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Ancient Mesoamerica http://journals.cambridge.org/ATM Additional services for Ancient Mesoamerica: Email alerts: Click here Subscriptions: Click here Commercial reprints: Click here Terms of use : Click here USE OF AGUADAS AS WATER MANAGEMENT SOURCES IN TWO SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLAND SITES Ezgi Akpinar Ferrand, Nicholas P. Dunning, David L. Lentz and John G. Jones Ancient Mesoamerica / Volume 23 / Issue 01 / March 2012, pp 85 101 DOI: 10.1017/S0956536112000065, Published online: 13 June 2012 Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0956536112000065 How to cite this article: Ezgi Akpinar Ferrand, Nicholas P. Dunning, David L. Lentz and John G. Jones (2012). USE OF AGUADAS AS WATER MANAGEMENT SOURCES IN TWO SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLAND SITES. Ancient Mesoamerica, 23, pp 85101 doi:10.1017/ S0956536112000065 Request Permissions : Click here Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/ATM, IP address: 148.207.14.66 on 10 Jul 2013

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Page 1: Use of Aguadas- Ferrand

Ancient Mesoamericahttp://journals.cambridge.org/ATM

Additional services for Ancient Mesoamerica:

Email alerts: Click hereSubscriptions: Click hereCommercial reprints: Click hereTerms of use : Click here

USE OF AGUADAS AS WATER MANAGEMENT SOURCES IN TWO SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLAND SITES

Ezgi Akpinar Ferrand, Nicholas P. Dunning, David L. Lentz and John G. Jones

Ancient Mesoamerica / Volume 23 / Issue 01 / March 2012, pp 85 ­ 101DOI: 10.1017/S0956536112000065, Published online: 13 June 2012

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0956536112000065

How to cite this article:Ezgi Akpinar Ferrand, Nicholas P. Dunning, David L. Lentz and John G. Jones (2012). USE OF AGUADAS AS WATER MANAGEMENT SOURCES IN TWO SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLAND SITES. Ancient Mesoamerica, 23, pp 85­101 doi:10.1017/S0956536112000065

Request Permissions : Click here

Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/ATM, IP address: 148.207.14.66 on 10 Jul 2013

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USE OF AGUADAS AS WATER MANAGEMENTSOURCES IN TWO SOUTHERN MAYA LOWLANDSITES

Ezgi Akpinar Ferrand,a Nicholas P. Dunning,b David L. Lentz,c and John G. JonesdaDepartment of Geography, Southern Connecticut State University, 118 Morrill Hall, New Haven, CT 06515bDepartment of Geography, University of Cincinnati, 401 Braunstein Hall, Cincinnati, OH 45221cDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, 614 Rieveschl Hall, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006dDepartment of Anthropology, Washington State University, PO Box 644910, Pullman, WA 99164-4910

Abstract

Aguadas, either natural or human-made ponds, were significant sources of water for the ancient Maya. Aguadas are common features in theMaya Lowlands and make valuable locations for collecting archaeological and paleoenvironmental data. This article discussesresearch conducted at four aguadas around two adjacent Maya sites, San Bartolo and Xultun in Peten, Guatemala. Both San Bartolo andXultun were established during the Preclassic period. However, the fates of the two sites differed, as Xultun continued to prosper while thecity of San Bartolo was abandoned near the close of the Late Preclassic period. We argue that aguadas provide important clues forunderstanding the fate of these two ancient communities and many others in the Maya Lowlands.

Aguadas are the most common water resource in the southern MayaLowlands. Naturally occurring aguadas originate from collapse ordissolution sinkholes (Monroe 1970). They are usually found at themargins of bajos (larger karst depressions) and along the fracturedbedrock of karst uplands (Siemens 1978). Most of the naturallyoccurring aguadas in the vicinity of ancient Maya settlementswere later lined by the Maya with clay, plaster and/or stone-facingto improve their ability to hold water (Adams 1981; Ancona 1889;Wahl et al. 2007). However, aguadas could also be human-madedepressions, such as ancient quarries that were later transformedto store water (Bullard 1960; Dunning et al. 2007; Hester andShafer 1984; Weiss-Krejci and Sabbas 2002). Given the seasonal-ity of available precipitation and the porous nature of the karst land-scape of the southern Maya Lowlands, aguadas were likely asignificant aspect of ancient Maya daily life.

Historically, numerous aguadas have been identified in theMaya Lowlands, though only a few have been studied as valuablesources for paleoenvironmental and archaeological data (e.g.,Dunning et al. 2003; Wahl et al. 2006). In March and April of2005 and 2007, a University of Cincinnati research team undertookarchaeological and paleoenvironmental investigations, underNicholas P. Dunning’s supervision, in several aguadas near theancient Maya sites of San Bartolo and Xultun in northeast Peten,Guatemala in order to gain insight into the histories of these com-munities within the context of environmental change and adaptation(Dunning et al. 2005, 2007). Our investigations revealed valuableinformation about local land use, environmental change and water-management systems around San Bartolo and Xultun during theancient Maya period.

STUDY AREA

The Peten makes an attractive study area for archaeological andpaleoenvironmental investigations since its physical environmentremained considerably intact after the 1697 Spanish seizure ofTayasal until 1970, though rapid change has occurred since then(Schwartz 1990). San Bartolo and Xultun are situated in the ThreeRivers physiographic region along the fractured eastern edge ofthe central Peten Karst Plateau, consisting of stepped escarpmentsdividing karst uplands and lowland bajos (Dunning et al. 1998).Both San Bartolo and Xultun are located to the south of the sprawl-ing Bajo de Azúcar and alongside Bajo Itz’ul to the west and north-west. Seasonal swamps and vertisol soils predominate within thesebajos. Ixcan Río is the only river close to San Bartolo and Xultun,connecting several small bajos east of the two sites before draininginto the Bajo de Azúcar. The river largely desiccates during the dryseason (Garrison 2007; Garrison and Dunning 2009).

The climate of the northeast Peten is classified as Köppen Amwith a tropical wet/dry climatic regime. The majority of the rainfallin the region occurs during late May to December, and the dryperiod is experienced between January and May (Dunning et al.2003; Wahl et al. 2007). In Peten, the annual rainfall variesbetween 900 to 2,500 mm with a regional average of 1,600 mm.Additionally, the interannual variation in rainfall is unpredictable,as the seasonal migration of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zoneand the Azores-Bermuda high pressure system varies on bothshort- and long-term temporal scales (Mueller et al. 2009;Rosenmeier et al. 2002).

