by arithmetical reasoning, 3x 1 = 3 + xhad the unknown on both

sides of the equation, and 2m = 4m was suggested by one of the teachers and caused great difficulty among

his students. This was consistent with Filloy and Rojanos (1989) findings. The arithmetical notion does not

apply to an equation of the form Ax+ B = Cx+ D; its resolution involves operations drawn from outside thedomain of arithmeticthat is, operations on the unknown. Only 16 students out of 68 solved both equations

1 and 2 correctly.

Table 1

Students Responses on Three Linear Equations (Lima & Tall, 2008)

Equation 5t 3 = 8 3x 1 = 3 +x 2m = 4m

Successful 25 25 7

Blank 16 11 27

Other solutions 27 32 34

Note. Total students: 68.

Vlassis (2002) used equations with the unknown on both sides, and showed that the balance model was a

helpful metaphor for almost his students in giving meaning to the equals sign as equality between the two sides

of the equation. However, it failed to be meaningful for many students in more general situations involving

subtraction and negative numbers. Other difficulties like Freitas (2002) found that procedures related to phrases,

such as change side, change sign which were also called Vite model (Filloy & Rojano, 1989) were usually

meaningless to students and often resulted in mistakes. Collis (1972) thought 7 + 4 is procept and 7 + xis lack

of closure. Many students remain process-oriented (Thomas, 1994), and think primarily in terms of

mathematical processes and procedures, causing them to view equations in terms of the results of substitution

into an expression (Kota & Thomas, 1998). Western people reading habit from left to right also makes confuse

on operation signs and parentheses (Thomas & Tall, 2001).

From the above, there are some common problems when students learning linear equation: They do not

understand the meaning of the symbols, they cannot calculate with unknown, or only using undo method to

linear equation, etc..

Research Method

Content

Linear equation usually includes:


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According to the SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & Collins, 1982), the authors may category into a single procedure as

U (uni-structural), several distinct procedures having the same effect as M (multi-structural), and the realization

that they are essentially the same process as R (relational). The encapsulation of a process into an object is then

extended abstract, producing an entity (a procept) which can be used as the beginning of a higher-level cycle of

proceduremulti-procedureprocessprocept;

(6) When analyzing the data, researchers must discuss to reach a consensus about the UMR conception

cycle.

Figure 1. An example of SOLO model (Revised from Pegg & Tall, 2010).

Processes

Preliminarypre-testremedial teaching (six hours)post-test:(1) Analysis 37 second grade vocational students features of solving linear equations from preliminary

and 94 first grade vocational students features from pre-test;

(2) 10 volunteers (first grade students) participated this remedial teaching after pre-test;

(3) Analysis students abilities by pre-test, intervention, and interview after remedial teaching;

(4) Teaching and data collected, including students portfolio recordings by teacher and post-test.

Results

In this study, data analysis is based on the data of the 10 students participating in remedial teaching, and

accompanied by other students answer from preliminary. Researchers from the content of the dialogue with

each student to find out the structure, based on the SOLO classification model, resulting in UMR conception

cycle which practice again in this remedial teaching to confirm the cycle of the UMR conception:

(1) The percentage of wrong answer for each question in preliminary test which all students participated

average is about 20% (see Appendix Tables 2 and 3). The first and second grade students have no significant

difference;

(2) Students pre-test and post-test results shown in Table 2. The research data collected from 10 students.

It is not easy for students to attend remedial teaching at the Saturday morning;

(3) Student A must be traced back to only unilateral unknown to start learning. Therefore, during this time,


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VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION24

he/she could not yet solve the linear equations which have unknowns in both sides. Question 7 does not appear

before the process of this study, but the students might have done analogous one before;

(4) The authors can find four teaching features which students should have during the remedial teaching,

shown as in Figure 2 (e.g., xx 2313 ).

(5) After the pre-test, the authors interviewed Students about question 8, students responses as follows:

(A) substitute m = 0, It is OK, so m = 0;

(B) 2m 4m = 4m 4m, -2m = 0, 2

0

2

2

m, m = 0;

(C) Substitute any number is not OK, so consider 0;

(D) 2m = 4m, (eliminate m) but 2 4, so m = 0;

(E) if m < 0, substitute it, it is not OK; if m > 0, substitute it, it is not OK, so consider m = 0;

(F) 2m = 4m, 2m 4m0, -2m = 0, m = 0;

(G) I do not know.

