usnavy fire fighting salvage manual vol3

U.S. NAVYSHIP SALVAGE MANUAL

VOLUME 3(FIREFIGHTING

AND DAMAGE CONTROL)

S0300-A6-MAN-0300910-LP-252-3100

1 AUGUST 1991

PUBLISHED BY DIRECTION OF COMMANDER, NAVAL SEA SYSTEMS COMMAND

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE AND SALE; ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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FOREWORD

This manual is the third in a series of six related publications that comprise the U.S. Navy ShipSalvage Manual. Each volume in the family addresses a particular aspect of salvage. The familycollectively replaces the three volumes of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual issued between1968 and 1973.

The primary purpose of these volumes is to provide practical information of immediate use toNavy salvors in the field. These publications are not cook books; they are guidance. Salvors mustuse their imagination, intellect and experience to expand the basic information and apply it to aparticular situation. A secondary purpose is to provide an educational vehicle for learning thetechnical and practical aspects of our business before the fact.

This volume, Firefighting and Damage Control, deals with an aspect of the Navy salvor's workthat has not been formally addressed until now. Historically, providing services to battle-damagedships has been one of the most important functions of the Navy salvor, greatly increasing the sur-vivability of fleet units when the damaged ship’s damage control organization becomes taxed oroverwhelmed. This assistance inevitably involves firefighting because one of the principal effectsof weapons strikes is to start large fires. Following World War II, Rear Admiral W. A. Sullivan,Chief of Navy Salvage and Supervisor of Salvage during the war, wrote:

“In most cases, vessels needing assistance as a result of damage inflicted by enemy action areafire or are a fire hazard. During a fire, it is most times impossible to engage in salvage operationsother than ascertaining the damage and controlling flooding and stability, since salvage as well asfirefighting personnel must engage in firefighting.”

Firefighting and damage control assistance are the most time-critical forms of salvage. The salvorassisting a stricken ship must understand the principles of his trade thoroughly and must think onhis feet. This was aptly demonstrated during Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf when emergencysupport was provided following the USS PRINCETON (CG 59) and USS TRIPOLI (LPH 10)mine strikes. Rear Admiral Sullivan succinctly summarized the need for rapid information gather-ing and timely action: “...a conference cannot be held while the ship is sinking.”

R. P. FISKE

Director of Ocean Engineering

Supervisor of Salvage and Diving, USN

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Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iTable of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iiiList of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiStandard Navy Syntax Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiSafety Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

1 BATTLE DAMAGE

1-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

1-2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

1-3 WEAPONS EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

1-4 AFLOAT SALVAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6

1-4.1 Afloat Salvage Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

1-4.1.1 Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

1-4.2 Platforms and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

1-4.2.1 Fleet Salvage Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

1-4.2.2 SARTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

1-4.2.3 Platforms of Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

1-4.2.4 Commercial Salvage Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

1-5 AFLOAT SALVAGE SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

1-5.1 Offship Firefighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

1-5.1.1 External Firefighting Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1-5.1.2 Internal Firefighting Assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1-5.2 Flooding Control and Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1-5.3 Ship Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1-5.4 Restoration of Vital Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1-6 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13

2 OFFSHIP BATTLE DAMAGE CONTROL ORGANIZATION

2-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2-2 SALVAGE FORCE ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter/Paragraph Page

2-2.1 Command and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2-2.2 Salvage Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

2-2.3 Coordination of Damage Control and Salvage Operations . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

2-2.4 Salvors' Interface with Combatants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4

2-2.5 Integration of Salvage Teams with Crews of Battle-damaged Ships . . . 2-4

2-2.6 Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

2-3 THE SALVAGE TEAM LEADER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

2-3.1 Before Boarding the Casualty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

2-3.2 After Boarding the Casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

2-3.3 Situation Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7

2-4 SALVAGE ASSISTANCE RESPONSE TEAMS (SARTs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8

2-4.1 SART Composition and Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9

2-4.1.1 General Qualifications for SART Members . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

2-4.1.2 Additional SART Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11

2-4.2 SART Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

2-5 BATTLE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13

3 SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING PRINCIPLES

3-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3-2 MARINE FIRES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3-2.1 Chemistry of Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3-2.1.1 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

3-2.1.2 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

3-2.1.3 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

3-2.2 Fire Behavior and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

3-2.3 Fire Extinguishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3-2.4 Special Hazard Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3-2.4.1 Polar Solvent Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

3-2.4.2 Pressure Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3-2.4.3 Flowing Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3-2.4.4 Uncontained Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9


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3-2.5 Characteristics and Hazards of Large and Unusual Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3-2.5.1 Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3-2.5.2 Ship's Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

3-2.5.3 Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

3-2.5.4 Aspiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

3-2.5.5 Boil Over and Spill Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

3-2.5.6 Class D Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

3-2.5.7 Combustion and Hazardous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

3-2.5.8 Weapons and Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16

3-2.5.9 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16

3-3 EXTINGUISHING AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

3-3.1 Types of Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

3-3.1.1 Starving Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

3-3.1.2 Cooling Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

3-3.1.3 Smothering Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

3-3.1.4 Disrupting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

3-3.2 Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24

3-3.2.1 Critical Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24

3-3.2.2 Water Fog. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25

3-3.2.3 Straight Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26

3-3.3 Agent Applicability and Compatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27

3-3.3.1 Applicability and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27

3-3.3.2 Agent Compatibility and Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29

3-3.4 Application Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33

3-3.4.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33

3-3.4.2 Foam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34

3-4 FIREFIGHTING HYDRAULICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-39

3-4.1 Discharge Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-40

3-4.2 Reach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-41

3-4.3 Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-42


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3-4.3.1 Supply Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43

3-4.3.2 Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43

3-4.3.3 Friction Loss in Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-44

3-4.3.4 Friction Loss in Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-45

3-4.3.5 Head Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-46

3-4.5 Overcoming Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-46

3-5 VENTILATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48

4 FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

4-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4-2 PERSONAL EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4-2.1 Protective Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4-2.1.1 Proximity Firefighting Suits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4-2.1.2 Standard Naval Firefighting Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4-2.1.3 Lightweight Firefighting Outfit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

4-2.1.4 Alternative Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

4-2.1.5 Salvage Firefighting Outfit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

4-2.1.6 Standard Shipboard Battle Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

4-2.2 Breathing Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5

4-2.2.1 Oxygen Breathing Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5

4-2.2.2 Self-contained Breathing Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

4-2.2.3 Oxygen Rebreathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

4-2.3 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

4-3 FLEET FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

4-3.1 Fire Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

4-3.2 Fire Stations, Hoses, and Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

4-3.3 Nozzles and Low-velocity Fog Applicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

4-3.3.1 The Vari-nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

4-3.3.2 Navy All-Purpose Nozzles and Applicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

4-3.4 Portable In-line Eductors and Water Motor Proportioners . . . . . . . . . . 4-11

4-3.4.1 The In-line Foam Eductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11


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4-3.4.2 The FP-180 Water Motor Foam Proportioner . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13

4-3.5 Emergency Portable Fire Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13

4-3.6 Portable Dewatering Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17

4-3.7 Desmoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

4-3.8 Naval Firefighter's Thermal Imager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22

4-3.9 International Shore Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22

4-4 OFFSHIP FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

4-4.1 Fixed Fire Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

4-4.2 Offship Delivery Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

4-4.2.1 Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

4-4.2.2 Offship Firefighting Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

4-4.2.3 Portable Diesel Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

4-4.3 Hydraulic Power Units and Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

4-4.3.1 Four-inch Hydraulic Submersible Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

4-4.3.2 Six-inch Hydraulic Submersible Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31

4-4.4 Navy Portable Firefighting Pump Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31

4-4.5 Hydraulic Submersible Firefighting Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-32

4-4.6 Commercial Portable Firefighting Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33

4-4.6.1 Small Commercial Firefighting Pump Systems. . . . . . . . . . 4-33

4-4.6.2 Large Commercial Firefighting Pump Units . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34

4-4.7 Special Firefighting Tools and Adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36

4-4.8 Portable Foam Containers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38

5 FIREFIGHTING STRATEGIES FOR ASSISTING SHIPS

5-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

5-2 BATTLE DAMAGE FIREFIGHTING STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

5-2.1 Basic Operational Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

5-2.2 Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

5-2.2.1 Containing Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

5-2.2.2 Controlling Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

5-2.2.3 Extinguishing Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7


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5-2.2.4 Flooding During Firefighting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

5-2.2.5 Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9

5-3 HANDLING AND CONTROL OF A CASUALTY'S HEADING DURING FIRE FIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9

5-3.1 Casualty with Complete or Partial Control of Engines and Steering . . 5-11

5-3.2 Casualty Drifting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12

5-3.3 Ship Control Methods for Tugs Handling Large Casualties. . . . . . . . . 5-16

5-3.3.1 Taking the Casualty in Tow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17

5-3.3.2 The Towing Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18

5-3.3.3 Getting the Tow Underway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19

5-3.3.4 Assisting Ship Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21

5-4 FIREFIGHTING ON ANCHORED OR BEACHED SHIPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21

5-4.1 Firefighting on Anchored Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23

