usd wood colors and kinds

7/31/2019 USD Wood Colors and Kinds

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United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

ForestService

AgricultureHandbookNumber 101

Wood Colors and Kinds


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CONTENTS

October 1956

Ap pr ov ed fo r re pr in ti ng Au gu st 19 81

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402


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WOODCOLORS AND KINDS

Prepared by Fores t Products Laboratory , Fores t Serv ice

A key element in any business transaction in-volving wood is the proper identification of species.Literally scores of different woods are bought andsold daily for hundreds of uses. A New Englandhome may be framed with Douglas-fir from Ore-gon, floored with red oak from Arkansas, sided

with California redwood, and trimmed inside withMichigan yellow birch. Its furniture may be

veneered with Pennsylvania black cherry overWisconsin basswood and fitted with drawers ofIndiana sycamore and backs of Carolina sweetgum.It is apparent that familiarity with only locallygrown species is not enough in todays lumbermarkets.

Often, any one of several species is suitable for aspecific use. Other species, however, may be en-tirely unfit for that use. Of those suitable, someare better than others because they are stronger,perhaps, or more attractive, or hold paint better.Others may be superior because they are harder,shrink less, resist decay, or are more easily cut and

joined. It follows, then, that correct identificationis essential to insure selecting the right wood for agiven job.

As the official wood identification agency of theUnited States Government, the Forest ProductsLaboratory annually receives thousands of re-quests for identification service from industry,other branches of the Federal Government, unitsof State and local governments, and the generalpublic. This service is requested in connection

with business transactions, civil lawsuits, criminalcases, building codes for homes and other struc-tures, industrial standards, and Government pur-chase specifications. The Laboratory has alsobeen called upon to identify wood from tombs of

Egyptian Pharaohs,sunken pirate ships, pre-

historic forests, and the beam that supports theLiberty Bell.

In the great majority of day-to-day transac-tions, however, wood identification is a relativelysimple problem. By acquiring a little know-how,many lumbermen, dealers, builders, manufactur-ers, consumers, students, and home-workshop hob-

byists could solve their identification problems onthe spot. Consequently, this publication was pre-pared as an aid to those persons concerned withidentifying the more common native species of

wood.Characteristics that are apparent to the naked

eye and that distinguish our native woods fromeach other are described for each of 32 species.Because color is an important identifying char-acteristic of many woods, special attention has beenpaid to describing the natural color of a freshly cutsurface of the wood.

Descriptions of species are accompanied by full-color illustrations showing grain pattern and other

characteristics. Beginning at the top of theillustration, en d -g ra in ed , ed g e-g ra in ed (quarter-sawed), and f la t -g rained (plainsawed) surfaces areall displayed. This is done because certainidentifying characteristics show up best on eachsurface. The terms edge-grained and flat-

grained are used in reference to softwood lumber,while quartersawed and plainsawed refer to hard-wood lumber.

The manner in which it is sawed from the log will,of course, determine whether a piece of wood showsflat-grained or edge-grained patterns of annualgrowth rings on its wide surfaces. Lumber ismanufactured in both forms.

Each color plate presents two species. Wherepossible, closely similar species are shown togetheron one plate, so that distinguishing characteristicscan be more conveniently examined. In othercases, species are paired on one plate because theyare often marketed in mixture or used inter-changeably.

Certain species are not distinguishable fromclose relatives by the wood alone, even under themicroscope. Thus, for example, the wood of manydifferent species of red oak is identical in structureand appearance even though the trees from whichit comes may differ markedly in leaf, bark, andfruit. From the wood users standpoint, however,

botanical differences in trees usually do not matterso long as their wood is consistent in propertiesand appearance. Where appropriate in the de-scriptions, differences are mentioned that distin-guish a species from closely similar ones notshown. The general range of growth, properties,and common uses of each species are also given.

Obviously, many other species could have beenincluded with the 18 hardwoods and 14 softwoodsdescribed in this publication. Those chosen arethe species most commonly found in retail lumbermarkets.

To assist the reader in getting the utmost helpfrom this booklet, the terms used in the descrip-tions are defined in a glossary. These terms are incommon use among wood technologists, and thefeatures of wood to which they apply are regularlyused for identification and other purposes at theForest Products Laboratory. The common and

botanical names of species conform to the officialForest Service nomenclature for trees. Cubic-foot weights of species described are averagestaken at 12 percent moisture content; specificgravity is based on volume when green and weight

when ovendry.For information on botanical differences among

species, such as the shape of leaves, patterns ofbark, and form of fruit, the reader is referred toTrees, the 1949 Yearbook of the U. S. Departmentof Agriculture.

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HARDWOODS (Broad-Leaved Species)

A m e r i c a n b e e c h (Fagus grandifolia )

R a n g e . The natural range of beech in theUnited States extends from Maine to northernFlorida and westward from the Atlantic coastinto Wisconsin, Missouri, and Texas. It usuallygrows in mixture with other species, althoughpure stands of considerable extent occur in the

Blue Ridge Mountains,Carolina. especially in North

P ro p er t i e s . One of the heavy woods, Americanbeech has an average weight of 45 pounds a cubicfoot and, with a specific gravity of 0.56, is classi-fied as hard. It is rated high in strength andshock resistance and is readily bent when steamed.

Beech is subject to very large shrinkage andrequires considerable care during seasoning ifchecks, warp, and discoloration are to be avoided.Heartwood ranks low in resistance to decay.The wood wears well and stays smooth whensubjected to friction, even under water. Althoughranking high in nail-withdrawal resistance? ithas a tendency to split when nails are driven

into it. When pulped by the soda process, beech

yields a short-fibered pulp that can be mixed wlonger fibered pulps to obtain paper of satisfactostrength.

Uses.American beech is used for lumbdistilled products, veneer, railroad ties, pulpwoocooperage, and fuel. The lumber is used larg

in the manufacture of boxes, crates, baskefurniture, handles, flooring, woodenware, genemillwork, and novelties. Beech is especiasuitable for food containers, since it does nimpart taste or odor.

D escr ip t io n .Heartwood is white with a redish tinge to reddish brown. Pores are not vi

ble but wood rays can be seen on all surfacOn the end grain, the rays appear to be irregularspaced, while on quartersawed surfaces they apear to be of different heights along the graOn the plainsawed surfaces, the rays also appear be of different height, but they look much narower in this view. Beech is readily distinguisable from other native species by its weight, co

spicuous rays, and tiny pores. (Illustra tion, p.11

Am er ican sycam or e (Platanus occidentalis)

Range.American sycamore grows in scatteredgroups or singly from southern Maine westwardto Nebraska and southward to eastern Texas andnorthern Florida. It grows best on flatlands wherethere is a good supply of ground water and alongthe edges of streams. lakes. and swamps. At leasthalf of the stand of American sycamore is in thecentral and southern portions of its range in

Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana,Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee.

Pr oper t ies. In weight, American sycamore isranked as a moderately heavy wood, averaging34 pounds a cubic foot. A moderately hard wood,

with a specific gravity of 0.46, it has a close textureand an interlocking grain. It is moderately strong,moderately stiff, and has moderately good shockresistance.

Sycamore has large shrinkage while drying, isinclined to warp, and is somewhat difficult toseason. Also, it is not durable when exposed toconditions favorable to decay. The wood turns

well on a lathe and keeps its shape well when bentto form after steaming. It is only intermediate innail-withdrawal resistance but because o f its

interlocking grain ranks high in its ability to witstand splitting. Sycamore wood does not impataste, odor, or stain to substances that come contact with it.

U ses . -T h e principal uses of American sycmore are for lumber, veneer, railroad ties, coopeage, fence posts, and fuel. The lumber goes large

into furniture and boxes. Considerable sycamoveneer is used for fruit and vegetable baskets aberry boxes. Although generally used for tcheaper grades of furniture, sycamore is used one form or another in practically all grades. Othproducts made from the lumber include floorinscientific instruments, handles, and butche

blocks.

Descr ipt ion.Heartwood is reddish brown flesh brown in color. Pores are very small and nvisible to the unaided eye. Rays are visible on surfaces. They appear uniformly spaced on tend grain and of uniform height on quartersawsurfaces. Plainsawed surfaces show rays thappear more numerous and more closely spac

than in beech. (Illu st ra tion , p. 11 .)

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Rock e lm (Ulmus thomasii)

R a n g e . Rock elm grows from New Hampshireto Nebraska and as far south as Tennessee.Much of the commercially important rock elm islocated in Wisconsin and Michigan and morethan 80 percent of rock elm lumber and veneercomes from these 2 States.

P ro p e r t i e s . Rock elm is a heavy wood, averag-ing 44 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is clas-sified as hard, with a specific gravity of 0.57. Itis stronger, harder, and stiffer than any of theother commercial elms. With the exception ofhickory and dogwood, rock elm has higher shockresistance than any other American hardwood.