The biodiversity in the Peten forests is not as rich as the tropicalforests of Costa Rica or rain forests of the Amazon. Nonetheless, thePeten still enjoys substantial species diversity (Reining andHeinzman 1992). The modern vegetation around and between the

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E-mail correspondence to: [email protected]

Ancient Mesoamerica, 23 (2012), 85–101Copyright © Cambridge University Press, 2012doi:10.1017/S0956536112000065

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sites of San Bartolo and Xultun include upland, transitional andbajo forests (Table 1). The perennially or seasonally wet depressionsformed by aguadas typically include sedges, ferns and grasses, andarboreal species that are common to transitional upland forests.Additionally, as freshwater ecosystems, aguadas act as importanthabitats to a number of mammals, avifauna, fish, gastropods andzooplankton (Goulden 1966; Lohse 2004; Moholy-Nagy 1978;Reyes 2004).

AGUADAS OF SAN BARTOLO AND XULTUN

San Bartolo (16 Q 245036 E, 1940939 N) and Xultun (16 Q 243368E, 1934323 N) are two ancient Maya sites that are 8 km distant fromone another in northeast Peten. Both were significant Preclassicperiod centers. San Bartolo is a mid-sized site that occupies anarea of 4 km2, whereas Xultun includes a very large settlementarea that covers at least 16 km2 (Garrison 2007; Garrison andDunning 2009). San Bartolo is particularly well known due to theexistence of the earliest known examples of Maya writing andmural paintings dating to the third and second centuries b.c.

(Saturno et al. 2006). San Bartolo, abandoned at the end of theLate Preclassic period, was resettled briefly during the LateClassic period, probably as settlement pushed outward from

Xultun. The city of Xultun developed into one of the largestClassic period Maya centers in the region, becoming an importantterritorial capital (Garrison 2007; Garrison and Dunning 2009).

Interestingly, only one aguada (Aguada San Bartolo) occurs inthe urban heart (city-center) of San Bartolo, whereas six aguadasare known to exist in the sprawling urban zone of Xultun. Theaguadas reported in this article are situated in either the urban settle-ment zone or hinterlands (rural areas) of the two centers. They arelocally known as Aguada Los Loros (16 Q 248318 1942780),Aguada Chintiko (16 Q 247949 1941025), Aguada Delirio (16 Q243681 1936336) and Aguada Los Tambos (16 Q 2440371932227) (Figure 1). Earlier investigations conducted at AguadaSan Bartolo, Aguada Tintal, and Aguada Hormiguero are brieflysummarized later in this article.

The study aguadas Los Loros and Chintiko are located in thehinterlands of San Bartolo. In comparison to urban San Bartolo,the settlement density around these aguadas appears much lessdense. Aguada Los Loros is situated 3.6 km northeast of SanBartolo on the border of a small upland bajo. Aguada Chintiko isfound in a rural upland location with small bajos nearby, 3.2 kmsoutheast of San Bartolo. Aguada Delirio is located within theurban settlement zone 2 km to the north of the Xultun site center.This aguada gets its name from chicleros (gum tappers) whobecome ‘delirious’ when they find the aguada dry. Lastly,Aguada Los Tambos is situated 2.2 km south of Xultun withinthe site’s sprawling urban settlement zone (Dunning et al. 2007).

METHODOLOGY

As a part of the archaeological and paleoenvironmental investi-gation of the aguadas, we retrieved sediment cores from the interiorof the aguadas. Also, excavations were performed to further clarifytheir function and to acquire soil samples for further analysis. Weobtained accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) dates to establishsediment core chronologies and analyzed pollen from coresamples. We also examined sediment texture and chemistry,organic content, x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electronmicroscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) images,and micro and macro paleobotanical remains from core and soilsamples.

We extracted sediment cores from Aguada Los Tambos in 2005and from Aguadas Los Loros and Chintiko during the 2007 seasonwith a modified Livingstone Piston Corer. Aguada Delirio was notcored because there was a large quantity of chert (an apparent mix ofhuman and natural deposition) on the aguada floor making itimpossible to penetrate. The sediment within the bottoms of theother aguadas was extremely soft except for extremely densebasal clay. Hence, the sediments were severely compressed duringthe coring process and extrusion.

The core from Aguada Los Tambos was initially about 110 cmlong, compressing to 41 cm; carbon was extracted at 20 cm andpollen examined from samples at 15 and 25 cm. The core fromLos Loros was about 70 cm long but compressed to 22 cm aftercoring and extrusion with pollen samples taken from 0, 5, 10, 15,and 20 cm. One sample was also taken from the Los Loros core atthe 23 cm point (coring boot sample) and another at about12.5 cm for radiocarbon dating. The samples consisted of micro-scopic charcoal and amorphous soot as well as sedimentaryorganic matter derived from leafy and woody material. The corefrom Aguada Chintiko was about 85 cm long and compressed to36 cm after extrusion; we analyzed six samples from 5, 10, 15,

Table 1. Upland, transitional, and bajo forests San Bartolo-Xultun intersitearea identified by David L. Lentz

Upland Forest Transitional Forest Bajo

Aspidospermamegalocarpon

Astroniumgraveolens

Gymanthes lucidaManilkara zapotaPithecolobiumarboreum

Pouteriacampechiana

Pouteria durlandiiPseudolmediaoxyphyllaria

Vitex gaumeri

Acacia cookiiAlibertia edulisAspidosperma megalocarponBernoullia flammeaBursera simarubaCalyptranthes chytraculiaClusia roseaCordia dodecandraCroton pyramidalisCryosophilia stauracanthaGliricidia sepiumGymanthes lucidaHaematoxyloncampechianum

Hymenea courbarilHyperbaena winzerlingiiLonchocarpus castilloiManilkara zapotaMaytayba oppositifoliaMetopium browneiNectandra coriaceaPassiflora coriaceaPetrea volubilisPithecolobium arboreumPouteria campechianaPouteria durlandiiSebastiania confusa(che chen blanco)

Simarouba glaucaSimira salvadorensisSwietenia macrophyllaTabernaemontana arboreaTalisia oliviformis

Bucida bucerasCordia dodecandraGliricidia sepiumGymanthes lucidaHaematoxyloncampechianum

Hymenea courbarilManilkara zapotaMetopium browneiSimira salvadorensis

Akpinar Ferrand et al.86

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25, 30 and 35 cm for pollen; with a sample for carbon dating takenat 31 cm (organic matter with microscopic charcoal and soot).Carbon samples were sent to Beta Analytic Inc. for AMS dating.Pollen was analyzed in the Pollen Laboratory of the Departmentof Anthropology of Washington State University by John G. Jones.

Recognizing that microfossils could be poorly preserved in thesamples, a conservative extraction technique was used for thepollen analysis. After adding Lycopodium spp. spores to eachsample, carbonates were removed with 10% hydrochloric acid sili-cates with 50% hydrofluoric acid and humates with 2–5% potass-ium hydroxide (KOH). An acetolysis procedure (Erdtman 1960)eliminated unwanted organics; pollen and charcoal were isolatedfrom the remaining minerals with heavy density separation usingzinc chloride (Sp.G. 2.00). Pollen identification took place on aJenaval compound stereomicroscope at 400–1250 ×magnificationand identifications were confirmed by using the PollenLabaratory’s extensive reference collection (minimum 200-graincounts for each sample).