Table 2

Students Pre-test and Post-test Results

Student A B C D E F G H I J

Pre-test 0 1 3 0 20 20 20 20 20 20

Post-test 0 19 19 19 20 20 19 20 20 20

Incorrect blank No.7 No.7 No.7 No.7

Note.Numbers in the cells are showed as the number of right answers.

Figure 2. Students UMR conception cycle in solving linear equation.

Discuss and Suggestion

In this study, the authors use UMR cycle and the concept of SOLO taxonomy to analyze the formation and

development of students in the concept of solving linear equation. In the structure of the UMR, the researchers

think that students must awake their own solution steps of the equation, manipulation, and judgment. Behind

these operations, cognition must produce to monitor the existence of calculations, but do not know how to

interpret. For example, in the pre-test, the student suddenly stuck like Limas research by question 8 can be


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found. When students see the manipulation, such as 2 = 4 or -2m = 0 (pre-test question 8), they do not know

how to do. In addition, some students could also get m = 0, if they can substitute m = 0 into the linear equation.

When student EJ use equality axiom, they do not know the reason why it is correct, but just know

change side, change sign. If they can know the reason why they are doing, the consolidation of the concept

will be well. The students should overcome the four features as Figure 2 showed.

Suitable interventions from a teacher at the point of transition may be crucial for students learning algebra

for the first time. The UMR conception cycle in this study could be helpful when teaching students, but

teachers should know that what students know and what they do not know, in order to provide a better learning

environment.

References

Biggs, J. B., & Collis, K. F. (1982).Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy. New York, N. Y.: Academic Press.

Collis, K. F. (1972). A study of the relationship between formal thinking and combinations of operations. Newcastle, Australia:

University of Newcastle.

Collis, K. F. (1975). The development of formal reasoning. Newcastle, Australia: University of Newcastle.

Crowley, L. R. F. (2000). Cognitive structures in college algebra (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Warwick,

England).

Filloy, E., & Rojano, T. (1989). Solving equations, the transition from arithmetic to algebra. For the Learning of Mathematics: An

International Journal of Mathematics Education, 9(2), 19-25.

Foster, R. (1994). Counting on success in simple arithmetic tasks. Proceedings of The 18th Annual Conference of the

International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education(Vol. 2, pp. 360-367). Lisbon,Portugal.

Freitas, M. A. de. (2002). First-degree equation: Methods of analysis and resolution of errors in high school (Masters thesis,

PUC-SP, Sao Paulo).

Gray, E., & Tall, D. O. (1994). Duality, ambiguity, and flexibility: A proceptual view of simple arithmetic. The Journal for

Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2), 115-141.

Kieran, C. (1981). Concepts associated with the equality symbol.Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12, 317-326.

Kota, S., & Thomas, M. O. J. (1998). Students arithmetic preference: Effect on problem-solving ability. Hiroshima Journal of

Mathematics Education, 6, 33-47.

Kchemann. D. E. (1981). Algebra. In K. M. Hart, M. L. Brown, D. E. Kchemann, D. Keslake, G. Ruddock, & M. McCartney

(Eds.), Childrens understanding of mathematics (Vol. 11-16, pp. 102-119). London: John Murray.

Lima, R. N., & Tall, D. O. (2006). The concept of equations: What have students met before? Proceedings of The 30th Conference

of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 4, pp. 233-241), Prague, Czech Republic.

Lima, R. N., & Tall, D. O. (2008). Procedural embodiment and magic in linear equations. Educational Studies in Mathematics,

67(1), 3-18.

Macgregor, M., & Stacey, K. (1993). Cognitive models underlying students formulation of simple linear equations. Journal for

Research in Mathematics Education, 24(3), 217-232.

McGowen, M. A., & Tall, D. O. (1999). Concept maps and schematic diagrams as devices for documenting the growth of

mathematical knowledge. In O. Zaslavsky (Ed.), Proceedings of The 23rd Conference of the International Group for thePsychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 3, pp. 281-288), Haifa, Israel.

Pegg, J., & Tall, D. (2010). The fundamental cycle of concept construction underlying various theoretical framework. In B.

Sriraman, & L. English (Eds.), Theories of mathematics education-seeking new frontiers (pp. 173-192). Springer-Verlag

Berlin Heidelberg.