5-4.2 Firefighting on Beached Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26

5-4.3 Deliberate Beaching of a Battle-damaged Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27

5-5 FIREFIGHTING ON MOORED SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28

6 SALVAGE SHIP FIREFIGHTING TACTICS

6-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

6-2 PREPARATION AND TESTING OF FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT. . . . . . 6-2

6-2.1 The Pre-arrival Equipment Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

6-2.2 Strategy Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

6-3 APPROACH AND POSITIONING MANEUVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

6-3.1 Drift and Relative Movement of the Casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

6-3.2 Maneuvering Characteristics of the Salvage Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

6-3.3 Optimum Firefighting Position Relative to Prevailing Wind . . . . . . . . . 6-7

6-3.4 Self-protection of Firefighting Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9

6-3.5 Speed and Maneuvers by the Casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10

6-4 USE OF FIRE MONITORS ON SALVAGE SHIPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11

6-4.1 Use of Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12

6-4.1.1 Indiscriminate Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12


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6-4.1.2 Effective Direction of Monitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13

6-5 FIREFIGHTING WITH COMMERCIAL VESSELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14

6-5.1 Positioning of Portable Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14

6-5.2 Civilian Crew/Navy Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15

6-5.3 FiFi Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15

7 SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING TEAM TACTICS

7-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7-2 BOARDING THE CASUALTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7-2.1 Initial Survey of the Casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7-2.2 Transportation of Personnel and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

7-2.2.1 Use of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

7-2.2.2 Use of Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

7-2.2.3 Use of Work Boats as Pumping Tenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

7-2.2.4 Use of Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5

7-2.3 Transfer of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

7-2.4 Integrating with Casualty Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

7-3 PERSONNEL PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

7-3.1 Psychological Reactions to Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7

7-3.2 Physical Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8

7-3.3 Breathing Apparatus Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8

7-3.3.1 Changing Air Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

7-3.3.2 Recharging Air Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

7-3.4 Attack Team Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

7-3.5 Rescue and MEDEVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11

7-4 FIREFIGHTING TEAM TACTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15

7-4.1 Preliminary Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15

7-4.1.1 Staging for the Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16

7-4.1.2 Evaluating the Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17

7-4.1.3 Setting Fire and Smoke Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17

7-4.1.4 Manpower and Equipment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19


x

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7-4.2 Attack and Control of Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20

7-4.2.1 Hand-held Hoseline Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

7-4.3 Application of Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23

7-4.3.1 Application of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23

7-4.3.2 Application of Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

7-4.3.3 Application of Other Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

7-4.4 Precautions and Tactics for Specific Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

7-4.4.1 Accommodation Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

7-4.4.2 Cargo Holds and Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29

7-4.4.3 Fuel and Cargo Oil Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31

7-4.4.4 Magazines and Weapons Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31

7-4.4.5 Engine Rooms and Machinery Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35

8 SECURING THE SHIP

8-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

8-2 SURVEYING THE CASUALTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

8-2.1 Underwater Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

8-2.2 Toxic and Explosive Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

8-2.3 Battle Damage Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

8-3 ASSISTANCE WITH DAMAGE REPAIRS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4

8-3.1 Immediate Temporary Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4

8-3.2 Water Damage Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

8-3.3 Ancillary Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7

8-4 REMOVAL OF CARGO, MUNITIONS, STORES, AND EQUIPMENT . . . . 8-7

8-5 PREPARING FOR TOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8

8-6 COMPLETION OF SALVAGE SERVICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10

APPENDICES

Appendix/Paragraph Page

A DOCUMENTATION MATRIX


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B CONVERSION FACTORS APPLICABLE TO OFFSHIP FIREFIGHTING

C SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING TEAM APPROACH CHECKOFF LIST

D GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR COMMERCIAL PORTABLE FIRE FIGHTING PUMPS

D-1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

D-2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

D-2.1 Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

D-2.2 Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2

D-2.3 Mounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3

D-2.4 Base and Frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3

D-2.5 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3

D-2.6 Monitor(s) and Discharge Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3

D-2.7 Safety Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3

D-2.8 Foam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4

D-3 PUMP SETUP INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4

D-3.1 Pre-operation Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4

D-3.2 Prestarting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5

D-3.3 Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6

D-3.4 Running Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7

D-3.5 Stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7

D-3.6 Miscellaneous Operating Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8

D-3.6.1 Engine Will Not Start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8

D-3.6.2 Engine Stops While Idling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8

D-3.6.3 Engine Stops Running Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8

D-3.6.4 Overspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9

D-3.6.5 The Pump Fails to Deliver after Filling and Starting. . . . . . . D-9

Index Page

INDEX Index-1

Appendix/Paragraph Page

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1-1 Salvage Support for Ship Survivabillity Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

1-2 Salvage Role in Survivability and Force Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

2-1 Relationship of Salvage Control to Typical CWC Command Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

3-1 The Fire Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

3-2 The Fire Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

3-3 Effects of Conduction, Radiation and Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5

3-4 Temperature Effects on Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

3-5 Temperature Effects on Aluminum (6061-T6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12

3-6 Boil Over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13

3-7 Production of Foam Concentrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21

3-8 Thermal Layering Disrupted by Water Fog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26

3-9 Slop Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32

3-10A Minimizing Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-47

3-10B Minimizing Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48

3-10C Minimizing Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-49

4-1 Lightweight Firefighting Outfit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

4-2 Salvage Firefighting Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

4-3 Typical Fire Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

4-4 Vari-Nozzle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

4-5 Navy All-Purpose Nozzles and Low-Velocity Water Fog Applicator Combinations . 4-11

4-6 In-Line Foam Eductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12

4-7 Water Motor Foam Proportioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13

4-8 P-250 Firefighting Arrangement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14

4-9A P-250 (MOD 1) Pump Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

4-9B P-250 (MOD 2) Pump Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

4-10A Eductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18

4-10B Eductor Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Title Page

4-11 Red Devil Electric Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20

4-12 Air-Turbine-Driven Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21

4-13 Portable Blower Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21

4-14 Naval Firefighter’s Thermal Imager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22

4-15 International Shore Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23

4-16A Salvage Ship Offship Firefighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25

4-16B Salvage Ship Offship Firefighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26

4-17 Dual-Waterway Monitor and Fog-Master Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27

4-18 Single-Waterway Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28

4-19 Air-Aspired Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29

4-20 Offship Manifold and Portable Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

4-21 Firefighting Connection for Salvage Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31

4-22 Navy Portable Firefighting Pump System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-32

4-23 Small Commercial Salvage Firefighting Pump Module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35

4-24 Large Portable Firefighting/Dewatering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37

5-1 Design- and Salvor-Imposed Fire Zone Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

5-2 Unintentional Flooding and Loss of Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10

5-3 Basic Evasive Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13

5-4A Typical Drift Aspects of High-Freeboard Ships in Wind Force Beaufort 9. . . . . . . . . 5-14

5-4B Typical Drift Aspects of High-Freeboard Ships in Wind Force Beaufort 9. . . . . . . . . 5-14

5-5 Casualty Secured on Hip for Heading Control During Firefighting Operations . . . . . 5-17

5-6 Moving Burning, Disabled Tanker to Optimum Heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19

5-7 Emergency Towing Connections Suitable for Rigging on Disabled BurningCasualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20

5-8 Optimum Configuration for Fighting Fires on Large Oil Carrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22

5-9 Change in Current Adversely Changes Heading of an Anchored Casualty . . . . . . . . . 5-25

5-10 Effects of Major Alteration of Current on Fire Front Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26

6-1 Salvage Ship Positions When Assisting Drifting Casualty in Rough Weather orOtherwise Unable to Go Alongside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7

6-2 Salvage Ship Positioned to Windward for Firefighting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8

Figure Title Page

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6-3 Ineffectual Use of Monitors on a Major Internal Fire, Majority of Water BeingDeflected from Fire by Superstructure that Encloses Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13

6-4 Effective Use of Monitors to Contain and Cool a Major “Open” Flaring Fire. . . . . . . 6-14

6-5 Common Arrangement of Portable Fire Pump Units on Chartered OilfieldTug/Supply Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16

6-6 FiFi-1 Requirements for Firefighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17



7-1 Relationship of Work Boat to Casualty Vessels and Staging of Portable Pumps . . . . . 7-4

7-2 Typical Deployment of Portable Firefighting Pump Unit on Standard 35-FootSalvage Work Boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4

7-3 Helicopter Transport of Portable Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5

7-4 Example of Breathing Apparatus Control Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9

7-5 Breathing Apparatus Cylinder Recharging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11

7-6 Some Standard Rescue and Patient Transportation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12

7-7 One Man Moving a Casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13

7-8 Two-Man Carries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14

7-9 Preparing a Victim for Helicopter Evacuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15

7-10 Fire Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18

7-11 Analysis of the Fire Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19

7-12 Application of Hose Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22

7-13 Indirect Hose Attack Using Low-Velocity Applicator as a Sprinkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23

7-14 Preferred Method-Enter Space and Attack Fire Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24

7-15 Fire Attack if High Temperature Denies Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25

7-16A Fire-Fighting From Above through a Vertical Trunk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26

7-16B Fire-Fighting From Above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27

7-17 Cargo Hold Layout of a Typical Break Bulk Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30

7-18 Attacking Small Oil Fire on Deck With Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-33

7-19 Dry Magazine Sprinkling System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34

7-20 Wet Magazine Sprinkling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35

Figure Title Page

8-1 Emergency Compressed Air Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6

Figure Title Page

xvi

S0300-A6-MAN-030

S0300-A6-MAN-030

xvii (xviii blank)

STANDARD NAVY SYNTAX SUMMARY

Since this manual will form the technical basis of many subsequent instructions or directives, itutilizes the standard Navy syntax as pertains to permissive, advisory, and mandatory language.This is done to facilitate the use of the information provided herein as a reference for issuing FleetDirectives. The concept of word usage and intended meaning which has been adhered to in pre-paring this manual is as follows:

"Shall" has been used only when application of a procedure is mandatory.