U s e s . Elm lumber is used principally forcontainers and furniture. In some cases, thedifferent species of elm are employed indiscrim-inately, but when hardness or shock resistance isrequired to a high degree, rock elm is preferred.Rock elm veneer is used in considerable quantitiesin manufacturing various types of containers,especially fruit and vegetable boxes and baskets.

Although rock elm undergoes large shrinkagewhen drying, it tends to shrink somewhat lessthan the other commercial elms. As with all theelms, care must be taken to prevent warp duringseasoning. Rock elm is somewhat difficult towork with hand or machine tools, and the heart-wood has low to moderate resistance to decay.However, all the commercial elms have excellent

bending qualities.

Large quantities of rock elm also go intocrating for heavy articles, such as furniture, glass,and porcelain. The strength and toughness ofthis wood make it very serviceable for certaintypes of containers that must stand rough usage,such as market baskets and bushel baskets forhome use. Considerable quantities are used inthe manufacture of furniture, especially the bentparts of chairs.

De s c r ip t i o n .Heartwood is brown to darkbrown, sometimes with shades of red. Summer-wood pores are arranged in concentric wavy linesthat appear lighter than the background wood.The springwood pores in rock elm are visibleonly upon magnification. (Illustrat ion , p . 12 .)

Am e r ic a n e lm (Ulmus americana)

Range .American elm grows throughout theeastern United States except in the Appalachianhighlands and southern Florida. About three-fourths of the stand of sawtimber size is located inthe Lake States and the Mississippi Delta region.

Wisconsin, Michigan, Louisiana, Arkansas, Ohio,and Indiana have large volumes of elm.

Pr oper t ies.American elm is moderately heavy,averaging 35 pounds a cubic foot, and moderatelyhard, with a specific gravity of 0.46. It rates as

moderately weak, but is moderately stiff and hasgood shock resistance.The wood of American elm has large shrinkage

and care must be taken to prevent warping as itseasons. Like all of the commercial elms, it hasexcellent bending qualities. Its heartwood haslow to moderate resistance to decay. The woodis slightly below average in woodworking proper-ties, but is among the top woods in ease of gluing.In nail-withdrawal resistance, it has an inter-mediate rank.

Uses.American elm lumber is used principallyin the manufacture of containers, furniture, anddairy and poultry supplies. Because of its excel-lent bending properties, the wood has been muchused for barrels and kegs. Considerable quan-tities of veneer go into the manufacture of fruitand vegetable boxes and baskets. American elmalso is used a great deal for crating heavy articles,such as furniture, glass, and porcelain products.It is used in sizable quantities in the furniture

industry, particularly for the bent parts of chairs.De s c r ip t i o n .Heartwood is brown to dark

brown, sometimes containing shades of red.Although the summerwood pores are not visibleas individuals, they are arranged in concentric

wavy lines within the boundaries of the growthrings. The wavy lines appear lighter than thebackground wood. American elm shows a spring-wood pore zone with a single row of large andeasily visible pores. (Illustrat ion , p . 12 .)

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Black walnu t (Juglan s nigra)

Range .Black walnut grows naturally over alarge area extending from Vermont westward toNebraska and southward to southern Georgia andsouthern Texas. The area of greatest commercialproduction is limited to the central part of thisnatural range.

Pr oper t ie s .Black walnut is classified as aheavy wood, averaging 38 pounds a cubic foot.The wood is hard, with a specific gravity of 0.51,is strong and stiff, and has good shock resistance.

Even under conditions favorable to decay, blackwalnut heartwood is one of our most durablewoods. It can be satisfactorily kiln-dried or air-dried, and holds its shape well after seasoning.Black walnut works easily with handtools and hasexcellent machining properties. The wood finishes

beautifully with a handsome grain pattern. Ittakes and holds paints and stains exceptionally

well, can be readily polished, and can be satis-factorily glued.

Uses.The outstanding use of black walnut ifor furniture. Large amounts are also used fogunstocks and interior finish, while smaller quantities go into railroad tics, fence posts, and fue

wood. In the furniture industry, it is used eitheas solid wood cut from lumber or as veneer anplywood. It also is extremely popular for interiofinish wherever striking effects are desired. Th

wood of black walnut is particularly suitable fogunstocks because of its ability to stay in shapafter seasoning, its fine machining properties, anits uniformity of texture.

De s c r ip t i o n .Heartwood is chocolate browand occasionally has darker, sometimes purplishstreaks. Unless bleached or otherwise modified

black walnut is not easily confused with any othenative species. Pores are barely visible on the engrain but are quite easily seen as darker streakor grooves on longitudinal surfaces. Arrangemenof pores is similar to that in the hickories andpersimmon, but the pores are smaller in size(Illu st ra tion , p . 13 .)

Bla c k c h e r r y (Prunus serotina )

Ra n ge.Black cherrys natural growth range isthroughout Maine westward to eastern NorthDakota and southward to central areas of Floridaand Texas. It also occurs in the mountain rangesof western Texas. The largest supplies of blackcherry are believed to be located in the Appalach-ian Mountains in New York, Pennsylvania, and

West Virginia.

Pr oper t ie s .Black cherry is a moderatelyheavy wood with an average weight of 35 poundsa cubic foot. The wood is also moderately hard,

with a specific gravity of 0.47. Stiff and strong,it ranks high in resistance to shock.

Although it has moderately large shrinkage,black cherry stays in place well after seasoningand is comparatively free from checking and

warping. It has moderate resistance to decay.The wood is difficult to work with handtools butranks high in bending strength. It can be gluedsatisfactorily with moderate care.

Uses.Nearly all the black cherry cut is sawed

into lumber for various products. Much goes intfurniture and considerable amounts are used fo

backing blocks on which electrotype plates, usein printing, are mounted. Other uses includ

burial caskets, woodenware and novelties, patternand flasks for metalworking, plumbers woodworkand finish in buildings and railway coaches.

De s c r ip t i o n .Black cherry, which is not easilconfused with other native species because of itdistinctive color, has light to dark reddish brownheartwood. Although individual pores are no

visible to the naked eye, their pattern is sometimes distinctive. On end-grain surfaces, thpores may appear to form lines that parallel thegrowth rings, while on plainsawed surfaces, themay follow the outline of the growth-ring boundary

The wood rays of cherry are barely visible onend-grain surfaces and tend to produce a distinctive flake pattern on true quartersawed surfacesThey are higher along the grain than those o

walnut and hence show more prominently onquartersawed surfaces. (Illus tr ation , p. 13 .)

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H i c k o r y (Carya )

Species na m es.True hickories: shagbark hick-ory (Carya ovata), shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa),pignut hickory (C. glabra), and mockernut hickory(C. tomentosa) .

R a n g e . The true hickories grow throughoutmost of the eastern United States except innorthern New England, the northern portions ofMichigan and Wisconsm, and southern Florida.Close to 40 percent of the total stand of true

hickory is located in the lower Mississippi Valleyregion.Pr oper t ies. The wood of the true hickories is

very heavy, averaging from 42 to 52 pounds percubic foot, and very hard, with a specific gravityranging from 0.56 to 0.66. It also is very strongas a post or beam, very stiff, and exceedingly highin shock resistance. Some woods are strongerthan hickory and others are harder, but the com-bination of strength, toughness, hardness, andstiffness possessed by hickory has not been foundto the same degree in any other commercial wood.

Hickory has very large shrinkage and mustbe carefully dried to avoid checking, warping,and other seasoning defects. It has low decayresistance but can be glued satisfactorily.

Uses.Nearly 80 percent of the true hickoryused in the manufacture of wood products goesinto tool handles, for which its hardness, tough-ness, stiffness, and strength make it especially suit-able. Other uses include agricultural imple-

ments, athletic goods, and lawn furniture.De s c r ip t i o n .Heartwood is brown to reddishbrown. Pores are visibly, but the zone of largepores is not sharply outlined as in oak and ash.Pores grade in size from one side of the annualring to the other. Wood rays are very small andseen without magnification only on quartersawedsurfaces. Tyloses frequently plug the pores,making their outlines indistinct. Under mag-nification, the end grain shows numerous white

p. 14.)lines paralleling the growth ring. (Illus tr ation ,

W h i t e a s h (Fraxinus americana )

Range.White ash grows throughout the entireeastern half of the United States except along the

Atlantic Coastal Plain, the gulf coast, and Florida.It is cut commercially everywhere except in theextreme outer limits of this range and the lowerMississippi Valley.

Pr oper t ies.White ash is a heavy wood withan average weight of 42 pounds a cubic foot.Ranked as a hard wood, it has a specific gravityof 0.55. It also is classified as strong and stiff,and has good shock resistance.

The wood of white ash is noted for its excellentbending qualities. In ease of working, tendencyto split, and ability to hold nails and screws, ithas moderately high rank. White ash lumbercan be rapidly and satisfactorily kiln-dried, andit holds its shape well even under the action ofwater. The wood remains smooth under con-tinual rubbing but is low in decay resistance.