Tall, D. O., & Thomas, M. O. J. (1991). Encouraging versatile thinking in algebra using the computer. Educational Studies in

Mathematics, 22(2), 125-147.

Tall, D. O., & Thomas, M. O. J. (2001). The long-term cognitive development of symbolic algebra. International Congress of

Mathematical Instruction (ICMI) Working Group ProceedingsThe Future of the Teaching and Learning of Algebra (Vol. 2,

pp. 590-597), Melbourne.


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January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 27-32

Restructuring STM (Science, Technology, and Mathematics)

Education for Entrepreneurship

F. O. Ezeudu, T. O. Ofoegbu, N. J. Anyaegbunnam

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

This paper discussed the need to restructure STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education to reflect

entrepreneurship. This is because the present STM education has not achieved its aim of making graduates

self-reliant. Entrepreneurship education if introduced in the STM education will produce graduate who can

effectively manage their personal businesses. Entrepreneurship education was explained and the advantages

outlined. The paper gave an insight into what the chemistry education will look like when entrepreneurship

education is included using secondary school chemistry. This situation applies to biology education and in the

application of technology to teaching and learning.

Keywords: entrepreneurship, STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education, restructuring, curriculumIntroduction

Nigeria is underdeveloped because her citizens are still mentally and economically colonized. Political

upheavals, economic depression, and unemployment have frustrated development in Nigeria. It is hopeful that a

lasting solution to these problems would be achieved through education. Many people have defined education.Okeke (2007) defined education as the process individuals undergo through the acquisition of knowledge, skills,

abilities, and attitudes that are necessary for effective living in the society. It then follows that education should

prepare people to be enterprising as they may be employees and entrepreneurs/employers. In Nigeria, today, the

above-named definition of education is farfetched. Graduates find it very difficult and impracticable to get job

or to handle their own business or be self-employed. The SIWES (students industrial work experience scheme),

which was introduced by the National Policy on Education, has not helped the graduates to be self-employed or

employable. There is an urgent need to overhaul our educational system. To this end, STM education should be

able to solve the problem of education. It is supposed to provide the basic tools for industrialization and

national development (Maduabum, 1999). It should bring economic and social development by providing

employment and improve the welfare of the recipients (Aguele & Agwagah, 2007). It should foster the students

habit of scientific attitudes and help them to acquire skills of constructive reasoning, effective mental activity,

and imaginative thinking. It is only STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education that can help

Nigerian youths become confident and disposed to survive the harsh social and economic conditions of our

times. The question is: Has STM education been able to achieve its objectives? The obvious answer is No

because according to Ayogu (2007), science education has a lot of problems in Nigeria. Some of the problems

F. O. Ezeudu, Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.T. O. Ofoegbu, Ph.D., Department of Arts Education, University of Nigeria.

N. J. Anyaegbunnam, Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D


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RESTRUCTURING STM EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP28

are: (1) Lack of policy implementation guidelines: This means that there are no specific steps in the policy to

actualize its objectives, which stated that there should be well-trained and well-motivated teachers; (2)

Resources: (a) Human resources: Science teachers are inadequate in Nigerian schools so that they are also

trained laboratory technologists and laboratory attendants; and (b) Material resources: Most of the schools do

not have well equipped laboratories. Improvised materials are also lacking; (3) Attitude to work: Nigerian

teachers are poorly motivated and salaries are paid irregularly. This gives rise to poor teaching, indiscipline on

the part of teachers and the students, examination malpractices, and failure in external examinations; (4)

Administrative problems: Administrative problems are hindrance to advancement in science education. Most

policies are hardly implemented. Those in-charges of education are not science-inclined and so they show no

interest in science issues; (5) Inadequate funding: Education budget is usually low and not much is given to

science education. This has negatively affected the teaching and learning in schools as well as research and

laboratory activities; (6) Corruption: Dishonesty, laziness, bribery, embezzlement, and looting of public fund

meant for science education. In view of the problems stated above, STM education in Nigeria has failed in

achieving its objectives. It is then penitent that STM education should be restructured towards entrepreneurshipeducation. This means that a cash-productive education should be introduced to make for maximum

self-development and self-fulfillment (Iloputaife, 2002).

What Is Entrepreneurship Education?