"Should" has been used only when application of a procedure is recommended.

"May" and "need not" have been used only when application of a procedure is discretion-ary.

"Will" has been used only to indicate futurity; never to indicate any degree of requirementfor application of a procedure.

The usage of other words has been checked against other standard nautical and naval terminologyreferences.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

xix

SAFETY SUMMARY

This Safety Summary contains all specific WARNINGS and CAUTIONS appearing elsewhere inthis manual. Should situations arise that are not covered by the general and specific safety precau-tions, the Commanding Officer or other authority will issues orders, as deemed necessary, tocover the situation.

GUIDELINES

Extensive guidelines for safety can be found in the OPNAV 5100 Series instruction manual,“Navy Safety Precautions.” Personnel required to perform salvage operations must be thoroughlytrained and equipped not only to perform routine duties but also to react appropriately to unusualor non-routine situations.

The officers and crew of vessels likely to be involved in salvage operations should continuouslyconduct safety indoctrination lectures and exercises aimed at reducing hazards and at reactingappropriately to unusual circumstances with professional understanding of their duties and theproper use of safety equipment.

PRECAUTIONS

The WARNINGS and CAUTIONS contained in this manual and listed below are referenced bypage number. In addition, the following general precautions are offered as part of this SafetySummary:

• All personnel responsible for salvage should read and comprehend this manual.

• Observe all warnings, cautions, and notes listed in this manual.

• Follow operational procedures. Observe operating parameters of all equipment.

Definitions of warnings and cautions are as follows:

WARNING

A statement used to call particular attention to an action orprocedural step which, if not strictly followed, could result inthe injury or death of personnel.

CAUTION

A statement used to provoke notice, awareness, and attention frompersonnel regarding an action or procedural step which, if not fol-lowed, could result in possible injury or equipment malfunction.

xx

S0300-A6-MAN-030

The following warning and caution statements appear in this manual and are repeated here foremphasis:

WARNING

Water fog will non conduct electricity, but an inadvertentshift to solid stream causes severe electrocution hazards forthe firefighter. (page 3-17)

WARNING

Inert gases will not support life and many of the vapors beingdisplaced may be toxic. Ensure the safety of personnel andmonitor the atmosphere at all times. (page 3-18)

WARNING

Corfam shoes and polyester clothing are not appropriate forany form of battle dress. When exposed to flame or high tem-perature, these materials melt and stick to the skin. (page 4-2)

WARNING

Fires involving nitrates, chlorates or other materials that pro-duce oxygen when heated, should NEVER be battened down.Serious explosion may result. (page 7-29)

CAUTION

Hazardous materials are highly toxic and often difficult to detect.Familiarization with the effects and warning signs of exposure tothese materials is a matter of education and training. The U.S.Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual, S0-400-AA-SAF-010, pro-vides guidance concerning hazardous materials. (page 3-14)

S0300-A6-MAN-030

xxi

CAUTION

Navy salvage firefighters responsible for ordering or arrangingresupply of foam concentrate overseas should realize that foamcontainer sizes are figured in Imperial gallons or liters. An orderfor 55-gallon drums will confuse the foreign supplier who is usedto an international system of “standard” drum sizes, where:

CAUTION

The operating times for air cylinders are based on the normalbreathing rate of an average person. Air may be used morequickly due to exertion, extreme heat or the psychological effectof wearing a breathing apparatus. (page 7-10)

CAUTION

Ventilation of burning compartments may serve to intensify thefire by introducing oxygen. Venting should only be used duringdirect attacks. During indirect attacks, the area must be made asairtight as possible to keep oxygen out and the extinguishingagent confined. (page 7-18)

CAUTION

Check all hatch covers and vent dampers to ensure no agent leaksfrom the hold or air leaks in. Check for smoke or heat beingpushed from openings and seal with sealant or tape. (page 7-30)

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Index -1

Aafloat salvage 1-1, 2-1

doctrine 1-8historical perspective 1-2organization 2-1platforms and equipment 1-9purpose of 1-7services 1-11summary 1-13

agentsapplicability and compatibility 3-27application of 7-23application of other 7-28B 3-9CBR 2-13chemical 3-32compatibility and precautions 3-29cooling 3-17disrupting 3-23dry powders 3-23extinguishing 3-4, 3-8, 3-17, 3-20, 3-24, 4-

1firefighting 1-12, 3-8, 5-8, C-2oxidizing 3-6, 7-31, 7-32secondary 3-23selecting 3-27smothering 3-23starving 3-17twinned 3-32wetting 3-20

airaspiration D-3banks 2-12, 4-6blowers 4-19bottles 4-6breathing apparatuses 2-12, 4-7breathing devices 4-6compressed 4-5, 4-7, 4-20compressors 2-12, 4-7, 7-10cylinders 7-10dewatering systems 8-5entrainment 3-25fittings 8-6foams 3-20friction 3-42locks D-8

LP 1-12, 1-13receivers 3-16storage cylinders 4-7vent D-8

anchored casualties 5-15, 5-23anchors

beach gear 5-24, 5-28aspiration 3-10, 5-7, D-3attack team 4-2, 4-7, 5-4, 7-10Bbackdrafts 3-7, 3-8battle damage

adapters 4-38assessment of 2-4, 2-13, 8-3assistance 1-1, 2-2control 6-4firefighting operations 4-36, 5-2, 5-9fires 5-2, 5-3, 5-6, 7-15introduction 1-1organization 7-1repairing 7-8response 2-7salvage operations 2-8

Battle Damage Assessment Teams (BDAT) 2-11, 2-13, 8-3

beach gear 1-10, 5-28beached casualties 7-5beaching 5-21, 5-24, 5-27 - 5-29berthing services 6-2, 8-1, 8-7, 8-10BLEVE (Boiling liquid expanding vapor ex-

plosion) 3-16, 5-21, C-1blowers

compressed air 4-20portable 4-19, 4-20Red Devil 4-19

boil over 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 3-31, 5-21, 6-9, 7-31, C-1

booster suppression systems 7-31, 7-33boundaries 2-4, 2-6, 3-9, 5-3 - 5-5, 5-7, 7-16, 7-

17, 7-28confinement 5-28fire 5-1, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-10, 7-17fire and smoke 7-17fire control 5-3, 5-6fire zone 5-6primary 7-17

secondary 7-17smoke 7-16, 7-17

breathing apparatus 2-12, 3-15, 3-32, 3-33, 4-5, 4-7, 6-4, 7-8, 7-10, 7-11

quick release 2-12buoyancy 3-1, 4-17, 5-1, 5-2, 5-4, 5-6, 5-8, 5-

21, 5-27, 5-28, 6-20, 8-6, 8-8, 8-9Ccarbon dioxide 3-3, 3-6, 3-8, 3-14, 3-18 - 3-20,

3-30, 4-5, 4-7carbon monoxide 3-3, 3-6, 3-7, 3-14, 3-19cargo 3-10, 3-38, 4-38, 5-16, 7-6, 8-1, 8-4, 8-7,

8-8capacity 5-20doors 5-28holds 3-18, 3-20, 7-29leakage 3-38loadbinders D-4manifests 7-31net C-3oil 5-7oil tanks 3-30, 7-31petroleum 5-6POL 8-8tank groups 3-38tanks 3-19, 5-8, 7-31

casualties 1-1 - 1-3, 2-13, 4-24, 4-34, 5-16, 5-21, 6-11, 7-19, 8-7

anchored 5-23battle-damaged 5-15, 6-1beached 7-5burning 5-11, 5-21commercial 3-1human 8-3personnel 2-4, 5-1, 7-2, 7-16shallow draft 6-11

cleanup 3-32, 5-3, 5-9clothing 2-12, 3-27, 4-1, 4-32

alternative 4-2firefighting 6-4multi-layered 4-2polyester 4-2protective 2-13, 4-1, 7-20welding 4-2

collision 1-1, 8-9mats 1-10, 8-5

combustion 3-1, 3-3, 3-6 - 3-10, 3-14, 3-15, 3-17, 3-18, 3-23, 3-25, 3-30, 3-33, 3-49, 3-50, 4-19, 5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 5-7 - 5-9, 5-11, 5-12, 6-5, 6-7, 6-9, 7-21, 7-23, 7-31, 7-36

command and control 1-2, 2-1, 5-1, 5-24communications 2-10, 2-12, 4-7, 7-1, 7-16, C-1