Uses.The use of white ash that dwarfs allothers is its utilization for handles. It is thestandard wood for D-handles for shovels andspades and for long handles for forks, hoes, rakes,

and shovels. The wood is used too in the manu-facture of furniture, where it is especially valuablefor the bent parts of chairs. Its good bendingqualities also make it useful for cooperage. Whiteash is used almost exclusively for many types ofsports and athletic equipment, such as long oarsand baseball bats.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is brown to darkbrown, sometimes with a reddish tint. As inblack ash, the zone of large pores is visible andusually sharply defined. The white dots or lines

that indicate summerwood pores are usuallymore prominent in white than in black ash.The small wood rays are generally visible onlyon quartersawed surfaces.

White ash is sometimes confused with hickory,but the two species are readily distinguishable.The zone of large pores is more distinctive inash than in hickory. Also, the summerwoodzone in ash shows white dots or lines that are

visible to the unaided eye, but in hickory thesedots or lines are visible only upon magnification.(Illus tr ation , p. 14 .)

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Q u a k i n g a s p e n (Populus tremuloides)

Range.Quaking aspen grows throughout mostof the northeastern and western United States.The eastern part of its range extends from Mainesouthward to Tennessee and westward to theDakotas. It is also found throughout the westernUnited States except in the extreme Southwest.Commercial stands of aspen are located principallyin the Lake States and the Northeast, with smalleramounts in the central Rocky Mountain region.

Proper t ies .One of the lightweight hardwoods,quaking aspen averages 26 pounds a cubic foot.The wood is classified as soft, with a specific grav-ity of 0.35, and is weak, limber! and moderatelylow in shock resistance.

Although aspen has moderately large shrinkage,it can be seasoned satisfactorily by air-drying orkiln-drying. In fact, few of the hardwoods shrinkas little as aspen. The wood ranks low in decayresistance. It also is low in nail-withdrawal resist-ance, but has little tendency to split under theaction of nails or screws. It is worked easily withhand or power tools and is fairly easy to finish to a

smooth surface. Aspen glues easily with a varietyof glues and under a wide range of gluing conditions. In painting properties, it ranks with the

best of the hardwoods.Uses.Aspen is used principally for lumber

paper pulp, excelsior, and matches. The largespresent-day use of the lumber is for boxes andcrates. It is probably most heavily used for pulp

wood, chiefly in the manufacture of book andmagazine paper and corrugating and insulating

boards. Aspen has long been one of the preferredwoods for the manufacture of high-grade excelsior

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is white to very lighbrown, with occasional brown streaks associatedwith defects. Pores are very small and generallynot visible to the unaided eye. Growth rings arusually faint. Wood rays are small, uniform inheight along the grain, and visible only on quartersawed surfaces. Aspen is similar to cottonwoodbut cottonwood tends to have barely visible poresThe growth rings in aspen are generally narrowethan those in cottonwood. (Illustrat ion , p . 15.)

Am e r ic a n b a s s wo o d (Tilia americana)

Range .Basswood grows throughout the east-ern half of the United States from Maine westwardto North Dakota and southward to Florida andeastern Texas. More than half of the total standis located in the Lake States, and another quarteris in the east central part of the range.

P r o p e r t i e s . Basswood is a lightweight hard-wood with an average weight of26 pounds a cubicfoot. The wood is weak, moderately stiff, and lowin resistance to shock. Its specific gravity of 0.32classes it as soft.

Although it has large shrinkage, basswood isfairly easy to air-dry or kiln-dry and stays in place

well after seasoning. It has low nail-withdrawalresistance, but. well resists splitting while beingnailed. In decay resistance, it is low. The woodis easy to work with tools, takes and holds paint

well, and is easily-glued. When pulped by the sodaprocess, basswood yields a soft, short-fibered, easilybleached pulp.

Uses.Most of the basswood cut in this countryis first made into lumber for a variety of itemsThe largest amounts are used for crates and boxesThe manufacture of sash, doors, and general mill

work also accounts for much of the basswoodlumber produced each year. In addition considerable lumber and veneer is used in the furnitureindustry, especially as core material overlaid withhigh-grade furniture veneers, such as walnut andmahogany.

Descr ip t ion .Heartwood is creamy white to

creamy brown or sometimes reddish. Pores arevery small, as in aspen, and growth rings on plainsawed surfaces are generally faint. Wood rays are

broader and higher than in aspen, and the twospecies can be readily distinguished by comparintheir quartersawed faces. While the rays of aspenare low and uniform in height, some of those in

basswood are distinctly higher than others andfrequently darker than the background wood(Illust ra tion , p . 15.)

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Range.Sweetgum grows from southwesternConnecticut westward almost to Kansas andsouthward to eastern Texas and central Florida.The commercial range in the United States isconfined largely to the moist lands of the lowerOhio and Mississippi Basins and to the lowlandsof the southeastern coast.

Pr oper t ies. Sweetgum is a moderately heavywood with an average weight of 36 pounds percubic foot. The wood is hard, with a specificgravity of 0.46, moderately strong when used asa beam or post, moderately stiff, and has moder-ately high shock resistance.

Sweetgum has very large shrinkage in drying,and the sapwood and heartwood require differentdrying processes. The heartwood has low tomoderate decay resistance. In nail-holding abilityand in ability to resist splitting by nails and screws,sweetgum is rated intermediate. The heartwoodrequires special treatment before gluing can bedone with best results.

S wee t gum (Liqu idam ba r s ty racif lua)

Sweetgum ranks above average in turning,boring, and steam-bending properties but some-what below average in the other machining prop-erties. Its heartwood can be finished in a wide

variety of color effects and the sapwood can bereadily stained if a darker color is desired.

Uses.-The principal uses of sweetgum are forlumber, veneer, plywood, and slack cooperage.The lumber goes principally into boxes and crates,furniture, interior trim, and millwork. Veneer isused mainly for boxes, crates, baskets, furniture,and interior woodwork. Some sweetgum is usedfor crossties and fuel, and comparatively smallamounts go into fencing, excelsior, and pulpwood.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is reddish brown andoccasionally variegated with streaks of darkercolor. Pores are so small that they are not

visible except upon magnification. Growth ringsare usually indistinct or inconspicuous. Raysare visible on quartersawed faces. (Il lust ra tion ,

p. 16 .)

Black tupe lo (Nyssa sy lvatica )

Range.-Black tupelo grows in all States eastof the Mississippi River and as far west as centralTexas in the southern part of its range. In thenorthern and eastern parts of its range, it growsunder a wide variety of conditions ranging fromswamps to dry mountainsides, but in the Southit is largely confined to well-drained locations.The largest commercial cuts of black tupelolumber are made in the Southeastern States.

P ro p er t i e s .A moderately heavy wood, blacktupelo has an average weight of35 pounds a cubic

foot. It is rated as hard, with a specific gravityof 0.46, and the heartwood is low to moderate inresistance to decay. The wood is moderately weakwhen used as a beam or post, moderately limber,and moderately high in ability to resist shock.

Black tupelo has large shrinkage and a tendencyto warp while seasoning because of its interlockinggrain. Considerable care is required in the dryingprocess to produce straight, flat lumber. The

wood generally requires special treatment beforegluing to obtain the best results and it ranks belowthe average of 25 southern hardwoods in machin-ing properties. In nail-withdrawal resistance andresistance to splitting under the action of nails,black tupelo has an intermediate rank. It can bereadily pulped by the chemical and semichemicalprocesses.

Uses.Black tupelo is used mainly for lumber,veneer, and paper pulp, and to some extent forrailway ties and cooperage. The lumber goeslargely into shipping containers and furniture.

Black tupelo has been used for many years in themanufacture of book and similar grades of paper.Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is pale to moderately

dark brownish gray or dirty gray. Pores are verysmall, as in sweetgum. Growth rings are generallyinconspicuous to moderately distinct. Rays are

visible on quartersawed surfaces, but show up lessprominently against the background color of the

wood than the rays in sweetgum. (Illustr at ion ,p. 16 .)

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W h i te o a k (Quercus )

S p ec ies n ames .The white oak group includeswhite oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Q. prinu s),post oak (Q. stellata), overcup oak (Q. lyrata),swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), bur oak(Q. macrocarpa), chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii),swamp white oak (Q. bicolor), and live oak(Q. virginiana).

Range.White oaks grow mainly in theeastern half of the United States, although some

species are found as far west as eastern Oregon,Washington, and California. Commercial whiteoaks grow east of a line from western Minnesotato western Texas.

P r o p e r t i e s . The white oaks are heavy woods,averaging 47 pounds a cubic foot, and are veryhard, with a specific gravity ranging from 0.57 inchestnut oak to 0.81 in live oak. Led by liveoak, they rank high in strength properties.

The wood of the white oaks is subject to largeshrinkage and seasoning must be done carefullyto avoid checking and warping. Pores of theheartwood, with the exception of chestnut oak,are usually plugged with tyloses, a frothlikegrowth that makes the wood impervious to

liquids. The heartwood itself is comparativelydecay resistant, generally more so than that othe red oaks. White oaks are above average inall machining operations except shaping.