Entrepreneur comes from a French word entreprendre, which means to undertake, i.e., one who undertakes

to supply goods or services to the market for profit (Onyeniyi, 2003). Leebaert (1990) defined entrepreneurship

as a process of organizing, managing, and assuming risk of a business. Butter (1990) defined the entrepreneur,

as one who manages and takes the risks of business enterprise. It is, therefore, the process of owning and

managing a business enterprise with the hope of making profit. Entrepreneurs invest their own capital in a

business and take the risks associated with it. Entrepreneurship elements are combination of motivation, vision

with judgment, communication, determination, optimism, courage, endurance, and the power of creating

cooperation, which finds market opportunities (Bolarinwa, 2001).

Ojukwu (2001) described entrepreneurship development as a programme of human capital development

inputs aimed at increasing the supply of adequately trained entrepreneurs who are motivated to make a success

out of a business. Entrepreneurship education is defined by Bolarinwa (2001) as education provides training,

experience, and skills that are suitable for entrepreneurial endeavours. Entrepreneurship education should,

therefore, prepare graduates with entrepreneurial knowledge, competence, and skills needed to be self-reliant.

Ashomore (1989) stated that entrepreneurship education offers students opportunity to anticipate and

respond to changes. Iloputaife (1997; 2002) stated that functionality in education (entrepreneurship in STMeducation) would serve to:

(1) Identify students that possess entrepreneurial traits;

(2) Motivate and develop students for launching and managing their own small-scale business enterprises;

(3) Create necessary awareness and motivation in students for promoting self-employment and alternatives

to wage empowerment.

Odo (2001) stated three benefits of entrepreneurship as: (1) It fosters economic growth; (2) It increases

productivity; and (3) It creates new technologies, products, and services.


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RESTRUCTURING STM EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP 29

Advantages of Entrepreneurship Education

According to Bolarinwa (2001), entrepreneurship education has the following advantages:

(1) It will help the students to form a base of knowledge about the function and operation of a business and

develop some level of familiarity and comfort with business environment, since technology changesmicro-enterprises;

(2) It will play as a complementary role in developing the occupational knowledge, job skills, and work

experience;

(3) It offers opportunities to students for job experience and for earning, saving, and investing money at an

earlier stage of life than their peers, contributing to their belief in their abilities and a sense of self-worth;

(4) There will be a great reduction in the high rate of unemployment in the society, and self-employment

and business ownership will become viable and appealing goals for todays students.

The STM education has failed in its responsibilities of fostering scientific skills and attitudes as the

graduates roam the streets with no job and no skill to start off their own business. Therefore, there is the need to

restructure the STM education for entrepreneurship. There is also the need to introduce into the school

curriculum entrepreneurship education for the acquisition of right habits, attitudes, and skills as a means of

surviving in the face of unemployment. In fact, there should be total overhaul of STM education in Nigeria.

A new curriculum for STM education should be developed and various sectors like the Nigerian Business

Educators Association, Chamber of Commerce and Industries, Manufacturers Association of Nigeria, etc.,

should be included in the formation of the new curriculum. The society, the schools, the students, the trade

associations, and club and business owners should be included in the development of the course contents. The

course contents should reflect the local labour markets and the students needs.

According to Iloputaife (2002) STM education should include in its objectives:

(1) Taking up employment in industries and factories requiring their areas of specialization;(2) Providing employment for self and others;

(3) Being computer literate and being able to service and maintain computers.

STM education classroom should reflect business sessions. Electrical applications like locally made torch

lights that could be constructed for sale. Detergents, soaps, pomades, perfumes, beads, etc., could be made and

sold to make money. Dyes, colourings, and spices could be produced by students for sale. There should be a

shop in each institution to sell students products. Seminars, workshops on starting a business, small business

management, profit utilizations, personnel administration, etc., can be organized for both teachers and students.

There should be a way of rewarding the students and the teachers from the yields realized from the ventures.

This will increase their enthusiasm and enhance their interest. At least, they will experience profit making.

Students should be imparted with open mindedness, intellectual honesty, love of God, and love of their

neighbours. Most products to be made and sold should come from the local environment, which differs from

school to school. The various levels of government should fund STM education to ensure a successful, fruitful,

and result-oriented STM education. STM education should also inculcate values, such as punctuality, regularity,

tenacity to work, and reward for merit.