UHF 4-7VHF 4-7WIFCON 4-7

compartments 3-7, 3-10, 3-50, 4-5, 5-16, 7-21, 7-28, 7-36, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-9, 8-10

burning 7-17dewatering 4-17, 4-30, 4-31flooded 2-5inaccessible 4-17panelled 7-29tool and equipment D-3ventilate 3-25watertight 5-4weapons stowage 7-33

compressed air 4-20, 7-10, 8-5conduction 3-5, 3-6, 5-5convection 3-5, 3-6, 3-17, 5-5conversion factors B-1, B-5 - B-7cooling 2-7, 3-8, 3-10, 3-16 - 3-18, 3-23, 3-24,

3-26, 3-30, 3-31, 3-33, 4-2, 4-9, 4-24, 4-33, 5-4 - 5-9, 5-18, 5-21, 5-27, 6-3, 6-9, 6-11 - 6-13, 6-19, 6-20, 7-3, 7-8, 7-17, 7-23, 7-24, 7-28 - 7-31, 7-33, 7-36, C-2, D-1, D-3, D-5 - D-8

crisis management services 2-1current 1-8, 2-5, 2-7, 2-10, 5-23 - 5-26, 6-9Ddamage control 1-1, 1-12, 2-4, 2-5, 2-12, 7-7

equipment 2-1, 2-12, 8-8firefighting 1-6forces 2-1operations 2-1 - 2-3, 2-13, 6-4, 8-9organizations 1-1, 1-12, 1-13, 2-1, 2-4, 2-7,

C-1parties 1-10, 2-4, 2-5, 4-24patches 1-12personnel 1-13, 5-5systems 1-6, 2-10teams 1-8, 1-9, 1-13, 2-5

Index - 2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

training 7-7unit 2-4

Damage Control Assistant (DCA) 2-7decontamination 2-13desmoking 4-19, 7-17, 7-20dewatering 1-11, 1-12, 2-6, 2-8, 4-17, 4-30, 5-

3, 5-4, 5-9, 5-28, 7-2, 7-20, 8-1, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6, C-2

equipment 4-17, 7-2pumps 1-10, 2-12systems 4-37, 5-6, 5-8, 5-28, 8-5

displacement 1-10, 2-8, 5-19, 5-20, 6-13, 8-2, D-1

disrupters 3-8, 3-23documentation matrix A-1drafts 2-6, 2-8, 5-9, 6-5, 6-6, 8-2, C-2drifting 5-9, 5-12, 5-15, 5-17, 5-19, 6-1, 6-5 - 6-

7, 6-8, 6-10, 6-14casualty 5-13

dry chemicals 3-8, 3-22, 3-23, 3-32, 7-28dry powders 3-23Eeductors 4-11, 4-13, 4-17, 4-18, 4-30

in-line foam 4-11Peri-Jet 4-17

effects 1-8electrocution 3-17engine rooms 3-24EOD 2-9, 2-11, 5-9, 7-19, 7-31equipment

firefighting 4-1, 4-7, 4-8, 4-22, 4-24, 4-38, 5-1, 5-5, 5-9, 5-27, 6-1 - 6-3, 6-8, 6-15, 7-5, 7-19, 7-28

personal 4-1portable 1-2

evasive maneuvers 5-11, 5-13explosions 3-1, 3-6, 3-9, 3-10, 3-24, 3-49, 7-7

backdraft 3-7, 3-50smoke 3-7, 3-50vapor/air 3-10

explosive gases 3-10, 3-14, 3-15, 8-3explosives 3-6, 3-15, 3-16, 3-19, 3-24, 3-28, 6-

2, 7-30, 7-32FFiFi standards 6-15, 6-16fire

battle damage 1-1, 5-2, 6-19boundaries 5-1, 5-5, 5-7, 5-10chemistry 3-1containment 5-1, 5-10, 6-9draft tunnels 5-26electrical 3-4external 3-15, 4-2, 5-3, 5-16flowing 3-9, 3-27, 3-31, 3-36free-flowing 3-9growth 3-6internal 1-12, 3-15, 3-26, 5-2, 5-3, 6-19, 7-

17marine 3-1, 3-8, 3-9, 7-1, 7-7, 7-8, 7-15monitors 1-3, 4-24, 5-3, 5-27, 6-1, 6-11, 6-

15portable pumps 1-4, 4-13, 4-38, 5-21, 6-4,

6-10, 6-14 - 6-16, 7-3pumps 1-13, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 3-46, 4-8, 4-24,

4-31, 4-33, 5-27, 7-2, 7-5, D-1sodium bicarbonate 3-20special hazard 3-1, 7-15spilling 3-38, 6-1stations 3-43, 4-8streams 3-25tanker 3-1, 3-9, 5-6tetrahedron 3-3, 3-7three dimensional 3-36triangle 3-2, 3-17, 3-23, 3-24uncontained 3-9, 3-30, 3-36, 5-3, 6-9ventilation 3-50

fire plug 3-42, 3-43, 3-47firefighting

adapters 4-38commercial vessels 6-14, 6-15consumables 1-10, 1-13defensive/self-preservation 1-1equipment 7-5, 7-19, 7-28hydraulics 3-39oil field 1-4, 6-15, 6-19position relative to prevailing wind 6-7protective clothing 4-1pumps 1-4, 1-12salvage 5-1 - 5-5, 5-7, 5-8, 5-10, 5-16, 5-18,

5-21, 5-27, 5-29, 6-3, 6-5, 6-10, 6-14

ships 5-28, 5-29

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Index - 3

strategies 3-1, 5-1, 5-2, 5-4, 5-23tools 4-8, 4-36water 5-1, 5-8, 5-28

flashover 3-6, 3-7, 7-28flooding 1-1, 1-2, 1-5 - 1-7, 1-11 - 1-13, 2-3, 2-

6 - 2-8, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5, 5-8 - 5-10, 5-24, 5-28, 6-11 - 6-13, 6-19, 6-20, 7-20, 7-29, 7-31, 8-1 - 8-3, 8-5, 8-8, 8-10, C-2, D-5

control 1-11dewatering 1-11magazine 2-7, 5-5unintentional 5-9, 5-10

flow rate 3-24, 3-25, 3-30, 3-34, 3-37, 3-39, 3-40, 3-42 - 3-46, B-3

foamair 3-20application density 3-24, 3-33application of 7-22, 7-23, 7-28, 7-31, 7-33application time 3-37, 3-39Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) 3-21blankets 1-12, 6-2, 6-10chemical 3-20concentrates 1-13, 3-10, 3-20 - 3-22, 3-31,

3-37 - 3-39, 4-39eductor systems 4-39expansion rate 3-20high-expansion 3-20low-expansion 3-20, 3-21mechanical 3-20medium-expansion 3-20protein 3-20, 3-22, 3-23, 3-31storage tanks 4-38

fog 3-17, 3-18, 3-24, 3-26 - 3-30, 3-39 3-43, 4-9, 4-11, 4-20, 4-24, 4-27, 6-3, 6-9, 6-11, 7-21, 7-22, 7-24

high-velocity 3-24, 3-25, 3-27 - 3-29, 4-9, 4-24

low-velocity 3-24, 3-25, 4-9, 4-11nozzles 3-40 - 3-43, 4-9, 4-11, 4-20, 4-31streams 3-25, 3-26, 3-39, 3-40, 4-9, 6-9

free surface effects 5-9freeboard 4-33, 5-1, 5-13, 5-14, 8-2friction loss 3-42 - 3-49

in appliances 3-45in hose 3-43, 3-44

overcoming 3-46Ggas pockets 3-10gases 3-14, 3-15, 3-50, 5-7, 6-9, 7-17, 7-21 - 7-

24, 8-3explosive 3-16life-threatening 3-49toxic 3-9, 3-10, 3-14 - 3-16, 3-24, 4-6, 8-3

Hhalon 3-8, 3-14, 3-15, 3-22, 3-24, 3-28, 3-29, 3-

33, 7-20, 7-29, 7-35, 7-36handline 3-35, 3-37, 3-39, 3-40head pressure 3-42, 3-46heading 5-9, 5-10, 5-12, 5-18 - 5-20, 5-23

casualty’s 5-2control 5-13, 5-15 - 5-17

heatbalance 3-4, 3-26transfer 3-5, 3-6, 3-17zone 3-14

helicopterscharacteristics of 7-6overflight 7-1, 7-16payload 7-6transport of portable equipment 7-5use of 7-5

hoseheavy 2-3lines 1-3stream 3-50

hoseline 6-9, 6-13, 7-8, 7-10, 7-20 - 7-22, 7-28, 7-29, 7-31, 7-33, 7-36

hand-held,procedures 7-21hydraulic

firefighting 3-39hydraulic power units 1-10, 2-12, 4-17, 4-30, 4-

31, 7-3hydraulic submersible pump

four-inch 4-30six-inch 4-31

hydraulics 7-28hydrocarbon-based fuels 3-14hydrogen 3-6, 3-7, 3-14, 3-15, 3-24, 7-32hydrogen chloride 3-14, 3-15, 3-24