We also opened eleven excavation units of 1 × 1.5 to 2 m inextent and with varying depths for archaeological and additionalenvironmental analyses. We took soil and flotation samples fromselected units for basic soil characterization, texture, chemistryand organic content, SEM/EDS, XRD analysis, and identificationof micro and macro remains. Soil characterization, texture andSEM/EDS, XRD analysis, in addition to identification of microand macro remains, were completed in laboratories of Universityof Cincinnati’s Biology, Engineering and Geology Departments.

We sent soil samples for Mehlich 3 extraction and ICP determi-nation of Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), andCalcium (Ca), analysis of organic matter content (LOI), and pHlevels to the Spectrum Analytic Inc. laboratory in Ohio. We alsotook samples for soil texture analysis from chosen excavation

units to determine sediment sizes larger than 250 μm, measuringdry-weight of the samples after removing moisture from thesamples in a laboratory oven. Calcium carbonate nodules found inAguada Los Tambos excavation unit soils were analyzed for struc-ture and chemical composition using XRD and SEM/EDS to deter-mine their origin.

We floated the soil samples from the aguada excavations formicro and macro plant remains using a field flotation devicedesigned and set up by our team next to Ixcan Río. After thesamples were air dried, they were sieved with soil sieve numbers10 to 30 (U.S.A. Standard Sieve Series, .6–2 mm mesh size). Thesamples were further examined with light microscopy for prelimi-nary identification. The identified seeds were then photographedusing a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or a light microscopewith a digital camera attached.

Lastly, we estimated the water storage capacity for the aguadasfrom the modified elliptical cone volume formula adopted fromBrewer (2007):

Volume = H(1/2) ∗∏

∗ (L/2) ∗ (W/2)

Where H, ∏, L, W defined as:

H = Height,∏

= Pi, L = Length, W = Width

RESULTS

Aguada Los Loros

Aguada Los Loros is an irregularly shaped aguada with approxi-mate dimensions of 30 × 40 m. In April 2007, it held approximately1 m of water. We also observed berms around the aguada, which is

Figure 1. Map of the study area.

Use of Aguadas as Water Management Sources 87

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an indication that the aguadawas modified and most likely dredgedto increase its volume by increasing or maintaining tank depth andberm height. During its use, we believe Aguada Los Loros had closeto approximately 3 m in water depth, accounting also for nearly 1 mof accumulated sediment in its floor and another 1 m when its bermswere intact. When we used the volume formula for Los Loros to esti-mate its full capacity, we found the aguada to be capable of holdingroughly 1414 m3 or about 373,539 gallons of water.

The sediment core taken from Aguada Los Loros revealed abasal measured radiocarbon date of 1890± 40 b.p. or 30–230 cala.d. (p= .95, 2σ) at 23 cm. A second AMS date of 780± 40 b.p.or 1210–1290 cal a.d. (p= .95, 2σ) was determined for a carbonsample at a depth of 12.5 cm on the sediment core (Table 2). Weobserved mottling in the core between 8 cm and 23 cm indicativeof at least episodic desiccation. Based on these dates and pollen evi-dence (discussed below), we believe the maintenance of this aguadaended after the Late or Terminal Classic period (ca. a.d. 900), but itremained a largely dependable water source. The core is divided intozones for detailed examination below (Figure 2).

Zone 3. Zone 3 shows the nature of vegetation surrounding theaguada sometime after a.d. 30–230. Pollen in Zone 3 is character-ized by higher percentages of herbs and cultigens and lower percen-tages of arboreal taxa, indicative of considerable humandisturbance. A single Zea mays (maize) pollen grain and arborealpollen types pointing to possible economic tree species such asArecaceae (Palm Family), Coccoloba sp. (Boob Tree, edible fruitand leaves used for cooking), Sapotaceae (Sapote Family) andSpondias sp.(hog plum) are also present. Additionally in Zone 3,disturbance taxa such as Asteraceae, Borreria, Chenopodiaceae,and Amaranthus (Cheno-Am) and Solanaceae are present, corrobor-ating our finding of human land clearance and forest modification inthe vicinity of the aguada.

Zone 2. The higher levels of disturbance taxa in Zone 3 peak atthe outset of Zone 2, then decrease steadily in conjunction with anincrease in tropical forest taxa from the beginning of Zone 2 towardZone 1. These changes can be interpreted as a decline in humanactivity in the area. In the beginning of Zone 2, we again see asingle grain of Zea mays pollen in addition to a single grain ofGossypium (cotton) that is accompanied by the disturbance indi-cators, Cheno-Am, Asteraceae, and the secondary forest taxon ofBorreria. The marginal forest taxon Cecropia also appears.Arboreal pollen of Myrtaceae increases rapidly to up to 50% ofthe total pollen sum toward the end of Zone 2, where we alsoobtained a calibrated date range of a.d. 1210–1290 at the 12.5 cmpoint of the core. High forest taxon of Moraceae further begins to

increase, but not as dramatically as Myrtaceae. Zone 2 marks thetransition between Maya occupation and the abandonment of thearea.

Zone 1. The boundary between Zone 2 and Zone 1 displays asharp break in the pollen diagram. Zone 1 represents a post-Mayareforestation period with a drop to near zero values in disturbanceindicators.

Excavations. During our 2007 field work, we did not observeany modern settlements near Aguada Los Loros. Yet, based onthe litter around it, we believe the aguada was frequented by chi-cleros and other sporadic visitors. We opened our first unit,23SB-D1, on the sloping surface in the eastern edge of AguadaLos Loros. We unearthed chert lithic debitage between 10 and25 cm above a gleyed clay layer with orange mottling amongmuch larger rocks (Figure 3a).

We opened a second excavation unit, 23SB-D2, on the westernside of the aguada, in a depression next to a well-defined berm, butwe had to stop the unit at 50 cm below the surface due to in-flowingwater. The form and position of this depression and berm suggestedthat it may have served as a siltation tank at the end of a low gradientdrainage leading into the aguada. At a depth of between 4 and25 cm, we identified several chert fragments found among lime-stone rocks placed at somewhat regular intervals. In the levelsbelow, we found additional large limestone rocks of various sizeswith several pieces of chert debitage. Overall, the levels below the25 cm depth initially displayed orange mottling in a reduced darkgray gley layer and continuing into the light gray gleyed clay thatbegan at a depth of 40 cm. Below the 40 cm depth we did notfind any other cultural material, only smaller rocks and additionalorange mottling within the clay matrix.