Insight Into the Kernel of the Issue Using Chemistry as Example

Curriculum designed for chemistry education in tertiary institutions should include courses in


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RESTRUCTURING STM EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP30

entrepreneurship education.

For the SSS (senior secondary school) chemistry, the following should be included:

(1) For SS 1:

(a) Meaning of entrepreneurship;

(b) Basic elements of entrepreneurship;

(c) Characteristics of entrepreneurship;

(d) Key steps to entrepreneurship;

(e) Causes and remedies of entrepreneurship failure.

(2) For SS 2:

(a) Laws and procedures relating to registering a small business;

(b) Sources of fund for financing small-scale business;

(c) Small business management-principles and application;

(d) Profit utilization and credit and debit management;

(e) Computer/information processing and international business.

(3) For SS 3:

(a) Seminars and Workshops on entrepreneurship;

(b) Management of the school shop;

(c) Production and selling of items produced during practicals.

The SS 3 students can produce the following items during practicals:

(a) Ethanoic acid for preserving food-flavouring food and dyes;

(b) Esters used in making perfumes;

(c) Butter and margarine;

(d) Soap and detergents;(e) Pomades;

(f) Glucose used in making sweets and jams;

(g) Breads and biscuits;

(h) Cassava flours;

(i) Acids for charging batteries;

(j) Shoe polishes, palm kernel oil, vegetable oils, etc.;

(k) Insecticides, antiseptics, and disinfectants.

Challenges of Entrepreneurial STM Education

Inconsistency in Policy Implementation

STM education polices may not be implemented, supervised, and evaluated by the relevant government

officials.

Poor Laboratories and Facilities

Unqualified instructors/teachers, inadequate instructional equipment/materials, and lack of properly

equipped laboratories may hinder the progress of entrepreneurial STM education.

Inadequate Fund

There may not be enough funds to provide the necessary materials needed for the programme. This may be


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RESTRUCTURING STM EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP 31

as a result of poor allocation of fund to education sector. Non-payment of teachers salaries or science teachers

allowances or even promotion of teachers can result in low morale on the part of the teachers who may not like

to take up extra job resulting from entrepreneurship.

Solution to the Problems Militating Against Entrepreneurial STM Education

The solutions to the problems militating against entrepreneurial STM education are as follows:

(1) STM policies as specified in the national policy on education must be implemented, supervised, and

evaluated by those concerned with STM education. The development of intellectual, manipulative, social, and

other skills that will ensure self-fulfilled and self-reliant citizens should be the watchword;

(2) Properly equipped laboratories must be provided in schools. These laboratories should have enough

equipment, materials, and even improvised materials;

(3) Laboratory technologists, technicians, and laboratory assistances should be provided and re-trained in

improvisation;

(4) Adequate fund should be allocated to education especially to STM education. Teachers salaries andscience allowances should be paid on time. Some of the money generated from the sales of the products should

be given to the students and the teachers to sustain their interest.

Suggestions and Recommendations

STM education should be diversified, made more functional, and geared towards solving the problems of

contemporary society. To this end, it should be restructured to reflect entrepreneurship so that the graduates

should be self-reliant, empowered, and self-employed. Hence, STM education should be a priority in Nigerian

educational system to ensure a successful, fruitful, and result-oriented entrepreneurship education. Teachers

pre-service and in-service workshops and seminars should be organized.

Values, such as punctuality, regularity to work, honesty in sales, reward for merit, and other attitudes that

will enhance productivity and promote orderly societal growth should be enforced.

STM laboratories that will produce the products to be sold should be stocked with equipment and

materials.

STM practical lessons should be geared towards production of materials for sale to the college

communities and outside the college environment.

There should be advertisement units to advertise the products to the public. If these suggestions and

recommendations are made and implemented, STM education will surely transform the society and ensure

rapid development of the nation.

Conclusions

Entrepreneurship is the hub of national development and STM education should form the base. Nigeria

should therefore gear towards functional entrepreneurial education through diversified entrepreneurial STM

curriculum. STM education should be diversified and made functional than its present status. It should be

geared towards solving the problems of our contemporary society. To this end, STM education must be

re-structured to include entrepreneurship. STM classroom should be business like to ensure education for work,

and employment and education for self-reliance.