Index - 4

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Iignition 3-4, 3-6, 3-7 - 3-10, 3-19, 3-25, 7-17,

7-23, 7-29, 7-31, 7-35, 7-36inert gas 3-18 - 3-20international shore connections 4-38Lliquid inert gas 3-19listing 6-6, A-1logistics force 1-9, 1-10, 2-1Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) 3-19Mmachinery spaces 3-38, 3-39, 3-50, 4-8magazines 5-5maneuvering

casualty 5-7, 5-9, 5-10 - 5-13, 5-15, 5-18, 5-21, 6-1, 6-10

characteristics of the salvage ship 6-5, 6-6evasive 5-11, 5-13

manifoldsfirefighting 4-24

MEDEVAC 7-6, 7-11, 7-14, 7-15mobile groups

logistics 1-9salvage 1-6, 1-9

monitorsair-aspirated 4-24dual-waterway 4-24, 4-27effective use of 6-13, 6-14fixed and portable 4-7, 4-24installed 1-10, 6-10, 6-15portable 1-10, 2-3single-waterway 4-24, 4-28

munitions 1-1, 1-12, 3-1, 3-16, 3-38, 7-31, 8-1, 8-7, 8-8

NNaval Firefighter’s Thermal Imager (NFTI) 4-

22nozzles 2-12, 3-20, 3-22, 3-39, 3-47

all-purpose 3-26, 3-40fog 3-40, 3-42, 4-9pressure 3-43vari-nozzles 3-40, 3-41, 4-9

OOBA 1-13, 4-5, 4-6, 6-9, 7-11, 7-19off-loading 1-1, 8-7, 8-8, A-1, C-3

offship firefightingequipment 6-1, 6-2manifolds 3-43, 4-24, 4-30, 4-31, 6-2, 6-3services 1-1, 2-3

offshore supply vessels 4-38, 6-14oil carriers 5-16, 5-19, 6-9, 8-8Ppatching 1-10, 2-2, 2-12, 4-36, 5-3, 5-4, 5-9, 7-

19, 7-20, 8-1, 8-3, 8-5, C-2personnel

protection 7-7, 7-10transportation of 7-2

platforms of opportunity 1-4, 1-9, 1-11, 1-12, 2-4, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 4-31, 4-34, 4-38, 6-1, 6-9, 7-1

polar solvent fires 3-8, 3-22portable equipment 1-4, 1-8, 1-11, 2-12, 3-16,

4-1, 4-7, 4-24, 4-30, 6-14, 6-15portable inert gas systems 3-19POSSE 2-3, 2-5pre-arrival equipment test 6-2propellant 1-3, 1-6, 3-9, 3-14, 3-16, 3-28, 5-8protective clothing 2-13, 6-9pumps

commercial 4-6, 4-31, 4-33, 4-34dewatering 1-10diesel driven 1-3portable fire 1-3, 1-12, 4-31 - 4-33, 4-36, 4-

37submersible 4-13, 4-17, 4-18, 4-30 - 4-32,

4-34, 7-3Rradiation 3-4, 3-5, 3-17radiative feedback 3-3, 3-6radiological hazards 3-15refloating 5-27, 5-28repair

battle damage 8-4mobile 1-2, 2-2ship 1-2

rescuetugs 6-1

Rescue and Assistance (R&A) team 7-1rigging 1-10, 2-11, 5-7, 5-18, 5-20, 6-3, 6-4, 6-

10, 8-2, 8-9, 8-10rubber-lined hose flow rates 3-43, 3-45

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Index - 5

Ssalvage engineer 2-3, 2-6, A-1salvage ships

capabilities 1-8, 1-10commercial 1-3, 1-11

salvage teams 1-9, 1-10, 1-12, 1-13, 2-4, 2-13, 7-2, 7-7

sealing 5-9, 8-3, 8-5, D-5self-contained breathing apparatus 4-2, 4-6ship control 1-11, 1-12, 5-1, 5-12, 5-15, 5-16,

5-21, 5-27, 6-14, 8-9Ship Salvage Engineering, program of (POS-

SE) 2-3, 2-5ships

beached 5-21, 5-26, 5-27commercial 1-3, 1-4of opportunity 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 2-9threats to surface ships 1-4

shoring 1-10, 1-12SITREP 2-4, 2-7, 2-8, 7-1, 7-7slop over 3-31, 3-32smoke

inhalation 3-15smoldering combustion 3-4, 3-7smothering agents 3-18spill over 3-10, 3-12, 3-13, 7-31sprinklers 7-22, 7-31, 7-36stability

afloat 1-2assessments 2-3loss of 5-8 - 5-10, 5-27

strength 3-10, 5-16, 5-23, 7-32, 8-2, 8-8, 8-10assessments 2-3degradtion 2-5

structuralenvelope 3-9failure 3-9integrity 2-6, 2-7patches, installation of 2-3

Submersible 4-31suction lift 1-3, 4-31 - 4-34, 7-3, D-2, D-4superstructure 5-5, 5-7, 6-6, 6-12, 6-13surfactants 3-20, 3-21survivability systems 1-7Ttemperature

auto-ignition 3-7effects on aluminum 3-12effects on steel 3-10

thermal imager 4-22towing

alongside 5-15, 5-16connections 5-19, 5-20, 8-9emergency 5-18, 8-9pendants 5-18, 8-9rig 5-15, 5-18tactics 5-1, 5-2, 5-17

toxic gases 3-16, 4-6training

damage control team 2-5diving 2-9firefighting basic 2-11firefighting team 2-11pre-deployment 2-10underwater damage assessment/repair 2-11

trim 1-13, 2-6, 2-8, 4-31, 5-1, 5-5, 5-6, 5-12, 6-5, 6-6, 7-7, 7-16, 8-8 - 8-10, C-2

tugscommercial salvage 1-9fleet tugs (ATF) 1-2

UU.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual 1-2, 1-4, 3-20,

4-31, 5-9, 8-2, 8-5, 8-8, A-1, B-1U.S. Navy Towing Manual 5-15, 5-18, 6-5, 8-

9, A-1underwater survey 8-3Vvari-nozzle 3-18, 3-22, 3-31, 3-40, 3-41, 4-9, 4-

10ventilation 1-12, 3-7, 3-10, 3-30, 3-48 - 3-50, 4-

19, 5-5, 5-23, 7-17, 7-28, 7-29mechanical 3-50systems 1-12, 5-5

VERTREP 2-6, 5-19vital services, restoration of 1-13Wwater

application density rates (ADR) 3-35application of 7-23curtains 3-17, 6-9damage protection 8-6, 8-7

Index - 6

S0300-A6-MAN-030

high-volume 5-5primary cooling agent 3-17slippery 3-17, 3-46thick 3-17wall 5-5wet 3-17

water fog 3-25, 3-26, 3-28, 3-30, 4-9weapons

damage 1-4, 1-5effects 1-4, 1-5, 1-8, 5-2hazards 7-31mines 1-4torpedoes 1-4

weather conditions 5-9, 5-10, 5-15, 6-2, 6-8, 7-7

weightchanges, effects of 2-5distribution of 2-3

wind 1-12, 2-6, 3-9, 3-10, 3-41, 3-50, 5-2, 5-5, 5-7, 5-9 - 5-12, 5-14 - 5-18, 5-21 - 5-24, 6-4 - 6-10, 6-15, C-3

work boatsuse of 7-2, 7-3

Yyaw 5-23

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Index - 7

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ation isowever, Assis-special dam-

ser-

ns-critical analy-mage.

y, sal-ry pro-

a

toresr com-

battlessed as

in theirtance tod train-tingd dan-

CHAPTER 1

BATTLE DAMAGE

1-1 INTRODUCTION

Ships in battle suffer damage that may cause their loss. The ship’s damage control organizthe first defense against loss and can often stabilize the ship and restore vital services. Hsometimes the damage is beyond the capacity of the ship’s damage control organizationtance to battle-damaged ships is a principal mission of Navy salvage forces who have training and equipment to augment the damage control efforts of Navy ships in battle. Battleage assistance is afloat salvage—salvage services provided to ships that are afloat. Similar vices are also provided to ships damaged from collision, accident or other casualties.

This volume of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual deals with battle damage and the actiotaken by salvage forces assisting battle-damaged ships. Afloat salvage is the most timeand reactive type of salvage. People in battle react through training, not through thoughtfulsis of their situation—there is no time. The same is true of salvors responding to battle daSalvors must thoroughly understand the principles and tactics of afloat salvage. Additionallvors must be practiced to be able to react instinctively and, when the situation demands, vacedures logically and sensibly.