The apparent mottling/oxidation seen between the reduced gleysoil layers in both the 23SBD1 and 23SBD2 units and in the sedi-ment core that corresponds to a calibrated date range of a.d.

30–230 potentially points to a climatic drying episode experiencedin the region towards the end of the Late Preclassic period, aphenomenon documented in other parts of the Maya Lowlands(Dunning et al. 2012; Wahl et al. 2006).

The arrangement of the large boulders connected to the bermnear unit 23SBD2 may signify an effort to control water movementin and out of the aguada to allow for filtering in the silting tank. Onediagnostic characteristic noted for silting tanks is the presence ofcoarser textured sediments within the bottom of the tank (Chmilar2005; Scarborough 1994). When sediment texture analysis wasdone on samples from a depth of between 25 and 40 cm, 6% ofthe dry-weight was shown to consist of grain sizes larger than

Table 2. AMS dating results

Lab No. Aguada Depth in core (cm) Material Measured 14C yrs 2-sigma calibrated age range

204955 Tintal 20 Charcoal 2420± 40 b.p. bc 780–410209701 Tintal 15 Organic sediment 500± 40 b.p. ad 1420–1490229703 Los Loros 23 Organic sediment 1900± 40 b.p. ad 30–230246081 Los Loros 12.5 Organic sediment 780± 40 b.p. ad 1210–1290229702 Chintiko 31 Organic sediment 1300± 40 b.p. ad 650–780246082 San Bartolo 290* Charcoal 2420± 40 b.p. bc 780–410204954 Tambos 20 Charcoal 990± 40 b.p. ad 980–1050

* Pit excavation

Akpinar Ferrand et al.88

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Figure 2. Pollen frequency diagrams from Aguadas Chintiko and Los Loros.

Use

ofAguadas

asWater

Managem

entSources

89

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Figure 3. Excavation drawings. (a) Aguadas Los Loros and Chintiko, and (b) Aguadas Delirio and Los Tambos.

Akpinar Ferrand et al.90

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Figure 3. (Continued)

Use of Aguadas as Water Management Sources 91

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250 μm. For comparative purposes, control samples from similarexcavation unit levels with various sizes of rocks in AguadasDelirio and Los Tambos were measured for grain sizes larger than250 μm. The results were as follows: Aguada Chintiko 23SBE2 at4–25 cm (3.7%); Aguadas Delirio 23SBF2 at 10–35 cm (3.3%);and Aguada Los Tambos 23SBG2 at 70–110 cm (1.3%). Thus,while the overall percentage of coarse grains in the Los Lorostank feature is not high, it is considerably higher than those foundin contexts adjacent to other aguadas (noting also that the regionis a very sand-poor environment as a whole), offering support tothe identification of this feature as a silting tank.

The soil samples from 23SBD2 were also analyzed for micro andmacro plant evidence. We were able to identify seeds of Vitaceae,Poaceae, Lauraceae and Cleome spinosa (Figure 4). Particularly,

the identification of Cleome spinosa supports the idea that thisunit may have acted as a silting tank, based on the describedhabitat of the species as a “spiny herb of open slopes, sandy thicketsand found along streams” (Lentz and Dickau 2005). Additionally,the evidence of Poaceae indicates grassy vegetation around theaguada, which is a common disturbance indicator.

Aguada Chintiko

Aguada Chintiko is approximately 50 m in diameter and has aroughly circular shape. The aguada held approximately 1.5 m ofwater in April 2007. We believe Aguada Chintiko originallyheld water to a height of about 3.5 m, considering an approximate1 m of accumulated sediment from our sediment core, and also

Figure 4. Images of carbonized remains and mineral aggregates: (a) Vitaceae; (b) Poaceae; (c) Lauraceae; (d) Cleome spinosa; (e) Mineralaggregates.

Akpinar Ferrand et al.92

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roughly 1 m for the berms when they were intact. When we usedthe volume formula for Aguada Chintiko, we found the aguadato be capable of holding approximately 3,436 m3 or about907,695 gallons of water. Visual inspection around the aguadaalso revealed that a stone lining may have been used on the interiorslope of the berm. However, no dates were determined for thisconstruction, nor could the interior slope be excavated becauseof the standing water.

The sediment core taken from Aguada Chintiko produced anAMS date of 1300± 40 b.p. or 650–780 cal a.d. (p= .95, 2σ)from a sample at the 31 cm point (Table 2). The late date is likelyan indication of the dredging of sediments from the aguada atsome point during its use considering the much denser occupationof the San Bartolo area during the Preclassic period (Garrison2007). On the other hand, the carbon date when coupled with thepollen evidence further presents verification of human presence inthe Late Classic period around San Bartolo, as also suggested byGarrison’s survey of the area (2007). The pollen in the core isdivided into three zones as outlined below (Figure 2).

Zone 3. Zone 3 represents the time period before a.d. 650–780with clear evidence of human disturbance around Aguada Chintiko.In this zone, herbs and cultigens account for about 20% of the totalpollen count, though there is no Zea mays pollen. However, thisabsence may not be revealing considering that Zea mays is oftenpoorly represented in pollen assemblages. Moreover, Gossypium(cotton) pollen was found along with other possible economicallyvaluable species such as Arecaceae, Coccoloba spp. andSapotaceae. In addition, we found Cyperaceae and Nymphaeapollen that both diminish upward toward Zone 2. The decline ofthese two aquatic species may be interpreted as a clearing of theaguada or a change in local hydrology (Wahl et al. 2007).Furthermore, in Zone 3, there is the appearance, then disappearance,of Borreria, a weed common in cultivated areas (Lohse 2004).Lastly, pollen of Pinus and Quercus, which are extra-local species,show some of their highest levels throughout Zone 3. Their presenceis a likely sign of forest clearance around the aguada allowing for thecapture of pollen traveling from greater distances (Mueller et al. 2009).Land clearance is also indicated by the high count of disturbancespecies such as Asteraceae, Bursera, Cecropia and Poaceae pollen.

Zone 2. In Zone 2, while certain aquatics increase slightly, herbsand cultigens begin to show a decline, and the arboreal speciesgradually reemerge. Aquatics such as Cyperaceae increase closeto 10% and Nymphaea re-emerges at the end of Zone 2, after a dis-appearance from the middle of Zone 3. Bursera, an abundant uplandtree in the secondary forests (Wahl et al. 2007), shows an increasingtrend from the beginning of Zone 3 until the end of Zone 2. The treediminishes gradually toward Zone 1.

Zone 1. Overall, Zone 1 shows a dominance of the tropical foresttaxa of Moraceae and Combretaceae and a decline in herbs and cul-tigens. This zone clearly marks the end of the human disturbanceand a return of tropical forest taxa in the post-Maya period.