U s e s . Most white oak is made into lumbefor flooring, furniture, general millwork, and boxesand crates. Large amounts are used for flooringand furniture and it is the outstanding wood fotight barrels, kegs, and casks because of the

nonporous heartwood. It has long bee n theleading wood for the construction of ships andb oat s .

D e s c r i p t i o n . Heartwood is grayish brownThe outlines of the larger pores are indistincexcept in chestnut oak, which has open pores

with distinct outlines. On smooth-cut, end-grainsurfaces, the summerwood pores are not distincas individuals. Wood rays are generally highethan in red oak, the larger ones ranging from to5 inches in height along the grain. As in redoak, rays appear lighter in color than the background wood on end-grain surfaces and darkerthan the background wood on side-grain surfaces(Illustrat ion, p. 17 .)

Re d o a k (Quercus )

Species nam es.The red oak group includesnorthern red oak (Quercus rubra), black oak (Q.velutina ), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), shumard oak(Q. shumardii), pin oak (Q. palustris), Nuttall oak(Q. nuttallii), southern red oak (Q. falcata), wateroak (Q. nigra), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), and

willow oak (Q. phellos) .Ran ge .R ed oaks grow quite generally east of

the Great Plains except for a narrow coastal strip

along the Gulf of Mexico and in Florida. Thelargest amounts of commercial timber are cut inTennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky, and Missouri.

P ro p er t i e s .T h e r e d oaks are sim ilar in m an yproperties to the white oaks. A major differenceis that red oak, because it lacks tyloses in itspores, is extremely porous. A heavy wood, itaverages 44 pounds a cubic foot and the averagespecific gravity of the more important speciesranges from 0.52 to 0.60. The wood is hard, stiff,and has high shock resistance.

Red oak undergoes large shrinkage while drying,and seasoning must be done carefully to avoidchecking and warping. It is considerably above

average in all machining operations except shaping, and the heartwood ranks low to moderate indecay resistance.

U s e s . Most of the red oak cut in this countryis converted into flooring, furniture, millwork

boxes and crates, caskets and coffins, agriculturaimplements, boats, and woodenware. Considerable lumber is also used in building constructionand some is exported. The hardness and wearing

qualities of red oak have made it an importantflooring wood for residences. Preservative-treatedred oak is used extensively for crossties, minetimbers, and fence posts.

Descr ipt io n .Heartwood is grayish brown witha more or less distinctive reddish tint. Pores arecommonly open, and the outlines of the largerpores are distinct. On smoothly cut end-grainsurfaces, the summerwood pores can be seen asindividuals and readily counted when examined

with a hand lens. Wood rays are commonly to 1 inch high along the gram. On end-grainsurfaces, rays appear as lines crossing the growthrings. (Illu stration , p . 17 .)

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R a n g e . Yellow birch grows in the Lake States,New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-

vania, and along, the Appalachian Mountains intosouthern Georgia. It reaches its best developmentnear the Canadian border, and more than half ofthe stand is located in Michigan. The largestamounts of lumber are produced in Michigan and

Wisconsin.

P ro p er t i e s .Yellow birch is heavy, averaging

43 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with specificgravity averaging 0.55. The wood is strong, stiff,and has very high shock resistance.

Yellow birch has very large shrinkage and mustbe seasoned carefully to prevent checking andwarping. Like all commercial birches, it is low indecay resistance. Although the wood is difficultto work with handtools, it can be readily shaped bymachine and ranks high in nail-withdrawal re-sistance.

U s e s . Yellow birch is used principally forlumber, veneer, distilled products, and crossties.

Y e l l o w b i r c h (Bet ula allegha nien sis )

The lumber and veneer go mostly into furniture,boxes, baskets, crates, woodenware, interior finish,and general millwork. It is because of its pleasinggrain pattern and ability to take a high polish, that

yellow birch is widely used in the furniture in-dustry. Spools, bobbins, and other turned articlesare also important products.

Yellow birch is one of the principal woods usedfor hardwood distillation to produce wood alcohol,acetate of lime, charcoal, tar, and oils. It is usedin smaller quantities for pulpwood and cooperage.

D escr ip t io n .Yellow birch heartwood is lightreddish brown. Pores are very small, sometimes

just barely visible on smoothly cut end-grainsurfaces, and are uniformly distributed throughthe annual ring cross section. Pore lines are visibleon longitudinal surfaces as very fine grooves thatmay even be seen through natural finishes. Woodrays may be seen only on quartersawed surfaces,where they appear to be of one size and of uniformheight along the grain. Growth rings are moder-ately distinct on plainsawed surfaces. (Illus tr at ion ,p. 18.)

S u g a r m a p l e (Acer sacchar um )

Range.-Sugar maple grows from Maine toMinnesota and southward to eastern Texas andnorthern Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia.The largest stands are in the Lake States and theNortheast. The tree grows singly or in groupsin mixed stands of hardwoods.

P ro p er t i e s . Sugar maple is heavy, averaging44 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with a specificgravity of 0.56. Strong and stiff, it has highresistance to shock. Although it has large shrink-age and presents some difficulties in drying, the

wood can be satisfactorily seasoned. Its resist-ance to decay is low to moderate.

Sugar maple ranks high in nail-withdrawalresistance and intermediate in ease of gluing.The wood takes stain satisfactorily and is capableof a high polish. Although generally straight-grained, sugar maple occasionally occurs withcurly, wavy, or birds-eye grain. The wood turns

well on a lathe, is markedly resistant to abrasivewear, and is without characteristic taste or odor.

Uses.Sugar maple is used principally forlumber, distilled products, veneer, crossties, andpaper pulp. Probably 90 percent of the lumberis manufactured into such products as flooring,furniture, boxes and crates, handles, woodenware,and novelties. It is especially suitable for bowlingalleys, dance floors, and other flooring that issubjected to hard use. Sugar maple is one of theprincipal woods used in the hardwood distillationindustry for the production of charcoal, aceticacid, and wood alcohol.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is light reddish brownand sometimes shows greenish-black streaks nearinjuries. Pores are extremely small and not visi-ble on any surface. Wood rays may be seen onthe end grain and especially on quartersawedfaces, where the higher rays are distinctivebecause of their color and size and smaller raysappear as fine lines between them. The woodrays may also be seen on plainsawed surfaces asvery small darker colored flecks that are parallelto the grain of the wood. (Illus tr at ion , p. 18 .)

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Y e l l o w - p o p l a r (Liriod en dr on tulip ifera)

Range.-Yellow-poplar grows in all the Stateseast of the Mississippi River except Maine, NewHampshire, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and in partsof Oklahoma and Missouri. Virginia, NorthCarolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabamacontain more than half of the yellow-poplar saw-timber in the United States.

P r o p e r t i e s . Moderately light in weight, yel-low-poplar averages 30 pounds a cubic foot. The

wood is classed as moderately soft, with a specificgravity of 0.40, and is moderately low in bendingand compressive strength, moderately stiff, andmoderately low in shock resistance. Although itundergoes moderately large shrinkage when driedfrom a green condition, it is not difficult to seasonand stays in place well when seasoned. The heart-

wood is low to moderate in resistance to decay.Yellow-poplar ranks intermediate in machining

properties. Although low in nail -withdrawalresistance, it has little tendency to split whennailed. Also, the wood has an excellent reputation

Cot tonwood

Spec ies n am es .Eastern cottonwood (Populusdeltoides ), swamp cottonwood (P. heterophylla),and black cottonwood (P. trichocarpa).

Range.Eastern and swamp cottonwood growin small scattered stands or in mixture with otherspecies. They range from southern New England

westward to the southern part of the Lake Statesand southward to northern Florida and easternTexas, except in the Appalachian highlands fromNew York to Georgia and in the Ozark Mountainsof Arkansas and Missouri. Black cottonwoodgrows in the Pacific Coast States and in western

Montana, northern Idaho, and western Nevada.P r o p e r t i e s . The cottonwoods are moderately

light in weight, ranging from 24 to 28 pounds acubic foot. With a specific gravity of 0 . 3 7 ,eastern cottonwood is classified as moderatelysoft, while black cottonwoods specific gravity of0.32 classifies it as soft. The cottonwoods aremoderately weak in bending and compression,moderately limber, and moderately low in shockresistance.

Moderately large shrinkage is a characteristicof cottonwood and it requires careful seasoning if

for taking and holding paint, enamel, and staiand can be glued satisfactorily. Yellow-poplacontainers do not impart taste or odor to foostuffs, and the wood can be easily pulped by thchemical and semichemical processes.

Uses.The principal uses of yellow-poplar afor lumber, veneer, and pulpwood. The lumbegoes mostly into furniture, boxes and crateinterior finish, siding, fixtures, and musical instru

ments. The veneer is used extensively for finisfurniture, and various forms of cabinetwork.De scr ip t io n .Heartwood is brownish yellow

usually with a definite greenish tinge. The woorays, as seen on a smoothly cut end-grain surfacare somewhat more prominent than in cucumbetree. Positive identification of yellow-poplar ancucumbertree is best accomplished microscopicall

but it is possible to separate them on the basis gross features when both woods are at hand(Illustrat ion, p. 19 .)