Battle damage assistance is almost entirely an offship service, undertaken to prevent the loss ofship from fire and flooding and make her seaworthy enough to:

• Return to full or partial service with her combat group,

• Steam to a suitable port of repair under her own power or

• Be taken under tow to a repair port.

Salvors may be tasked with emergency off-loading of fuel, munitions or vitally required sand supplies before the battle-damaged ship is removed from the immediate vicinity of hebat group.

Firefighting is emphasized in this volume because large, difficult fires are characteristic of damage and are the most common type of marine casualty. Salvage firefighting is addreoffensive firefighting in an offship role rather than the defensive/self-preservation firefighting nor-mally practiced in Navy ships. Just as combatant Navy ships deliver ordnance on target offensive roles, Navy salvage ships and personnel deliver offensive battle damage assisbattle-damaged ships. Successful offensive firefighting requires specialized equipment aning directed at confining, controlling and extinguishing shipboard fires. All shipboard firefighis difficult and dangerous work. Ship fires caused by battle damage are the most difficult angerous of all fires to control and extinguish.

1-1

S0300-A6-MAN-030

U.S.learnedrevent

support

aniedtures of

t sal-

t fires,

furtheralvagease andt, wereg with theed the

alvagetion inved toly com-alvage

hips orprotec-lvage,

Technically, this volume builds upon the information provided in the U.S. Navy Ship SalvageManual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010. The calculations in Volume 1 are the basis for theafloat stability and strength calculations.

1-2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

In World War II, salvage forces were an integral part of the combat support forces of theNavy. Salvage forces provided afloat salvage in every theater of war. A basic lesson was early in the war—effective salvage forces must support naval forces in combat areas to punnecessary losses. The doctrine for the employment of salvage forces in direct combat developed rapidly and was applied with refinements through later campaigns.

The primary salvage ships—the fleet tugs (ATF) and the rescue tugs (ATR)—accompassault forces and were positioned to assist task forces striking the enemy. Certain feathese ships made them suitable for direct combat support:

• Excellent installed offship firefighting facilities.

• Teams specially trained in the most modern firefighting technology and in combavage techniques.

• Towing installations that suited them for picking up casualties at sea.

The ATFs and ATRs provided immediate assistance to battle-damaged ships, foughstopped flooding and towed the ships from the immediate combat zone.

Salvage Ships (ARS) normally were held outside the immediate combat zone to provide assistance and repair to the ships brought in by the ATFs and to be available for major soperations. Salvage efforts supported and were coordinated with an extensive advanced bmobile repair organization. Salvage centers, with stockpiles of portable salvage equipmenestablished at major naval bases. Salvage vessels were assigned to advanced bases, alonrepair ships, tenders and other assets of the mobile repair force. This employment usstrengths of each type of ship most effectively and provided a strong reserve.

World War II also taught an important lesson in command and control of salvage forces. Sforces were most effective when they were nearly independent and received little directheir work other than the location and priority of ships in distress. This independence serdecrease the confusion that accompanies combat and reduced the interruption of partialpleted work. Salvors who had the specialized training and expertise for the work made sdecisions, leaving operational commanders to the fighting.

In Korea and Vietnam, there were no huge air-sea battles as in World War II. Salvage sfleet tugs, operating almost interchangeably in the combat zone, provided afloat salvage tion. The widespread use of helicopters in Vietnam led to the development of “fly-away” sawhere small, well-equipped teams flew to casualties needing rapid assistance.

1-2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

alvagentribu- assis-salvageere there-

par-salvagemercialERTStion oft actionsn if theyous. ips. To

4–1988usingn fireniques

at andto com- fire

tures.

ngine

e fire

In a very different combat scenario, a strong salvage force of nationalized commercial sships accompanied British forces operating against the Argentines in the Falklands. The cotion of salvage forces to ship survivability was dramatic. Damaged ships that received notance were lost; those that received it survived. In some cases, ships did not receive assistance because salvage ships were employed as repair ships or supply vessels and wfore not free to assist casualties.

The two U.S. Navy frigates struck during the 1984–1988 Persian Gulf “tanker war” survivedtially because assistance was available from commercial salvors, as there was no Navy ship presence. The high incidence of attacks on commercial vessels resulted in a large comsalvage presence that was able and willing to respond when USS STARK and USS ROBwere heavily damaged in separate cruise missile and mine attacks. Coincidental collocacommercial salvage assets and damaged fleet units is an exceptional circumstance. Fleedo not always take place in or near areas that have attracted commercial salvors; and, evedo, the salvors may find the salvage of commercial vessels more lucrative and less hazardAtthe time of a casualty, there is no substitute for properly designed and equipped salvage shsupport naval operations, there can be no substitute for Navy salvage ships.

Because of the large number of ships damaged and the relatively long duration of the 198Persian Gulf “tanker war,” commercial salvors gained extensive firefighting experience, small groups of air-deployed salvage firefighters with compact, skid-mounted, diesel-drivepumps. Salvage firefighters in that conflict had to develop and refine equipment and techthat took account of:

• Liquid-fuel-fed, high-intensity fires blazing out of control on very large tankers.

• Rocket and missile propellant fires aggravating already high fire-load fuel beds.

• Intensely hot, flaring fires often situated at some height above sea level.

All these fire characteristics are common threats that Navy salvage firefighters must combovercome in the course of rendering battle damage assistance to stricken ships. Central mercial salvors’ approach to offship firefighting was a compact, powerful, diesel-drivenpump that:

• Combined good suction lift characteristics with high-pressure outlet discharge fea

• Incorporated one or two hand-trained fire monitors integral to the pump and epackage.

• Had several smaller discharge offtake points for hose lines or smaller, portablmonitors.

• Was comparatively simple and readily helicopter-portable.

1-3

S0300-A6-MAN-030

plat- sup-

i, withe.

l sal-aroundefight-teams,multi-s wereil fieldper-

y had-and-ll vol-are

tage of wereds and of pro-nel tounit, aps are

ecause:

bilities

l.

liveredwater-f:

• Could be deployed from almost any comparatively low-freeboard, self-propelled form of opportunity. Commercial salvors typically made extensive use of offshoreply vessels as firefighting platforms of opportunity.

• Had a minimum output of 2,250 to 2,650 gpm at discharge pressures of 160 psmonitor ranges of between 85 and 100 yards, depending upon discharge pressur

Concurrent with design and development of a new pump for offship firefighting, commerciavors restructured their firefighting crews into eight-man teams whose operations centered one or two pairs of portable fire pump units. Since a wide breadth and depth of salvage firing experience existed in commercial salvage crews, experienced salvors train as fire rather than professional firefighters training as marine salvors. Because salvors deliver skilled services, the concept of a firefighting team found ready acceptance. Salvage crewspecially trained to operate and maintain their portable equipment and cross-trained at ofirefighting centers to learn techniques and skills commonly practiced in oil well fire control oations.

Commercial salvors had done nothing innovative in their salvage team strategy. Thereviewed hard-learned lessons of World War II military salvors and adopted a Navy triedproven technique of establishing several firefighting groups to their own requirements. As aumes of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual stress, innovation and adaptation of techniques keys to successful salvage.

Just as commercial salvors took advantage of Navy experience, Navy salvors took advanrecent commercial experience. Navy salvage offship firefighting methods and techniquesreviewed and scrutinized as a result of battle damage firefighting operations in both FalklanPersian Gulf theaters. As a direct result, the Supervisor of Salvage implemented a strategycuring special portable, air-deployable firefighting pumps and training Navy salvage personoperate those pumps. Since each pump or pair of pumps, is a self-contained firefighting salvage group to operate that fire pump unit had to be established. Those firefighting grouknown as Salvage Assistance Response Teams—SARTs.

In modern warfare, as in the past, salvage forces are an important part of combat support b

• The major effects of modern weapon strikes are the same as in World War II.

• The effects of even a single weapons strike can overwhelm the damage control aof the ship’s force.

• Salvage force assistance increases a battle-damaged ship’s probability of surviva

1-3 WEAPONS EFFECTS

Threats to surface ships are from air- or underwater-delivered weapons. Primary air-deweapons are anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCM), projectiles and bombs. Primary underdelivered weapons are mines and torpedoes. Weapons cause damage by a combination o

1-4

S0300-A6-MAN-030

pes of

• Blast,

• Fragments,

• Fire starting,

• Shock,

• Flooding,

• Whipping and

• Penetration.

Damage includes:

• Large and small fires.

• Flooding through hull ruptures or damaged piping.

• Loss of weapons or weapons control.

• Loss of maneuverability.

• Structural damage.

• Loss of services.

• Secondary (internal) explosions.

Table 1-1 provides a general and unclassified description of weapons effects and the tydamage they cause.

1-5

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ndition

rces thatty. This

surate

obile

Salvors facing battle damage deal with all these effects. In addition, salvors evaluate the coof the battle-damaged ship and set priorities for their efforts.