Excavations. We opened three excavation units in AguadaChintiko: 23SBE1, 23SBE2 and 23SBE3 (Figure 3a). We beganour excavations initially on a berm next to the aguada in unit23SBE1, a 1 × 1 m and 1.3 m deep pit. Soil texture is dominatedby clay with a slight color variation throughout the profile, butwith orange mottling starting at 1.1 m. The lack of variation in the

unit’s sediment profile likely indicates that the berm was largelycreated with the sediments dredged from the aguada. In addition,what we initially thought were carbonized seeds recovered from adepth of 1.1 m through a flotation process, were determined to betiny aggregates of manganese oxide during our laboratory analysis(Figure 4e). Easily mistaken for carbonized seeds, these aggregatesare common products of weathering in soils, as manganese and irontend to form oxides where there has been extensive chemical weath-ering (Essington 2003).

Unit 23SBE2 was opened in a flat, lower area immediatelyoutside of the aguada berm to the east of unit 23SBE1. The 1 ×1 m pit reached a 70 cm depth. We found a concentration of6–8 cm long limestone rocks between 4 and 40 cm below thesurface. At a depth of 40 cm, a number of large rocks were uncov-ered along with further evidence of orange mottling before the rego-lith layer at 70 cm. Overall, we found unit 23SBE2 to be very similarto unit 23SBD2 from the Aguada Los Loros, with both units exhi-biting regularly aligned limestone rocks adjacent to clay berms thatprobably acted as footing walls.

Unit 23SBE3 was excavated on another flat surface 3 m awayfrom the edge of the aguada. Between depths of 15 and 35 cm,we unearthed a number of limestone rocks of varying sizes.However, the distribution of the rocks seemed random comparedto those in units 23SBD2 and 23SBE2. We recovered two potterysherds, at depths of 20 cm and 36 cm, respectively, which couldnot be dated due to extensive weathering. There was only a thicklayer of gleyed clay with orange mottling between 40 and 60 cm(with no further cultural material), at which point we reached weath-ered bedrock. Samples from unit 23SBE3 were subjected to a rangeof soil chemical analyses due to our observations of variation in thesoil characteristics in the profile. In this mostly pH neutral unit, wefound an increase in Mg with unit depth, reflecting chelation (e.g.,mineral aggregates), while the Ca decreased in parallel. We did notfind P levels high enough to suggest pronounced human input to23SBE3 sediments (Table 3).

Aguada Delirio

Aguada Delirio is situated within the urban zone of the city ofXultun and has a somewhat oval shape with dimensions of about

Table 3. Soil analysis results from Aguadas Chintiko, Delirio, and LosTambos

Sample pHOM(LOI)

P(ppm)

K(ppm)

Mg(ppm)

Ca(ppm)

SB23E3-1 7.3 9.8 73 103 498 16198SB23E3-2 7.0 5.5 24 97 517 8437SB23E3-3 6.1 3.8 31 75 764 7994SB23E3-4 6.1 3.3 21 93 838 7623SB23F3-1 6.4 6.1 120 89 624 3174SB23F3-2 4.0 3.8 33 41 685 5603SB23F3N-1 5.3 5.1 70 111 981 5068SB23F3NE-1 4.9 4.3 23 87 852 4688SB23F3S-1 5.3 3.3 84 109 754 3677SB23G1-1 6.3 7.7 123 748 1053 14060SB23G1-2 7.0 5.2 31 600 809 18239SB23G1-3 7.5 4.7 60 471 807 67615SB23G1-4 7.5 4.8 75 207 975 67625

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20 × 30 m. The aguada could not be cored in 2007 due to an abun-dance of chert on the aguada’s floor. Lacking information on sedi-ment depth also made it impossible to accurately estimate thevolume of Aguada Delirio. With no core, we were also not able torecover pollen from this aguada.

Excavations. Three excavation units opened around the aguadauncovered evidence of extensive chert processing (Figure 3b). Twoof the excavation units were placed roughly 10 m away from theaguada on lower areas next to the berm on the eastern side of theaguada: 23SBF1 and 23SBF2. The third unit, 23SBF3, wasopened on the berm on the same side of the aguada.

In 23SBF1, we found an abundance of worked chert and numer-ous pieces of rocks. Sediments in the unit, similar to other units inAguadas Los Loros and Chintiko, exhibited mottling starting 20 cmbelow the surface until a final depth of 1 m. Unit 23SBF2 showedmore far-reaching mottling starting at a depth of 10 cm until85 cm, including lithic debitage, several large rocks and brokenpieces of badly weathered ceramic. Sherds at a depth of 40 to50 cm and chert debitage at different levels from 10 cm until85 cm in unit 23SBF2 suggest that this aguadawas in use for a con-siderable period of time.

The third unit 23SBF3 was opened on the berm itself close toexcavation 23SBF2. The berm exposed in unit 23SBF3 was likelybuilt from material dredged from the aguada, suggested by a lackof variation in soil throughout its profile. The unit produced somelithic debitage but no additional cultural material. Starting at adepth of 60 cm, and more abundantly at 120 cm, we encounteredgypsum crystals, a common precipitate in wetting and drying soilsin the Maya Lowlands. Interestingly, later lab analysis showed varia-bility in basic soil chemistry within the pit. A high level of P occurredin unit 23SBF3, a clear indication of a large, probably anthropogenicorganic input in the berm of the Aguada Delirio (Table 3).

Survey and excavations carried out along an arroyo near AguadaDelirio uncovered chert nodules and rocky debris used for the con-struction of a diversion weir (Dunning et al. 2007). Clearly, largequantities of chert were being processed in this area of Xultun.

Aguada Los Tambos

Aguada Los Tambos lies along the southern margin of urbanXultun. This aguada is large and irregularly shaped with anapproximate diameter of 80 m. It is reported to hold water year-round. When the aguada was cored in March 2005, the deeperparts held up to 2 m of water, and the longer of two sedimentcores taken from the aguada reached a depth of 1.10 m. If we con-sider approximately 1 m for sediment accumulation and another 1 mfor the water holding capacity with intact berms, in addition to thepresent day water level, we estimate a total water height of 4 mwhen Aguada Los Tambos was at its full capacity. This wouldresult in an approximate maximum volume of 10,053 m3 or2,655,722 gallons of water for the aguada.

In the sediment core extracted from the aguada in 2005, weobserved dark orange/red mottling and gypsum precipitateswithin dense, light gray clay in the lower section of the corebetween 22 and 41 cm, an additional sign of past oxidation anddrying in the San Bartolo and Xultun region. A carbon sampletaken at a point 20 cm into the core produced an AMS date of990± 40 b.p. or cal a.d. 980–1080 (p= .95, 2σ) (Table 2). Wefind that the oxidation layer several centimeters below the a.d.