(P o p u l u s)

warp is to be avoided. The heartwood has lodecay resistance and the wood is rather difficuto work with tools without producing chipped ofuzzy grain. Cottonwood is low in nail-withdrawal resistance but does not, split easily whenailed. The wood is classed among those thglue satisfactorily with moderate care. It has good reputation for holding paint.

Uses.A large proportion of the annual outpof cottonwood is cut into lumber and veneer anthen remanufactured into containers and furniturBoth lumber and veneer are used in the furnitur

industry for core material, which is overlaid withigh-grade furniture veneers.D escr ip t io n .Heartwood of all three cotton

wood species is grayish white to light grayisbrown with occasional streaks of light brownThe annual rings are rather wide. Pores ar

barely visible on smooth cut, end-grain surfaceAside from the color of the heartwood, cottonwoois extremely similar to black willow. Separatioof the two species is based mainly on heartwoocolor, which is light brown or reddish brown i

willow, or on microscopic examination if onsapwood material is available. (Illustrat ion , p . 19

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American beech American sycamore

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Rock elm

12

American elm


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Black walnut Black cherry


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14

True hickory White ash


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Quaking aspen Basswood


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Sweetgum Black tupelo

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White oak Red oak

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Yellow birch Sugar maple

18


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Yellow-poplar Eastern cottonwood

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Baldcypress Redwood

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Incense-cedar Western redcedar

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Sitka spruce Engelmann spruce

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Sugar pine Western white pine

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Western larch Douglas-fir

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Western hemlock White fir

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SOFTWOODS (Cone-Bearing Species)

Baldcypres s (Taxodium distichum )

Range.Baldcypress grows along the AtlanticCoastal Plain from Delaware to Florida and west-

ward along the gulf coast nearly to the Mexicanborder in Texas and up the Mississippi Valley tosouthern Indiana. The heaviest stands occur inthe swamps of the lower Mississippi Valley and

building construction, especial ly where decayresistance is required. It is frequently used forposts, beams, and other members in warehouses,docks, factories, and bridges. Because of its highdegree of resistance to decay, it is particularly

valuable for greenhouses, stadium seats, cooling

towers, and roof planks of dye houses.Florida.Pr oper t ies . Baldcypress is moderately heavy,with an average weight of 32 pounds a cubic foot,and moderately hard, with a specific gravity of0.42. The wood is also moderately strong andmoderately stiff. Its durability under conditionsfavorable to decay is outstanding.

Since green baldcypress lumber contains con-siderable moisture, it requires more care and timeto kiln-dry than many other softwoods. However,the wood has moderately small shrinkage andslow air-drying is successfully practiced. It doesnot impart taste, odor, or color to food products.

Uses.The principal use of baldcypress is in

Cypress is also used extensively for caskets andburial boxes and for sash, doors, blinds, interiortrim and paneling, and general millwork. Con-tainers, such as boxes, crates, vats, tanks, andtubs, require considerable quantities.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood varies in color frompale brown to blackish brown and sometimes hasa reddish tinge. The wood is without resin canals,and transition from springwood to summerwoodis abrupt, as in redwood. Heartwood of darkerspecimens generally has a more or less rancid odorand longitudinal surfaces feel distinctly greasyor waxy. (Illu strat ion , p . 20 .)

R e d w o o d (Sequoia sempervirens)

Range . Redwood grows along or near the coastof California in a narrow, irregular strip not morethan 35 miles wide and about 500 miles long, ex-tending from 100 miles south of San Francisco to alittle above the Oregon border. This massive treedoes not grow naturally outside this area, which ischaracterized by frequent fogs and considerablesoil moisture. Single acres of redwood have beenfound that contained over 1 million board-feet of

seasoning. Redwood has only intermediate nail-withdrawal resistance but takes and holds paintexceptionally well. Redwood, the cedars, and

baldcypress make up the group of woods with thehighest resistance to termites.

Uses.Probably from one-half to two-thirds ofthe redwood lumber produced is used in the formof planks, dimension, boards, joists, and posts. Alarge part of this material goes into framing forhouses and industrial buildings, and into bridges,

trestles, and other heavy construction. Much ofthe remaining lumber is remanufactured into housesiding, sash, blinds, doors, general millwork, out-door furniture, and tanks. Richly colored red-

wood paneling provides pleasing interior effects.

lumber.

Pr oper t ies . Typical virgin-growth redwood ismoderately light in weight, averaging 28 pounds acubic foot: The wood is moderately hard, with aspecific gravity of 0.38, moderately strong, andmoderately stiff. Except for shock resistance, ithas somewhat higher strength properties for its

weight than would be expected.Redwood is thought to owe its outstanding decay

resistance to the reddish extractive in the tree,which colors the wood and accounts for its name.The wood has very small shrinkage, is compara-tively easy to season, and holds its shape well after

Descript ion.Heartwood is usually a uniformdeep reddish brown. The wood is without resincanals and has no distinctive odor, taste, or feel.

Western redcedar may approach redwood in color,but the distinctive odor of western redcedar sepa-rates the two woods immediately. (Illustra tion,

p. 20 .)

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I n c e n s e - c e d a r (Liboced ru s decu rr ens)

Range.Incense-cedar grows from southwest-ern Oregon southward through California in toMexico and Lower California, with some smallstands in western Nevada. Most of the com-mercial cut is confined to the Sierra NevadaMountains in California and the mountain regionsof northern California and southern Oregon.

Pr oper t ies.A lightweight wood, incense-cedaraverages 26 pounds per cubic foot. The wood ismoderately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35,moderately weak, limber, and low in shockresistance.

Incense-cedar has small shrinkage and is com-paratively easy to season with little checkingor warping. It ranks among the most decay-resistant woods, along with cypress, redwood, andblack locust. Also, the wood splits readily andevenly. and is easy to work with tools. Incense-cedar is one of the woods that holds paint longestand suffers least when protection against weather-ing becomes inadequate.

Uses.The principal uses of incense-cedarare for lumber, fence posts, and crossties. Nearly

W e s te r n r e d c ed a r (Thuja plicata )

Range.Western redcedar grows in a belt alongthe western coast of North America from southern

Alaska to northern California. From northernWashington the range extends as far inland asMontana and then spreads a limited distancenorth and south on the western slopes of theRocky Mountains. More than two-thirds ofthe stand of sawtimber is located in the coastlowlands of Washington.

Pr oper t ies.Western redcedar is light in weight,

averaging 23 pounds a cubic foot. The wood ismoderately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.31,weak as a beam or post, moderately limber, andlow in ability to resist shock. In decay resistance,the heartwood ranks with the more durable woods.

The wood of western redcedar is not difficultto kiIn-dry when proper methods are used, butrequires more care in seasoning than other westerncedars. After it, has been properly dried, it staysin place well and has little tendency to warp.It is comparatively low in nail-withdrawal resist-ance but can be easily glued. Western redcedar

all the high-grade lumber is used in the manufacture of pencils and venetian blinds. Sincmost incense-cedar lumber is more or less peckyit is used locally for rough construction. Thqualities of incense-cedar that adapt it particularlyto pencil manufacture are straightness of grainsoftness, and ease of whittling. Its decay resistance makes it well suited for fence posts andcrossties.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is reddish brown todull brown, with an occasional tinge of lavenderHeartwood has a characteristic cedarlike odoand acrid taste. Shavings placed on the tongufor a few seconds give a slight burning sensationTransition from springwood to summerwood imore or less abrupt and makes the growth ringprominent on flat-grained surfaces. It is easieto produce a smooth cut on the end grain oincense-cedar than on western redcedar. Although incense-cedar and western redcednr cannoalways be separated with certainty on the basiof gross features, they can be readily distinguishedunder the microscope. (Illustrat ion , p . 21 .)

takes and holds paint very well and is exceptionallyweather resistant.

Uses.The principal uses of western redcedaare for shingles, lumber, poles, posts, and pilingThe lumber goes largely into exterior siding fohouses, interior finish, greenhouse constructionflumes, and structural timbers, with smalleamounts being used in the manufacture of shipand boats, caskets, boxes and crating, sash, doorsand general millwork. Round western redceda

poles, most of which are treated with a preservative, are shipped to all parts of the United Statefor use as utility poles.

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is reddish or pinkishbrown to dull brown. It has a characteristicedarlike odor, but shavings placed on the tongudo not give quite the sensation that incense-cedashavings do. Transition from springwood tosummerwood is the same as in incense-cedarThe wood is sometimes confused with redwood, buthe cedarlike odor of western redcedar separatethe two species immediately. (Illu st ra tion , p. 21 .