1-4 AFLOAT SALVAGE

Salvage forces are part of a broad-based organization of personnel and equipment resouenhances the survival of combatant and logistics ships and ensures their rapid return to dustructure includes:

• Ship design and construction that incorporates resistance to Damage commenwith ships’ mission.

• Shipboard damage control systems and organization.

• Ship self-repair capability.

• Immediate damage control/firefighting assistance from salvage ships and mteams.

Table 1-1. Threats vs. Weapon Expected.

EFFECT

THREAT BLAST FRAG/DEBRIS FIRE SHOCK FLOOD WHIPPING PENETRATION

AIR-DELIVERED ASCM P P S S S N P

BOMBS/PROJECTILES P P S P S N P

U/W-DELIVERED TORPEDOES P S S P P P N

MINES P S S P P P N

P= Primary; S=Secondary; N= Negligible/None.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

BLAST Over-pressure from warhead detonation that results in ripping of internal compartment bulkheads and shell platingand personnel injury. Watertight subdivision bulkheads provide significant protection. Other internal bulkheadsprovide some protection depending on charge size. Expected effects include flying debris, equipment destructionand misalignment and loss of the affected compartment. Proper stowage of loose gear can reduce the amount offlying debris.

FRAG/DEBRIS High-velocity fragments of metal that can rip through unarmored superstructures and cables, causing equipmentdamage and personnel injury.

FIRE Fires that are ignited from explosive reactions and/or the burning of unexpended propellant (ASCM).

SHOCK Damage to equipment from the rapid acceleration of the ship in an upward or horizontal direction. Unhardenedequipment may malfunction, short out or come adrift. Electrical power may be interrupted and false alarms mayoccur. Effects are generally more severe from underwater detonations in lower regions of the ship. Injury mayoccur to personnel not properly braced and from loose gear that may come adrift.

WHIPPING Loss of hull strength that can lead to loss of watertight integrity in moderate sea states.

FLOODING Loss of watertight integrity due to holding of the hull and rupture or failure of hull penetrations or piping

PENETRATION Shaped charge jets or semi-armor-piercing warheads that penetrate deep into a ship, causing major internal dam-age or magazine detonation.

1-6

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rd dam-

• Shared battle group repair assets.

• Navy and commercial towing services.

• Forward repair bases, deployed tenders and mobile repair groups.

• Depot-level repair facilities.

The purpose of all afloat salvage is to provide prompt and sustained assistance to shipboaage control forces to:

• Prevent the loss of the ship from the immediate threats of fire and flooding.

• Prevent fires and flooding from causing more than minimum damage.

• Stabilize the ship for return to action or withdrawal to a repair activity.

• Tow or escort powerless ships to repair activities or ports of haven.

Figure 1-1 illustrates salvage interface with ship survivability systems.

1-7

Figure 1-1. Salvage Support for Ship Survivability Systems.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ent the applyingbattle-ansfer

hasat with equip-

xpectedy “sur-

Salvage forces assist battle-damaged ships by providing fresh, trained personnel to augmship's damage control teams or to act as a separate repair party. Salvage ships assist bytheir installed and portable equipment to the problem. Salvage ships may also tow the damaged ship while it is being stabilized and may tow it away from the combat zone for trto Navy or commercial point-to-point tugs.

1-4.1 Afloat Salvage Doctrine. The doctrine for salvage forces supporting battle groups evolved from the hard venue of combat. Current doctrine tempers the experience of combconsideration of the effects of modern weapons and the capabilities of modern ships andment.

The organization and use of portion of the forces and allows an adequate reserve for uneemergencies. Figure 1-2 illustrates the interface between the various elements of the Navvivability/damage repair” organization.

1-8

Figure 1-2. Salvage Role in Survivability and Force Sustainability.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

bat

water-

r both.

g the

ships,

e and

om the

nance

and the

isor of

1-4.1.1 Scenario. In the following generalized scenario, salvage forces providing direct comsupport consist of:

• A battle group operating at sea against an enemy equipped with air- and underdelivered weapons.

• A mobile logistics group supporting the battle group at sea, from a nearby base o

• Salvage ships specially equipped for afloat salvage that accompany or lie alonexpected route of withdrawal of the battle group.

• Air-mobile salvage teams located aboard major combatants, amphibious warfareauxiliaries or at forward bases.

• General-purpose salvage ships and tugs accompanying the logistics force.

When a ship of the battle group is damaged, the following general events occur:

a. Air-mobile salvage teams deploy by helicopter to the battle-damaged ship.

b. Salvage ships with or near the battle group are dispatched to the casualty.

c. Salvage forces working with the ship’s damage control team control the damagstabilize the ship.

d. A salvage ship takes the battle-damaged ship in tow to the logistics base.

e. The salvage ship passes her tow to another salvage ship or tug dispatched frlogistics base and returns to support the battle group.

f. The battle-damaged ship is delivered to a repair ship, tender or depot mainteactivity for repairs.

In practice, the generic scenario described above is changed to suit the tactical sItuation assets on hand.

1-4.2 Platforms and Equipment. Afloat salvage to battle-damaged ships is provided by:

• Fleet salvage ships and tugs.

• Air-mobile SARTs embarked in major combatants or auxiliaries.

• Navy platforms of opportunity with or without SARTs.

• Commercial salvage tugs under contract to the area commander or the SupervSalvage.

1-9

S0300-A6-MAN-030

orcege sup-riety ofvy sal-

alledd off

1-4.2.1 Fleet Salvage Ships. Salvage ships may accompany the battle group or the logistics for may be stationed along expected routes of withdrawal. These ships provide direct salvaport to battle-damaged ships. Salvage ships are powerful oceangoing tugs fitted with a vainstalled and portable salvage equipment and machinery. Table 1-2 gives a summary of Navage ships with their characteristics and some of their capabilities.

Salvage ships can provide the following assistance:

• Large quantities of water or AFFF foam via a combination of portable and instmonitors to combat fires. Monitor throw is enough to allow salvage ships to stanwhile fighting very hot fires.

• Salvage teams to augment ships’ damage control parties.

• Dewatering pumps.

• Rigging and placing of patches, shoring and collision mats.

Table 1-2. Salvage Ship Capabilities.

CHARACTERISTICS ARS 6 ARS 38 ARS 50 ATF 76 ATS 1 T-ATF

Length (ft) 213.5 213.5 255.0 205.0 283.0 225.0

Beam (ft) 39 43 52 38.5 50 42

Draft (ft) 13 14.5 17.5 15.5 18 15

Displacement (tons) 1,700 2,100 3,282 1,675 3,650 2,260

Cruising Range (nm) 9,400 9,400 8,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

Speed, max (kts) 14.8 14.5 15 15.5 16 15

Shaft Horsepower 3,000 3,000 4,200 3,000 6,000 7,200

PropulsionDiesel-Elec 2

ScrewsDiesel-Elec 2

ScrewsDiesel 2 Screws

Diesel-Elec 1 Screw

Diesel 2 Screws

Diesel 2 Screws

Total Fire Pump Capacity (gpm) 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 5,000 3,000

Monitors 2 24

3 Note (1) 23

5 Note (2) 3

Foam Conc. Storage (gal) -- -- 3,600 -- 2,000 3,400

Complement 85 9694 crew

16 transient 85102 crew

20 transient20 crew

20 transient

Portable Dewatering Pump Capacity (gpm) 15,000 15,000 17,000 3,500 17,000 Note (3)

Beach Gear Sets 4 4 6 2 6 Note (3)

Note: (1) Formast monitor removal from some ARS-50 Class.(2) Programmed SHIPALT will reconfigure ATS-1 Class with 5 monitors.(3) ARS and ATS ships carry an extensive onboard allowance of salvage equipment and consumables that includes por-

table pumps, compressors, generators, hydraulic power units and a large store of patching, shoring and rigging sup-plies. AFTs carry only a limited allowance. T-ATFs have no onboard allowance but may embark a salvage team and gear. All salvage ships can embark additional gear from shore bases or major logistics ships.

1-10

S0300-A6-MAN-030

tion

be somems ofance.

biousan sal- trans-

tlee shipue andr ships. tactical salvagertunityerable

vyhe com-uld not

re-irectly inte-

• Towing the ship to the best heading for firefighting, flooding control and stabilizaor towing out of the combat zone.

• Essential services through shore connections or portable equipment.

Because of the speed and geographical dispersal of battle groups, a salvage ship may time in reaching a battle-damaged ship. Air-mobile SARTs or SARTs embarked in platforopportunity, can reach the scene before salvage ships arrive and provide immediate assist

1-4.2.2 SARTs. Helicopters can transfer SARTs embarked in major combatants, amphiwarfare ships or auxiliaries to battle-damaged ships. SARTs can respond more rapidly thvage ships and bring immediate help, but are limited in the amount of equipment they canport to the scene. Paragraph 2-4 describes SART composition, equipment and training.