980–1080 calibrated date possibly signifies a drying period in the

region during the Terminal Classic period (Dunning et al. 2005,2012; Garrison and Dunning 2009). Above 22 cm, core sedimentschanged abruptly into organic muck.

Similar to Aguada Chintiko, the late AMS date from Aguada LosTambos suggests dredging of the aguada during its use, which alsoled to the removal of pollen proxy data corresponding to the Mayasettlement period. Pollen was not preserved in the core below20 cm; above the 20 cm point pollen identified in the core belongedto the post-Maya reforestation period. Inscriptions on the dynasticstelae at Xultun indicate that it was one of the last Maya centersto be abandoned in the Terminal Classic period—the last stelaerected at Xultun dates to a.d. 889, a date after the collapse ofTikal and other major sites of the region (Garrison 2007).

Excavations. During the 2007 field season, we opened threeexcavation units around the aguada: 23SBG1, 23SBG2 and23SBG3 (Figure 3b). The first excavation unit, 23SBG1 waslocated in a depression 10 m to the east of the aguada. Based onour observations, this depression was likely a part of the aguada,even though there was no water due to the dry season. In this unitwe observed cultural material such as pot sherds from the Classicperiod, worked chert and material that resembled plaster or stuccobetween 50 cm and 70 cm below the surface. A small portion ofapparent plaster lining was also preserved in the eastern wall ofthis unit (Figure 5). Additionally we continued to find potterysherds and carbon specks until 1.6 m below the surface. Later analy-sis of the recovered sherds by the San Bartolo Project ceramicistidentified exclusively Preclassic ceramics below the apparentplaster-lining level (Rivera Castillo 2007). Encountering small,round formations that looked like carbonized seeds between15 cm and 70 cm, we also took flotation samples. However, whatwe believed to be carbonized seeds were again determined to bemetal oxide nodules during our laboratory analysis.

In unit 23SBG2, located 15 m north of the aguada on a raisedsurface, we unearthed cultural material such as pottery sherds,chert and, again, plaster-like material that was diffused verticallyin an irregular manner, starting at 20 cm all the way down to1.1 m. The diffusion of the calcareous material throughout the

Figure 5. Evidence of plaster-lining in Op 23SBG1, Aguada Los Tambos.

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profile likely resulted from severe argilliturbation since the claysediments have been subjected to a dry/wet climate cycle overtime and pedogenic features such as slickensides created by clayheaving were prevalent. Additionally, San Bartolo Project archaeol-ogists found the sherds recovered from unit 23SBG2 to range fromPreclassic to Classic period types, an indication of the long use ofAguada Los Tambos, but with little surviving vertical stratigraphycaused by considerable post-depositional movement due to argilli-turbation. In unit 23SBG3, located inside a dry interior area in thewestern part of the aguada, we similarly found pockets of theplaster-like calcareous material interspersed within the gleyed claysoil, but did not find any cultural material; metal oxide nodulesand orange mottling were pronounced within the gleyed claysediments.

In all of the excavation units in Aguada Los Tambos, weobserved high amounts of calcareous material. Chemical analysisof soil samples confirmed the presence of much larger amounts ofCa in this aguada’s sediments in comparison to the other aguadasthat were tested. We also found elevated P, K, and Mg levels nearthe surface in unit 23SBG1, indicative of human activity (Table 3).

Identification of Calcareous Material in Aguada LosTambos. The prima facie examples of plaster-like material madeus question whether there had been a plaster-lining inside AguadaLos Tambos. We were particularly surprised to see possible evi-dence of plaster-lining inside Aguada Los Tambos given its largesize and also its distance from the city-center. Most knownexamples of plastered reservoirs in the Maya Lowlands occur in site-centers. In order to determine the origin of the plaster-like calcar-eous material, we employed XRD and SEM/EDS techniques tothe samples from Aguada Los Tambos. We also compared thesamples to a known plaster sample from the intact MiddlePreclassic period plaster-lining in Aguada San Bartolo.

XRD and SEM/EDS testing showed that the samples fromAguada Los Tambos were largely composed of CaCO3 (calciumcarbonate) as well as Si (silicon) aggregates, small amounts ofMg-calcite and a few specks of MnO (Figure 6). The powderx-ray diffraction scan of an Aguada Los Tambos sample clearlyshowed definitive calcite (CaCO3) peaks at 3.85 angstroms, 3.03angstroms and 2.84 angstroms. Also, the inclusion of Si aggregatesin the plaster identified through SEM/EDS reminded us that the

Figure 6. XRD and SEM/EDS analysis of calcareous material from Aguada Los Tambos.

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Maya perhaps included quartz (SiO2) sand or volcanic ash withinthe plaster. Additionally, comparative SEM/EDS analysis of thesamples from Aguadas Los Tambos and from Aguada SanBartolo demonstrated very similar characteristics between the

materials from the two aguadas. We found that while the intensityscale (Y-axis) varies slightly between the two, the high calciumpeak for the Aguada Los Tambos samples was not very differentfrom the peak for the Aguada San Bartolo sample (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Comparative SEM/EDS analysis between Aguadas of Los Tambos and San Bartolo.

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In general, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the principal com-ponent used in making plaster (Villaseñor Alonso 2009).However, the calcium carbonate found in our samples could rep-resent calcium carbonate rich material that naturally exists ubiqui-tously in the Maya environment. One of the inherent problems indistinguishing human-made lime from naturally occurring calciumcarbonate rests in the fact that slaked lime absorbs atmosphericcarbon dioxide over time and becomes calcium carbonate again(Wernecke 2008). In light of this, we had to also consider that thelayer might be the result of biogenic marl formation through the pre-cipitation of calcium carbonate by periphyton/algae in a wetlandhabitat, possibly including mollusk shells (for example, theSolleiro-Rebolledo et al. [2011] study in Quintana Roo). Wetested this hypothesis by analyzing samples of a biogenic marllayer from a wetland site on Marie-Galante, a limestone island inthe Caribbean (where Dunning and Jones conducted field work in2008) and compared it to the Aguada Los Tambos CaCO3

samples and the known plaster sample from Aguada San Bartolo.The SEM/EDS analysis of the biogenic marl sample from theMarie-Galante wetland revealed that this sample had highamounts of sulfide, not present in either Aguada Los Tambos orAguada San Bartolo samples (Figure 8). The Aguada LosTambos samples also did not display evidence of weatheredmollusk shells, another possible source of CaCO3. Additionalmicroscopic and laboratory analysis of the samples from AguadaSan Bartolo and Aguada Los Tambos further showed that thesample sediments were lacking in pollen, organic, and algalmaterials and, therefore, inconsistent with biogenically-producedcarbonates.