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S hor t l ea f p i ne (Pinus echinata)

Range.Shortleaf pine, which has the widestdistribution of the southern pines, grows through-out most of the southeastern United States. It isgenerally a tree of the uplands and foothills, butits range extends into the lower levels. Stands ofshortleaf pine are concentrated in Arkansas, butTexas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi alsocontain large stands.

Pr oper t ies . Shortleaf pine, a moderately heavy

wood but, ranking with the lightest of the im-portant southern pines, has an average weight of36 pounds a cubic foot. Typically, the wood ismoderately hard, with a specific gravity of 0.46,moderately strong, stiff, and moderately shockresistant. The heartwood is moderately decayresistant.

Like all southern pines, shortleaf has moderatelylarge shrinkage but tends to stay in place wellafter seasoning. In nail-withdrawal resistance, itranks above hemlock, spruce, and Douglas-fir.And, like other southern pines, it produces aresinous substance from which turpentine androsin can be made.

P o n d e r o s a p i n e

Range.-Ponderosa pine grows in every Statewest, of the Great Plains, with the largest standsand greatest commercial production in California,Oregon, and Washington. The tree is found on a

wide variety of soils, sites, and elevations andoccurs both in pure stands and in mixture withother species. Because it can maintain itself ondry sites, this tree is the principal species on areasof low rainfall.

P ro p e r t i e s .The wood of Ponderosa pine variesconsiderably in its properties. However, in theouter portions of trees of sawtimber size, it gen-erally is moderately light in weight, averaging 28pounds per cubic foot, and moderately soft, witha specific gravity of 0.38. This wood also ranksas moderately weak, moderately limber, and mod-erately low in shock resistance. It has moderatelysmall shrinkage and little tendency to warp.

Ponderosa pine compares favorably with woodsof similar density in nail-withdrawal resistance, isnot easily split by nails, and glues easily. Theheartwood has low to moderate decay resistance.

Uses.Shortleaf pine lumber is used prin-cipally for building material such as interior finish,ceiling, frames, sash, sheathing, subflooring, and

joists, and for boxes and crates, caskets, furniture,woodenware, and novelties. Considerable use isalso made of shortleaf pine for crossties, telephoneand telegraph poles, and mine timbers. In addi-tion, the resin-rich heartwood is distilled to make

wood turpentine, tar, and tar oils. Large amounts

of this southern pine are used for paper pulp.Descr ip t ion . Heartwood ranges from shades

of yellow and orange to reddish brown or lightbrown. Transition from springwood to summer-wood is abrupt, with the annual rings prominenton all surfaces. Resin canals are large and abund-ant and are easily found in all annual rings.Summerwood bands are generally wider thanthose of ponderosa pine. In appearance, the woodof shortleaf pine closely resembles that of long-leaf, loblolly, and slash, the other principalsouthern pines. (Illus tr at ion , p. 22 .)

(Pinus Ponderosa)

Uses.Ponderosa pine is used principally forlumber and, to a lesser extent, for piling, poles,posts, mine timbers, veneer, and hewn ties. Thelumber has a variety of uses ranging from high-grade millwork to boxes and crates. For cabinetsand millwork, the clearer, softer material is used,

while the manufacture of boxes and crates con-sumes the lower grade lumber. Knotty ponderosapine has come into wide use as paneling for interiorfinish.

Descr ip t ion .Heartwood is yellowish to light red-dish or orange brown. Transition from springwoodto summerwood is abrupt as in the southern pines,

but the summerwood bands are narrow. Growthrings are generally most prominent on the flat-grained surfaces, which also frequently exhibit adimpled appearance. This appearance is common inlodgepole pine too, but in lodgepole the dimples aresmaller and more abundant. The resin canals ofponderosa pine are abundant and easily found inall annual rings. They are larger than those inlodgepole pine, and the heartwood of lodgepolepine is lighter colored than that of ponderosa.(Illu stra tion , p . 22 .)

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S i tk a s p ru c e (Picea sitchensis)

R a n g e . Sitka spruce grows along the Pacificcoast from Alaska to northern California. Itis rarely found over 40 miles from the coast andgenerally grows in mixture with Douglas-fir,grand fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar.It occasionally forms pure stands.

Pr oper t ies. Sitka spruce is a moderately light-weight wood, averaging 28 pounds a cubic foot.The wood also is moderately soft, with a specific

gravity of 0.37, moderately weak in bending andcompressive strength, moderately stiff, and moder-ately low in resistance to shock. On the basisof weight, however, it ranks high in strengthproperties.

Al th oug h the wo od has mod er at ely lar geshrinkage, it is not difficult to kiln-dry. It workseasily, holds fastenings well, and can be obtainedin clear, straight-grained pieces of large size anduniform texture with hardly any hidden defects.Its decay resistance is low. Although planedsurfaces of Sitka spruce lumber may show a silkysheen, the wood has a tendency to produce woolyor fuzzy grain under the action of planer knives.As a pulpwood, Sitka spruce ranks high because of

its long, strong fibers and the ease with whichcan be pulped by any of the pulping processes.

Uses.Sitka spruce is used principally lumber, cooperage, and paper pulp. Some of tlumber is used for construction just as it comfrom the sawmill, but the greater part is remanfactured into various products. At least half the remanufactured lumber goes into boxes acrates. The other major uses of the lumber for furniture, planing-mill products, sash, doo

blinds, and general millwork. Specialty uses clude aircraft, ladder rails, and piano soundi

boards.De s c r ip t i o n .Heartwood is light pinkish yell

to pale brown. Transition from springwood summerwood is gradual, making the annual rinappear rather inconspicuous on flat-grained sufaces. Resin canals are usually more prominethan in the other spruces. On end-grain sufaces, the canals appear as small dots or veshort lines that run parallel to the growth rinFlat-grained surfaces are lustrous and frequenexhibit dimpling. The pinkish color of the hea

wood distinguishes this species from all othspruces. (Illustrat ion , p . 23.)

E n g e l m a n n s p r u c e (Picea engelmannii)

Range.In the United States, Engelmannspruce grows along the upper slopes of the CascadeMountains in Washington, Oregon, and the ex-treme northern part of California, and in the RockyMountains in northeastern Washington, north-eastern Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colo-rado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. Thelargest producers of Engelmann spruce are Colo-

rado, Montana, and Idaho.Pr oper t ies. Engelmann spruce is rated as light

in weight, averaging 24 pounds a cubic foot. Th ewood is soft, with a specific gravity of 0.32, and isweak as a beam or post, moderately limber, andlow in ability to resist shock.

Engelmann spruce can be readily air-dried withlittle tendency to warp. It has moderately smallshrinkage and stays in place well when properlydried. The wood is low in decay resistance butglues easily under a wide range of gluing condi-t ion s. Engelmann space has excellent pulpingand papermaking properties.

Uses.Engelmann spruce is used principafor lumber and to a lesser extent for mine timbecrossties, and poles. A large proportion of tlumber goes into building construction and boxMuch of it is used for subflooring, sheathing, astudding. Some Engelmann spruce is pulped fpaper.

D escr ip t io n .Heartwood is not distinct fro

sapwood and ranges from nearly white to payellowish brown. Transition from springwood summerwood is somewhat more abrupt than in tother spruces. Resin canals are present, but afrequently difficult to find. They appear on vesmoothly cut, end-grain sections as small whdots and on longitudinal surfaces as short, ligh

brown streaks or very fine grooves. The wood all the spruces, with the exception of Sitka, is vesimilar in its gross and microscopic features atherefore almost impossible to tell apart. (Illutration, p. 23.)

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S u g a r p i n e (Pinus lambertiana)

Range.Sugar pine grows from the Coast andCascade Mountain Ranges of southern Oregon,along the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevadaof California, through southern California inscattered stands, and into Mexico. The heavieststands and largest trees are found in Californiafrom Tulare to Eldorado Counties, in cool, moistsites on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada atelevations of4,000 to 7,000 feet.

Pr oper t ies. Sugar pine is lightweight, averag-ing 25 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is moder-ately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35, moder-ately limber, moderately weak, and low in shockresistance.

In decay resistance, sugar pine heartwood israted low to moderate. The wood has very smallshrinkage, seasons readily without checking orwarping, and stays in place well. It is easy towork with tools, does not split easily in nailing,and has moderate nail-withdrawal resistance.

Uses.Sugar pine is used almost entirely forlumber in buildings, boxes and crates, sash, doors,frames, general millwork, and foundry patterns.It is suitable for all phases of house construction,

with the high-grade material going into interiorand exterior trim, siding, and paneling, while thelower grade material is used for sheathing, sub-flooring, and roof boards.

The wood also has proved very satisfactory forcontainers because of its light weight and color,nailing properties, and freedom from taste andodor. Sugar pine is widely used for foundrypatterns because it meets the exacting require-ments and is readily available in wide, thickpieces practically free from defects.

D escr ip t io n .Heartwood is light brown to palereddish brown. Resin canals are abundant andcommonly stain the surface of the wood withresin. Transition from springwood to summer-wood is gradual; making the growth rings appearless prominent on flat-grained surfaces. (Illu st ra-tion, p. 24 .)