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PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN ISRAELI ARABIC TEXTBOOKS ON DRUSE HERITAGE34

The textbooks were written despite the opposition. For the past 40 years, the same textbooks have been used,

while at the same time, Druse women have made enormous advancements within Israeli society. There are now

Druse women dentists, doctors, lawyers, and professors. The curriculum, however, does not reflect womens

changing roles. Therefore, teachers using these textbooks had no available material to educate pupils to prepare

for current reality and the future. The question remains: How can research into the portrayal of women in

textbooks on Druse heritage help teachers develop new strategies to encourage equality in work and education

within the Druse community?

Methodology

In the Druse heritage, curriculum material was included regarding the sect, its culture and uniqueness,

principles of belief, and religious and historical figures. A series of books were published on Druse heritage for

Grades 312. The Druse students who learn in Druse schools must take a matriculation exam of one

compulsory and one elective unit in Druse heritage (Falah, 2000, p. 195).

The books the author researched are:Min Bustan Torathi (From the Orchard of My Heritage) for Grade 3 (1993), Haifa;

Jikayat Min Korana(Stories from Our Villages) for Grades 3 and 4 (1982 and 1995);

Min Adabana Waadatna(Manners and Customs) for Grade 5 (1986);

Kiyam Wtakalid(Values and Customs) for Grade 6 (1978);

Min Al-Salaf Al Saleh (Our Wise Grandfathers) for Grade 7 (1979);

Min Al Torath Al Shabi (Primary Heritage) for Grade 8 (1996 and 1997);

Min Aalam Al Druse(Famous Druse) for Grade 9 (1980);

Min Oyonn Torath Banee Maruf(From the Springs of Druse Heritage) two parts for high school (1987);

Min Torath al Mowahidin Al Druse(From the Heritage of the Monotheist Druse) for high school (1993);

Al Aid(Holidays) for all grades (1979);

Teachers Guide (1979).

The texts were examined to research:

Stories about women;

Images of women in the textbooks;

The images of Druse women in the textbooks;

The frequency of Druse women versus that of men.

Four representative books were examined, the first book of the series for Grade 3, the second for Grade 7,

the third for Grade 9, and the last for high schools. The results are seen in Table 1.

Table 1

Min Bustan Torathi (From the Orchard of My Heritage), for Grade 3

Lesson name Pg. The female Action Role

In the name of God and thankGod

16 GrandmotherDo not eat this wayWash your hands

Wait for grandfather who is at work

Moralizing

Holiday 19 Mother Mention the name of the holiday Social holiday

The Oath 26 Mother My mother swore for my brother Swearing for a son

The Halwa (prayer hall) 28 WomenThere is one room for men and one forwomen in the Halwa

Information


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PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN ISRAELI ARABIC TEXTBOOKS ON DRUSE HERITAGE 35

(Table 1 continued)

Religious and Secular 35 Religious and secular -- --

Al Nekab 43 Grandmother Grandmother wore one Wearing a Nekab

(Covering the head) Mother and sister Mother and sister did this White kerchief

Eating what is prohibited (1) 54 Mother

Mother asked: Where are the grapes from

She said: Did he give permissionMother is angry: Do you know that eatingthese grapes is prohibited

Moralizing

Eating what is prohibited (2) 56 MotherGave a present to mother. She said: It was

prohibited because it was stolenEducation

The Kosher money 58 YasminCounted her money and gave the seller hismoney back

Honesty

Wrong and mistake 63FredaMotherTeacher

Not nice girlHat is not allowed

MoralizingEducation

Giving back the treasure 78 GirlThe judge ruled: the man will marry the

girlNo role

Help and cooperation 88 Queen of doves We must fly together Wisdom

Reward and punishment 91 Kamla

Kamla traveled with her father, she was

sad

Exercises for heritage lessons 108RafikaSalha

She returned the pencil that she foundSalha goes to pray twice a week

HonestReligious

Salwa Salwa does what his mother asks Obeying

Findings

The first book The Orchard of My Heritage for Grade 3 includes 39 lessons and only 14 of them

mention females, only 35.8%. Six times the image was a mother out of 20 female images. Thirty percent of the

time the mother appeared, the grandmother appeared twice and a sister appeared once.

Six girls appeared: Yasmin, Freda, Kamala, Rafika, Salha, and Salwaalso 30%.

There were only two who had a role (10%): (1) The teacher explained that what they said was not nice and

prohibited; and (2) The queen of doves was wise and saved the girls.