In the end, the very similar characteristics of the samples fromAguada Los Tambos in comparison to the sample from the

Aguada San Bartolo lining (i.e., that of a known Maya plaster), dis-similarities to biogenic marl, evidence of intact plaster-lining in asmall area of unit 23SBG1 and the occurrence of the CaCO3

pockets combined with different minerals such as Si aggregatesthroughout the stratigraphy lead us to believe that the samplesfrom Aguada Los Tambos were not natural CaCO3, but the weath-ered and broken (by argilliturbation) remains of a human-madeplaster lining. Additionally, despite being subjected to similarenvironmental conditions, none of the other aguadas in the SanBartolo-Xultun intersite region displayed a CaCO3 layer in theirstratigraphy.

To date, the Aguada San Bartolo (discussed further below) is theonly other aguada known at the study area with a plaster lining. Inrecent excavations at the Peten site of Tikal and the Puuc region siteof Xcoch, Dunning has observed that plaster-lining were used insome site-center reservoirs whereas clay lining was more typicalfor aguadas on the urban fringe. We know from archaeologicalstudies and surveys in the region that plaster was used and producedby the Maya around San Bartolo and Xultun (Dunning et al. 2005;Garrison 2007). Garrison (2007) mentions that the decrease ofplaster thickness in floors seen in San Bartolo was possibly due todeforestation and the necessity of burning large amounts of woodto make Maya plaster. Deforestation and declining wood supplieswere also a likely problem around Xultun.

Overall, the evidence of plaster-lining associated with a ratherlarge aguada away from a site-center is surprising. It appears thatat least a section of Aguada Los Tambos (or a depression connectedto the aguada) was plastered to create a drinking water collectionpoint for the inhabitants of suburban Xultun, an investment whichmight have been prompted by episodes of climatic drying.Ceramic evidence further supports our findings showing that the

Figure 8. SEM/EDS analysis of a biogenic marl from a wetland on the Caribbean island of Marie-Galante.

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Xultun inhabitants plastered parts of Aguada Los Tambos sometimeno earlier than late in the Late Preclassic period.

Aguada San Bartolo, Aguada Tintal, and AguadaHormiguero

Archaeological and paleoenvironmental investigations have alsobeen carried out at three other aguadas in the San Bartolo-Xultunregion: Aguada San Bartolo (in the San Bartolo site center),Aguada Tintal (in a rural settlement area several kilometers north-east of San Bartolo), and Aguada Hormiguero (on the northwesternurban fringe of Xultun). These investigations have been reported onelsewhere, but are summarized here.

Aguada San Bartolo is roughly circular with a diameter of approxi-mately 18 m and situated immediately adjacent to the monumentalarchitecture of theVentanasGroup. In 2005, a 1 × 1.5 m unit was exca-vated in the center of the aguada reaching a depth of 3.3 m (Dunninget al. 2005; Garrison and Dunning 2009). The excavation revealed thatthe aguada likely originated as a stone quarry, which was sealed with athick plaster lining; AMS dating of charcoal within the plaster at780–410 cal b.c. (p= .95, 2σ) indicates that the creation of this reser-voir dates to the Middle Preclassic period (Table 2), contemporaneouswith the first monumental architecture known at the site (Saturno et al.2006). The aguada filled with a large volume of sediment later in thePreclassic period and after site abandonment around a.d. 150, but waspartly dredged of sediment and re-lined with plaster around a.d. 700when the site was briefly reoccupied. Sediments in the aguada didnot preserve pollen.

Aguada Tintal is roughly circular in shape with a diameter ofabout 30 m and is surrounded by a low berm. In 2005, two sedimentcores were extracted from near the center of the aguada (Dunninget al. 2005). The longer core reached a depth of 80 cm, but com-pressed to 24 cm in length and was subsampled and analyzed.The core contained three zones (Dunning et al. 2012). The lowestlevel corresponded with the Maya Middle Preclassic period andbore pollen including maize, cotton, and manioc (Manihot esculen-tum). The middle zone was undated oxidized and gypsic clay. Theuppermost zone was organic sediments bearing high forest pollenand radiocarbon dated to the Postclassic period after regional aban-donment. We interpreted the oxized zone as most likely correspond-ing to a severe Late Preclassic period desiccation episode (Dunninget al. 2012). Classic period sediments appear to have been removedby dredging. Excavation on and near the western berm of theaguada in 2007 revealed a stone retaining wall supporting a clayberm and covering a buried soil dating to the Middle Classicperiod (ca. 700 b.c.), suggesting that the aguada was constructedat that time (Dunning et al. 2007). The aguada most likely origi-nated as a chert quarry as evidenced by extensive chert processingdeposits in the immediately surrounding areas.

Aguada Hormiguero lies on the northern fringe of urban settle-ment at Xultun and on the flank of the large Bajo Itz’ul. In 2008,Michael Storozum excavated two 1 × 1 m test pits in the aguadaand collected sediment samples that were analyzed by Dunning(Storozum 2009). The excavations revealed that this aguadalikely originated as a natural bajo-margin karst depression thatwas modified by quarrying beginning early in the Preclassicperiod. The aguada appears to have been in continuous usethrough the Classic period, including periodic dredging, until itsfinal abandonment in the Terminal Classic period. No pollen wasrecoverable from the aguada sediments.

DISCUSSION

Investigations of Aguadas Los Loros, Chintiko, Delirio and LosTambos have revealed that these aguadas served various purposesaround the ancient cities of San Bartolo and Xultun. Our investi-gations not only suggest that the aguadas around San Bartolo andXultun might have been used in activities related to agriculture(based on cultigen evidence) and chert processing, but also thatthese aguadas represent evidence of ancient Maya low-technologyengineering solutions to help store water in a seasonally water-poorarea that included the use of berms, silting tanks, stone pavements,and plaster lining.

In a region with no lakes, aguadas are particularly useful forarchaeologists because of the amount of paleoenvironmental datathey preserve, including ancient pollen, charcoal, and sedimentaryevidence of past climatic drying. We also observed the ancientMaya’s habit of dredging aguadas to increase or maintain theircapacity, which, from the perspective of modern investigators,had the unfortunate effect of removing paleoenvironmental data.

We found that the pollen sequences gathered from the aguadasmostly reflected the local vegetation. As small bodies of water,aguadas capture the localized pollen of less-common plantspecies whose pollen does not travel far (e.g., Zea mays andManihot esculentum). As a result, the pollen extracted fromaguadas could also prove valuable in revealing the function ofaguadas within ancient Maya agriculture. In Aguadas Los Loros,Chintiko and Tintal the pollen of cotton, manioc and maize(single pollen grains) were extracted alongside indicators ofhuman disturbance and forest clearance. We are not sure whetheror not irrigation was practiced around the aguadas or the preciselocation of surrounding fields. However, we know that the pollenof maize does not travel far, as it was shown that pollen concen-tration 60 m from a Zea mays plant in a downwind area averaged1% of those settled at 1 m (see Luna et al. 2001). Corroboratingour observation on the possible agricultural significance ofaguadas comes from another pollen profile from Aguada Elusivaclose to the site of La Milpa, Belize. Zea Mays pollen in theAguada Elusiva pollen profile reached a significant 10% level ofthe pollen count during the ancient Maya’s use of the aguada(Weiss-Krejci et al. 2011).