W e s t e r n w h i t e p i n e (Pinus monticola)

Range.Western white pine grows from theCanadian border southward into western Montanaand northern Idaho, and along the Cascade andSierra Nevada Mountains through Washingtonand Oregon to central California. The heavieststands occur in northern Idaho and in adjacentparts of Montana and Washington. The treesusually grow in mixture with western hemlock,

western redcedar, western larch, grand fir, andDouglas-fir, but occasionally occur in pure standson limited areas.

Properties.-Moderately light in weight, west-ern white pine averages 27 pounds a cubic foot.The wood is moderately soft, with a specificgravity of 0.36, weak, moderately stiff, and mod-erately low in ability to resist shock.

Although the wood has moderately large shrink-age, it is easy to kiln-dry and stays in place wellafter seasoning. In decay resistance, it is rankedas low to moderate. Western white pine workseasily with tools and glues readily. It does not

split easily in nailing and occupies an intermediateposition in nail-withdrawal resistance.

Uses.-Practically all of the western white pinecut is sawed into lumber. About three-fourths ofthis lumber is used in building construction. Thelower grades are used for subflooring and wall androof sheathing, while the high-grade material ismade into siding of various kinds, exterior andinterior trim, partition, casing, base, and paneling.Other uses of western white pine include matchplanks, boxes, and millwork products.

D e s c r i p t i o n . Heartwood is cream colored tolight brown or reddish brown. Resin canals areabundant and transition from springwood tosummerwood is like that in sugar pine. Separationof western white pine and sugar pine is generallyaccomplished on the basis of the resin canals.

which are larger in sugar pine than in the otherwhite pines. Microscopic characteristics, however,offer a more reliable means of differentiation thangross features. (Illu st ra tion , p . 24 .)

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W e s t e r n l a r c h (Larix occiden ta lis)

Range.Western larch grows in mountainvalleys and on slopes at elevations of 2,000 to7,000 feet in Washington, Oregon, western Mon-tana, and northern Idaho. It reaches its bestdevelopment and greatest commercial importancein northern Idaho and western Montana, where itis generally associated with other species, althoughsometimes forming pure forests of limited extent.

P ro p er t i e s .A heavy wood, western larch has

an average weight of 38 pounds per cubic foot.Also, it is moderately hard, with a specific gravityof 0.51, stiff, strong,shock resistance.

and moderately high in

Western larch and Douglas-fir are frequentlylogged together and sold in mixture under thecommercial name of larch-fir. Heartwood of

both species is moderately decay resistant. West-ern larch has large shrinkage in drying and presentsseasoning problems because of the slowness with

which it gives up its moisture. Although it ranks

high in nail-withdrawal resistance, small or blunpointed nails are preferred to reduce splitting.

Uses.Western larch is used principally building construction as rough dimension, smtimbers, planks, and boards. Considerabamounts also are made into crossties and mintimbers. Probably three-fourths of the lumbproduced is used for structural purposes as comes from the sawmill. Some of the high-gra

lumber is remanufactured into interior finisflooring, sash, doors, blinds, and other productDes cr ip t io n .Heartwood is russet brown an

the color is best seen in summerwood bands oflat-grained surfaces. Resin canals are presen

but are very small and difficult to find unless thresin has stained the wood surfaces or the exudtion actually appears as very small dropletTransition from springwood to summerwood abrupt and there is little difference in color btween the two zones. The heartwood lacks distinctive odor. (Illustrat ion , p. 25 .)

D o u g l a s - f i r (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

R a n g e . - I n the United States, Douglas-firgrows in most forests from the Rocky Mountainsto the Pacific coast and from the Mexican toCanadian borders. Botanically it is not a truefir. It reaches its largest size and fastest rate ofgrowth in Washington and Oregon, where largetrees form very dense forests that sometimes

yield as much as 100,000 board-feet of lumberper acre.

P ro p e r t i e s . Most old-growth Douglas-fir fromthe Pacific coast and northern Rocky MountainStates is moderately heavy, very stiff, moderately

strong, and moderately shock resistant. It aver-ages about 33 pounds a cubic foot. The wood isalso moderately hard, with an average specificgravity ranging from 0.40 to 0.48. Wide-ringedsecond-growth Douglas-fir from the coastal Statesand material grown in the southern Rocky Moun-tain States tends to be lighter in weight and tohave lower strength properties.

The wood of Douglas-fir can be readily kiln-dried if proper methods are used. Although it ismore difficult to work with handtools than the

soft pines, it holds fastenings well and can be gluesatisfactorily. Dense heartwood has moderadecay resistance.

Uses.The principal uses of Douglas-fir afor lumber, timbers, piling, and plywood. Rmanufactured lumber. goes mostly into sash, doorgeneral millwork, railroad car construction anrepair, and boxes and crates. Plywood is now

wide use for sheathing, concrete forms, prefabricted house panels, millwork, ships and boats, another structural forms. Chipped Douglas-fir sawmill residue has a considerable market at pulp mill

Des cr ip t io n .Heartwood is orange red to reor sometimes yellowish. Resin canals, which aseen as brownish streaks in the summerwooappear to be more abundant and more readidetectable than in western larch. Transition fromspringwood to summerwood is similar to that i

western larch. The heartwood of Douglas-fir mabe confused with that of the southern yellow pinebut resin canals are larger and much more abundant in southern pines. Most Douglas-fir has distinctive odor. (Illus tr ation , p. 25 .)

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GLOSSARY

An nua l gro w th ri ng. The growth layer put on in a singlegrowth year, including springwood and summerwood.

Bar k. Outer layer of a tree, comprising the inner bark,or thin, inner living part (phloem) and the outer

bark, or corky layer, composed of dry, dead tissue.Bea m .A structural member supporting a load appliedtransversely to it.

Ben din g, steam .The process of forming curved woodmembers by steaming or boiling the wood and bendingit to a form.

Bird s-ey e. Small localized areas in wood with the fibersindented and otherwise contorted to form few tomany small circular or elliptical figures remotelyresembling birds eyes on the tangential surface.Common in sugar maple and used for decorativepurposes: rare in other hardwood species.

Bow.-The distortion in a board that deviates from flat-ness lengthwise but not across its faces.

Broad -lea ved tr ees .(See Ha rd w oods.)Cambium.The one-cell-thick layer of tissue between the

bark and wood that re peatedly subdiv ides to formnew wood and bark cells.

Cell.A general term for the minute units of wood

structure, including wood fibers, vessels members,and other elements of diverse structure and function.Check.A lengthwise separation of the wood, usually

extending across the rings of annual growth andcommonly resulting from stresses set up in the woodduring seasoning.

Collapse. The flattening of groups of cells in heartwooddur ing the dr y ing or p r es sur e t r ea tment o f wood,characterized by a caved-in or corrugated appearance.

Crook. The distortion in a board that deviates edgewisefrom a straight line from end to end of the board.

Cup.The distortion in a board that deviates flatwisefrom a straight line across the width of the board.

Decay. The decomposition of wood substance by fungi.A dv an ced (or t y pi cal ) decay.-The older stage of decay

in which the destruction is readily recognized becausethe wood has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy,r ingshaked , p i t t ed , o r c r umbly . Dec ided d i sco lor a -tion or bleaching of the rotted wood is often apparent.

In cipien t decay . The early stage of decay that hasn o t p r o c e e d e d f a r e n o u g h t o s o f t e n o r o t h e r w i s eper cep t ib ly impa i r the ha r dnes s o f the wood. I t i susua l ly accompanied by a s l igh t d i s co lor a t ion orbleaching of the wood.

De n sit y . The weight of a body per unit volume. Whenexpressed in the c. g. s. (centimeter-gram-second)system, it is numerically equal to the specific gravityof the same substance.

Di f fu se- por ou s w oo d .Certain hardwoods in which thepores tend to be uniform in size and distributionthroughout each annual ring or to decrease in sizeslightly and gradually toward the outer border of thering.

Dim en sion .(See Lum ber .)Di m en sio n st oc k .A term largely superseded by the term

hardwood dimension lumber. It is hardwood stockprocessed to a point where the maximum waste isleft at a dimension mill, and the maximum utility is

delivered to the user. It is stock of specified thickness,width, and length, in mult iple s thereof. According tospecification, it may be solid or glued; rough or sur-faced; semifabricated or completely fabricated.

Di m en sio n a l s t abi li za t io n .Reduction through specialtreatment in swelling and shrinking of wood, causedby changes in its moisture content with changes inrelative humidity.

Dr y k il n .- (S ee K il n .)D r y rot.-A term loosely applied to any dry, crumbly r

but espe cial ly to tha t which, whe n in an advancestage, permits the wood to be crushed easily to a d

powder. The term is actually a misnomer, since awood-rot ting fungi re quir e consid erable moistufor growth.