Men appeared in many forms: religious, wise, and religious, Emir, Wise Sheik, Rich man, and a judge

(Kadi). The men were authoritative.

Famous men also appeared: Al Amir Al-Siid, Sultan Al Atrash, Al Sheik, Al Fadel, Alexander of

Macedonia, Abraham the Father, and Eben Adham.

Many boys appeared, they were active, thinking, and drew conclusions, such as in the book On the Land

(pp. 105-106).

The six girls who appeared were: (1) Yasmin: honest; (2) Freda: receives a moral; (3) Kamla: sad; (4)

Rafika: honest; (5) Salha: religious; and (6) Salwa: obeys.

They were passive and they obeyed. Three were the heroes of the lesson: Yasmin who was the honest;Freda who was educated, and Kamala who was sad.

The message for girls in third grade: You must be religious, obey, and honest, and if something happens

you can be sad.

Pictures and drawings: In the lesson on the holiday, there is a picture of boys and girls playing. In the

lesson on the holy place, there are girls playing. There is a picture of girls visiting a holy site, a girl with a

kerchief on her head and next to her there is a little girl (five to six years) with a short skirt.

In the lesson On the Head Covering (p. 42), there is a picture of a woman in traditional garb (p. 44),

there is a picture of a woman in traditional garb.


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PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN ISRAELI ARABIC TEXTBOOKS ON DRUSE HERITAGE 37

the facts in the field are different.

The following are the findings:

(1) The percentage of appearance of girls and women in the text is very low (8.77%);

(2) Most of the girls that appear in the texts have passive traits and lack initiative;

(3) No intellectual women are mentioned;

(4) Most of the texts were written by men aside from Nagila Abu Ezaldin.

The purpose of this paper is to help teachers improve their teaching skills in the following ways:

(1) To take the research as an example for the discrimination of women and girls in the academic

curriculum;

(2) To learn to improve different academic curriculum reflecting womens current reality in society;

(3) The impact and effect of this discrimination on both male and female students and the way their

character development is impacted because they adapt to the discrimination and therefore perpetuate

inequalities within Druse society;

(4) Teachers can learn from this research and then work on improving their teaching methods to counterthe inequality in the texts that they teach;

(5) To become aware and make certain they are not discriminating against girls inside class;

(6) The discrimination effects female students achievement because they then perceive from the texts that

their future is to be at home and be a mother and wife and that it should not concern them what profession they

have or their social status and rights;

(7) Examination of the research helps teachers decide whether to use or abandon texts and to implement

language that is appropriate along with appropriate illustrations;

(8) The research will help experts write academic curricula to emphasize womens roles.

Summary

Learning tradition can contribute much to promoting the status of the Druse woman as well as learning

texts written by women.

Learning about the life of religious women, politicians, intellectuals, writers, etc. is crucial to societys

development.

Teachers can learn from this research and then work on improving their teaching methods to counter the

inequality in the texts that they teach. Teachers with an awareness of the bias in textbooks will be able to

instruct their students to believe that women deserve equal rights. They will be able to transmit the idea that

religious beliefs can be incorporated into modern society.

ReferencesFalah, S. (2000).The Druse in the Middle East. Ministry of Security Press.

Falah-Faraj, J. (2005). The Druse woman. Barkay Books, Rishon LZion.

Ika, H. (2009).Dictionary of anthology and folklore terms(p. 24). Egypt.

Kasem-Falah, S. (2011).Alkotwa Alola ledoroz Esraeel (p. 67). Alsaadeel: Akko.

Loton, O. (2005).Henokh lashevion megdary. The Kenessit of Israel.

Ministry of Education. (1985).Min Al-Salaf Al Saleh. Jerusalem: The Committee for Druse Education and Culture.

Ministry of Education. (1993).Min Torathi al Mowahidin Al Druse. Haifa: Ministry of Education, Haifa University, Department

of Curricula.

Ministry of Education and Culture. (1980).Min Alam Al Druse. Jerusalem: The Committee for Druse Education.

Ministry of Education and Culture. (1993).Min Bustan Torathi. Haifa University, Ministry of Education and Culture.


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January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 38-45

The Effect of the Past on the Present: Cook Islands Teachers

Perceptions of Language Teaching

Frances Edwards

University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

In many countries where English is taught as a second language, the majority of the l

us-china education review 2013(1a)

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