Manioc pollen, such as that found in Aguada Tintal, is consider-ably rarer because the pollen grains are extremely large and fragile,and as a crop it is propagated by root cuttings typically before flow-ering. Manioc pollen has also been recovered in the Aguada Ojos deAguas in northwestern Belize (Dunning et al. 2003).

Through the sediment cores and archaeological excavations inall of the aguadas investigated we were also able to detect evidenceof climatic drying episodes in the Late Preclassic and TerminalClassic periods in the San Bartolo-Xultun region based on the evi-dence of oxidation and gypsum precipitation. Our findings supportvarious paleoenvironmental studies in the Maya Lowlands indicat-ing climatic drying intensifying during the later Late Preclassicperiod between a.d. 125–210, and in the Terminal Classic periodbetween a.d. 800–1000 (e.g., Brenner et al. 2003; Curtis et al.1998; Hodell et al. 2001).

Additionally, our archaeological investigations showed thatseveral of the aguadas seem to have originated as quarries.Aguada San Bartolo began as a stone quarry, whereas AguadaTintal appears to have functioned for a time as a chert mine. NearXultun, Aguada Delirio similarly showed strong evidence for orig-inating as a chert mine, and this activity may also have contributed

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to the formation of Aguada Hormiguero. Intriguingly, the emblemglyph used by the Xultun royal dynasty includes the toponym“chert mountain” indicating the importance of this resource at thesite (Garrison and Dunning 2009). We find that Aguada Delirioand other similar aguadas in the research area may represent atype of aguada that could be characterized by their resource-baseduse, and also possibly by their creation from stone quarries or chertmines. Further evidence of lithic debitage near aguadas apparentlyduring the period of their use, such as in Aguada Los Loros wherethere is also evidence of agricultural activity in the immediate vicin-ity, is indicative of multi-purpose areas.

Furthermore, the discovery of a plaster lining in a section of alarge aguada such as Aguada Los Tambos shows that theaguada’s water was in all probability intended for, among otheruses, drinking by Xultun’s urban population. Other evidence thatthe region’s aguadas may have provided potable water is theNymphaea pollen identified in the Aguada Chintiko core. The pres-ence of Nymphaea is an indication of good water quality since thesespecies are known to grow in clean and still water (Lucero 2002).These species were likely also useful in preventing excess evapor-ation from aguadas, while reducing organic waste in the aguadawater (Davis-Salazar 2003).

The water volumes calculated for the aguadas providedadditional information on their likely contribution to per capitawater availability for the residents of the San Bartolo-Xultun area.The current standard of water use per day per person is 64 oz. (.5gallon) (Brewer 2007). Thus the largest aguada we investigated,Aguada Los Tambos with a volume of 2,655,722 gallons, at fullcapacity with no evaporation, could provide approximately 14,550people with their daily water needs for one year, excluding thealleged water needs for agricultural production. Garrison (2007) cal-culated an estimated 8,260 population count or 481–513 people/km2 in the San Bartolo-Xultun intersite area (1,652 mounds witha density ranging from 96–103 structures/km2 for a survey universeof 25 km2) by the Late Classic period. Based on the volumes of theinvestigated aguadas alone, we see that the aguadas of the studyarea played a vital part in the area’s water management systems tosupport water needs for drinking, household use and, possibly, foragricultural purposes.

Archaeological investigations around San Bartolo and Xultunhave confirmed the abandonment of San Bartolo at the end of theLate Preclassic period, and of Xultun in the Terminal Classicperiod (Garrison 2007). Investigations indicate that the cities ofSan Bartolo and Xultun had completely different water managementstrategies. While San Bartolo had only one urban reservoir, Xultunis known to have had at least six (Dunning et al. 2008). The differ-ences between the two cities in terms of water management arefurther demonstrated by the plastering of a part of at least one large-sized aguada outside of the site center at Xultun. These dissimila-rities may help explain why one city was abandoned at the end ofLate Preclassic period and the other one continued to prosperthrough the Late Classic period, especially in light of episodicregional climatic drying.

CONCLUSION

Aguadas can provide a variety of useful information about thenature of past human activities and environmental events in agiven region. The four aguadas investigated around San Bartoloand Xultun provided information about ancient Maya land-usethat included agricultural practices, vegetation change, mining,and water management strategies.

We found that the ancient Maya of the study area lived in a dif-ficult landscape with seasonal water scarcity and was plagued bytwo significant episodes of climatic drying. Yet, they overcametheir limited water resources through the use of various water man-agement strategies that included modification of dissolution and col-lapse sinkholes and quarries to create aguadas. Aguadas were usedto collect rainwater for drinking and for other purposes. We find itimportant to study the resilience of the Maya and their adaptation tothe extended climatic drying period in the second century a.d., andyet the ultimate abandonment of the settlements of San Bartolo,Xultun, and other regions of the Maya Lowlands during the ninthcentury a.d. Further studies of aguadas in the Maya Lowlandsmight shed additional light on the nature of these water managementadaptations and the nature of their success and failure.

RESUMEN

Las aguadas, o charcos naturales o artificiales, fueron fuentes significativasde agua para la civilización antigua de los mayas. Las aguadas son comunesen las tierras bajas mayas y son lugares valiosos para recoger datosarqueológicos y paleoambientales. Este artículo presenta los resultados dela investigación realizada en cuatro aguadas alrededor de dos sitios mayasadyacentes, San Bartolo y Xultun en Peten, Guatemala. San Bartolo yXultun fueron establecidos durante el período preclásico. Sin embargo, los

destinos de los dos sitios variaron, ya que Xultun continuó prosperandomientras la ciudad de San Bartolo fue abandonada cerca del fin delperíodo preclásico tardío. Planteamos que las aguadas son indicios impor-tantes para comprender el destino de estas dos antiguas comunidades y demuchas otras en las tierras bajas mayas. En nuestro estudio las aguadas reve-laron información valiosa con respecto al uso local de la tierra, al cambioambiental y a los sistemas de manejo del agua durante el período maya.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers, Dr. Warren Huff and Dr.Vernon Scarborough for their valuable inputs and suggestions. The workreported in this article was funded by a National Science Foundation grant

to Nicholas Dunning. The work was accomplished as part of the ProyectoArqueológico San Bartolo directed by William Saturno and MonicaUrquizu.

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