Early wood.(See Springwood.)Ed ge-g ra in ed .(See Grain.)Extractives. Substances in wood, not an integral part

the cellular structure, that can be removed by solutioin hot or cold water, ether, benzene, or other solventhat do not react chemically with wood component

Fiber, wood.A comparatively long (one twenty-fifth less to one-third inch), narrow, tapering wood ceclosed at both ends.

Figure. The pattern produced in a wood surface by annugrowth rings, rays, knots, deviations from regulgrain such as interlocked and wavy grain, and irregulacoloration.

Finish.Wood products to be used in the joiner worsuch as doors and stairs, and other fine work requireto complete a building, especially the interior.

Flakes.(See Ra ys, w ood.)Flat-grained.(See Grain.)

Framing.Lumber used for the structural members of building, such as studs and joists.

Girder.A large or principal beam used to support cocentrated loads at points along its length.

Grade.-The designation of quality of a manufacturepiece of wood or of logs.

Grain.The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, quality of the elements in wood or lumber. To have specific meaning the term must be qualified.

Close-grained wood.Wood with narrow, inconspicuouannual rings. The term is sometimes used to desinate wood having small and closely spaced pores, buin this sense the term fine textured is more ofteused.

Coarse-grained wood.Wood with wide conspicuoannual rings in which there is considerable differen

between springwood and summerwood. The term sometimes used to designate wood with large poresuch as oak, ash, chestnut, and walnut, but in thsense the term coarse textured is more often used

Cross-grained wood.Wood in which the fibers deviafrom a line parallel to the sides of the piece. Crosgrain may be either diagonal or spiral grain, or combination of the two.

Curly-grained wood.Wood in which the fibers adistorted so that they have a curled appearance, ain birds-eye wood. The areas showing curly graimay vary up to several inches in diameter.

Di agon a l- g ra in ed w oo d .Wood in which the annurings are at an angle with the axis of a piece as result of sawing at an angle with the bark of the treor log. A form of cross grain.

Ed ge-gr ai ned lum be r.Lumber that has been sawed sthat the wide surfaces extend approximately at righangles to the annual growth rings. Lumber is con

sidered edge grained when the rings form an angle o45 to 90 with the wide surface of the piece.Fine-grained wood.(See Grain, close-grained wood.)Flat-grained lumber.Lumber that has been sawed s

the wide surfaces extend approximately parallel to thannual growth rings. Lumber is considered flagrained when the annual growth rings make an angof less than 45 with the surface of the piece.

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GrainContinuedIn ter locked-arain ed w ood.Wood in which the fibers are

inclined in one direction in a number of rings of annualgrowth, then gradually reverse and are inclined in anopposite direction in succeeding growth rings, thenreverse again.

Open-grained wood.Common classification by paintersfor woods with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut,and walnut. Also known as coarse textured.

P l a i n s a w e d l u m b e r . Another term for flat-grainedlumber.

Quar t ersawed l umber .Another term for edge-grainedlumber.

Spiral -grained wood.Wood in which the fibers take aspiral course about the trunk of a tree instead of the

normal vertical course. The spiral may extend in aright-handed or left-handed direction around the treetrunk. Spiral grain is a form of cross grain.

Straight-grained wood.Wood in which the fibers runparallel to the axis of a piece.

Vertical-grained lumber.Another term for edge-grainedlumber.

Wavy-grained wood.Wood in which the fibers collec-tively take the form of waves or undulations.

Green.Freshly sawed lumber, or lumber that has receivedno intentional drying; unseasoned. The term doesnot apply to lumber that may have become completelywet through waterlogging.

Ha rd w ood s. Generally, the botanical group of trees thathave broad leaves, in contrast to the conifers or soft-wo od s. The term has no re fe ren ce to the act ua lhardness of the wood.

Hear tw ood. The wood extending from the pith to thesapwood, the cells of which no longer participate in

the life processes of the tree. Heartwood may beinfiltrated with gums, resins, and other materials thatusually make it darker and more decay resistant thansapwood.

Ho ne ycom bin g.Checks, often not visible at the surface,that occur in the interior of a piece of wood, usuallyalong the wood rays.

Jo in t. The junction of two pieces of wood or veneer.Jo is t. One of a series of parallel beams used to support

floor and ceiling loads and supported in turn by largerbeams, girders,-or bearing walls.

Kiln.A heated chamber for drying lumber, veneer, andother wood products.

Knot.That portion of a branch or limb which has beensurrounded by subsequent growth of the wood of thetrunk or other portion of the tree. As a knot appearson the sawed surface, it is merely a section of theentire knot, its shape depending upon the directionof the cut.

Long itudinal. Generally, the direction along the lengthof the grain of wood.Lu m ber .The product of the saw and planing mill, not

further manufactured than by sawing, resawing, pass-ing lengthwise through a standard planing machine,cross-cutting to length, and matching.

Boar ds.Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and 1or more inches wide.

Dim en sio n .Lumber from 2 inches to, but not including5 inches thick, and 2 or more inches wide.

Dr es sed si ze .The dimensions of lumber after shrinkingfrom the green dimensions and being surfaced witha planing machine to usually 3/8 or inch less thanthe nominal or rough size. For example, a 2 - by4-inch stud actually measures 1 5/8 by 3 5/8 inches underAmerican lumber standards for softwood lumber.

N om in a l s iz e. As applied to timber or lumber, therough-sawed commercial size by which it is knownand-sold in the market.

Structural lumber.Lumber that is 2 or more inchesthick and 4 or more inches wide. intended for usewhere working stresses are required. The grading ofstructural lumber is based on the strength of thepiece and the use of the entire piece.

Timbers.Lumber 5 or more inches in least dimension.Timbers may be classified as beams, stringers, posts,caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc.

Med ullar y rays.(See Ra ys, w ood.)Millw or k . Gen er al ly , a l l b u il d ing m ateria l s m ade o f

finished wood and manufactured in millwork plantsand planing mills. Includes such items as insideand outside doors, window and door frames, blinds,porch work, mantels, panel work, stairways, moldings,and interior trim. Does not include flooring, ceiling,or siding.

Moistu re conten t of w ood.The amount of water containedin the wood. Usually expressed as a percentage ofthe weight of the ovendry wood.

Na va l s tor es.A term applied to the oils, resins, tars, andpitches derived from oleoresin contained in, exuded by,or extracted from trees chiefly of the pine species(genus Pinus) or from the wood of such trees.

Old growth.Timber growing in or harvested from amature, naturally established forest. When the treeshave grown most or all of their individual lives inactive competition with their companions for sun-light and moisture, this timber is usually straightand relatively free of knots.

Ovendry wood. Wo od dr ied to co ns ta nt we igh t in anoven at temperatures above that of boiling water(usually 101 to 105 C. or 214 to 221 F.).

Peck.Pockets or areas of disintegrated wood caused byadvanced stages of localized decay in the living tree.It is usually associated with cypress and incense-cedar. Ther e is n o fur ther d evel o pmen t o f pec k once the lumber is seasoned.

Pitch pocket .An opening that extends parallel to theannual growth rings and that contains, or has con-tained, either solid or liquid pitch.

Pitch streak.A well-defined accumulation of pitch in amore or less regular streak in the wood of certain

softwoods.Pith.The small, soft core occurring in the structuralcenter of a tree trunk, branch, twig, or log.

Plainsawed. (See Grain.)Planing-mill products.Products worked to pattern, such

as flooring, ceiling, and siding.Plywood.An assembly made of layers (plies) of veneer, or

of veneer in combination with a lumber core, joinedwi th an ad he si ve . Th e gr ai n of ad jo in in g pl ie s isusually laid at right angles, and almost always an oddnumber of plies are used to obtain balanced con-struction.

Pore.(See Vessels.)Porous woods.Another name for hardwoods, which fre-

quently have vessels or pores large enough to be seenreadily without magnification.

Preservative.Any substance that is effective, for a reason-able length of time, in preventing the developmentand action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various

kinds, and harmful insects that deteriorate wood.Quartersawed.(See Grain.)Radial. Coincident with a radius from the axis of the tree

or log to the circumference. A radial section is alengthwise section in a plane that extends from pithto bark.

Ra te of grow th.The rate at which a tree has laid on wood.measured radially in the trunk or in lumber cut fromthe trunk. The unit of measure in use is number ofannual growth rings per inch.

Ra ys, w oodStrips of cells extending radially within a treeand varying in height from a few cells in some speciesto 4 or more inches in oak. The rays serve primarilyto store food and transport it horizontally in the tree.

Res in pas sa ge (o r du ct ) .Intercellular passages that con-tain and transmit resinous materials. On a cut sur-face, they are usually inconspicuous. They may ex-tend vertically parallel to the axis of the tree or atright angles to the axis and parallel to the rays.

Rin g- por ou s w oods.A group of hardwoods in which thepores are comparatively large at the beginning of eachannual ring and decrease in size more or less abruptlytoward the outer portion of the ring, thus forming adistinct inner zone of pores, known as the springwood,and an outer zone with smaller pores, known as thesummerwood.

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