1-4.2.3 Platforms of Opportunity. A platform of opportunity is any ship assigned by the batgroup commander or officer in tactical command (OTC) to assist a battle-damaged ship. Thof opportunity may carry a salvage team, a salvage officer or may merely exercise her rescassistance bill. Relatively small, maneuverable combatants or LSTs are preferred to largeThe assignment of ships of opportunity to assist battle-damaged ships is governed by thesituation. The ship of opportunity is a much less capable salvage vessel than a specializedship and is less effective in the assistance it can provide. More importantly, a ship of oppoproviding salvage assistance is unable to perform her primary mission, is much more vulnto attack and is lost to the mission of the battle group.

1-4.2.4 Commercial Salvage Ships. Commercial salvage ships with capabilities similar to Nasalvage ships may be under contract to the Navy or may be operating independently near tbat zone. Commercial salvage ships will not accompany the battle group and doctrine shodepend on their availability.

1-5 AFLOAT SALVAGE SERVICES

Afloat salvage services are generally of four types:

• Offship firefighting,

• Flooding control and dewatering,

• Ship control and

• Restoration of vital services.

1-5.1 Offship Firefighting. Salvage firefighters provide both external and internal offship fifighting assistance to the stricken ship. External firefighting is the assistance provided dfrom a salvage ship or platform of opportunity. Salvage firefighting teams board the ship tograte into or supplement the ship’s firefighters.

1-11

S0300-A6-MAN-030

cen the

ting

ustn of

fight-alvage Whenganized

ar-fforts.

dewater control

patchesto

heus sit-te sal-

from

a rela-

low-ist and

1-5.1.1 External Firefighting Assistance. Salvage ships provide external firefighting assistanby directing large quantities of firefighting water or foam to areas inaccessible from withiship. The high-volume flow from monitors is directed:

• Against fires too intense to be controlled with hose lines,

• To cool hot spots and internal fires and,

• To keep munitions or other flammables from igniting.

Foam blankets are laid more quickly with monitors than with handlines.

Platforms of opportunity do not have the ability to deliver large quantities of water or firefighagents unless salvage teams with portable firefighting pumps and monitors are embarked.

1-5.1.2 Internal Firefighting Assistance. Salvage teams boarding a battle-damaged ship mbe integrated quickly into the overall firefighting effort. The method of integration is the optiothe ship's commanding officer with the concurrence of the salvage officer. If the ship’s fireers are still relatively fresh and the damage control organization intact and effective, the steam may either be integrated into the existing teams or function as an additional party.ship’s firefighters are exhausted or weakened, salvage teams form the nucleus for a reorattack on the fire.

1-5.2 Flooding Control and Dewatering. Salvage teams, integrated with the ship’s repair pties or functioning as an intact team, augment the ship’s flooding control and dewatering eSalvage teams are equipped to apply damage control patches, install shoring and to flooded spaces with portable pumps and hoses. Salvors assisting battle-damaged ships toflooding initially apply damage control patches rather than the more elaborate and secure that will be installed when the immediate danger is past. Chapter 8 describes steps to be taken secure a casualty for sea or return it to service after dealing with immediate threats.

1-5.3 Ship Control. A ship without propulsion or the ability to maneuver may wallow in tswell, hampering damage control efforts or may be unable to extricate itself from a dangerouation, such as a burning oil slick. A salvage ship or ship of opportunity may assist immediavage efforts by taking the ship in tow to:

• Adjust the relative wind to limit the spread of topside fires and to prevent smoke being drawn into ventilation supply systems.

• Haul the ship out of an oil slick or other dangerous situation.

• Reduce rolling and other ship motions.

1-5.4 Restoration of Vital Services. Loss of electrical power, firemain and LP air may leavecasualty’s crew essentially helpless to check the spread of fire, even if the original fire istively minor. Similarly, without power to pumps, flooded spaces must be dewatered bycapacity portable pumps and liquids cannot be transferred to mitigate hull stress or alter l

1-12

S0300-A6-MAN-030

e situ- to fight meth-

leads,

d from

ablesstem isr dam-

n on theaining

ed per-

e is lessss wellips arevaluableciplesning.

trim. Full or partial restoration of vital services can enable the casualty crew to deal with thation and can increase the flexibility of embarked rescue and assistance teams or SARTSfire or flooding and make emergency structural repairs. Services are restored by one of twoods:

• An assisting vessel makes up alongside the casualty and connects shore power firehose jumpers, LP air lines, etc., as necessary.

• Portable generators, fire pumps or compressors and their operators are transferreships alongside or by helicopter.

Assisting ships can also replenish, by alongside or helicopter transfer, firefighting consumsuch as OBA canisters and AFFF concentrate. If the casualty’s galley or potable water syout of commission, assisting vessels should provide prepared rations and hot/cold drinks foage control teams and watchstanders.

Removal of nonessential personnel, especially wounded, can greatly decrease the burdecasualty’s damage control organization and/or embarked salvage teams. By doing so, remmedical personnel can direct their efforts to supporting damage control personnel and injursonnel can be treated in a clean and safe environment.

1-6 SUMMARY

Afloat salvage—assisting battle-damaged ships—is a hard and dangerous business. Therplanning in afloat salvage than in other types of salvage. Salvors must know their busineand instinctively react correctly every time. The rewards of assisting battle-damaged shgreat. Experience has shown that afloat salvage enables ships to fight again and saves cargoes and military payloads for immediate use. The following chapters delineate the prinof afloat salvage. As with all types of salvage, knowledge of the principles is just the beginThe salvor must understand the principles well and make every effort to learn all he can.

1-13

S0300-A6-MAN-030

1-14

S0300-A6-MAN-030

sentiale logis-s whotrickenjectiveon.

ectiveructure.p orga-

e fire-

com-

ecially

mage

orcesimilarnder

CHAPTER 2

OFFSHIP BATTLE DAMAGE CONTROL ORGANIZATION

2-1 INTRODUCTION

Fleet salvage forces exist as part of the Navy’s total war-fighting effort. Salvage is an eslogistics service; salvage ships and teams should be integrated into the battle group, mobiltics force or amphibious task force organization. Navy salvors are highly trained specialistprovide offship damage control and crisis management services to assist the crews of sships. Salvors arriving to assist critically damaged ships bring with them experience and obdetachment that enables them to assess a stricken ship’s situation and take corrective acti

For a salvage force to function well under combat conditions, it must be organized for effcommand and control and integrated into the operation and the battle damage reporting stThis chapter describes how Navy salvors are integrated and coordinated into combat grounizations to provide battle damage and afloat salvage services.

NOTE

Throughout this manual, the word casualty means primarily a bat-tle-damaged ship. Casualty is a generic term historically used bysalvors of all nationalities and backgrounds to mean the ship beingassisted by salvors.

2-2 SALVAGE FORCE ORGANIZATION

The U.S. Navy salvage organization’s response to offship fires is structured around offensivfighting and damage control operations conducted by:

• Navy salvage ships of ARS, ATS, ATF and T-ATF Classes and, where available,mercial salvage units.

• Specially trained, air-mobile salvage assistance response teams (SARTs) with spdesigned and adapted firefighting and damage control equipment.

Salvors accompanying a naval force provide immediate offship firefighting and battle daresponse to augment the damage control forces of any ship that sustains combat damage.

2-2.1 Command and Control. Salvage forces supporting a deployed battle group or task fare under the overall control of the force salvage coordinator (FSC). The role of the FSC is in concept to that of anti-air warfare coordinator (AAWC), surface action group comma(SAGC) or antisubmarine warfare commander (ASWC). Figure 2-1 illustrates the typical afloat

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Figure 2-1. Relati onship of Salvage C ontrol to Typi cal CWC Command Struct ure.

salvage organization. This organization is modified as necessary to fit different tactical or geo-graphic conditions.

The FSC is normally aboard the battle or amphibious group flagship where he has direct access the battle or task group commander. The force salvage coordinator communicates with subordnate commanders and units via dedicated salvage circuits. As the senior salvage and battle damage assessment officer afloat, the FSC receives both general and detailed reports from hissubordinate commanders and salvage units attending battle-damaged ships. Based on thesereports and, in some instances, personal inspection and supervision of major battle damagtance operations, the FSC makes recommendations to the battle group commander about:

• Extent of battle damage sustained and the requirements for additional support and salvage facilities to control that damage.

• Ability of the battle-damaged ship to rejoin her combat group after damage controloperations as an effective, mission-capable ship.

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• Extent of temporary repairs and/or patching and sealing necessary to make a battle-damaged ship seaworthy enough to steam or be towed to a mobile tender or repair base

• Redeployment or bringing forward additional salvage ships, units and equipmentrequired to cope with developing military situations.

• Capability of attached salvage units to recover and offload—either partially or com-pletely—fuel, ammunition and combat stores from battle-damaged ships.

2-2.2 Salvage Engineer. The FSC is assisted by a salvage engineer—an experienced, salvage-trained engineering duty officer or similarly qualified line officer, specifically trained in the use ofthe NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE). The salvage engineer prdetailed strength and stability assessments for damaged ships, based on salvage team reports personal inspection and recommends corrective action. Where necessary, the salvage engineedesigns and supervises the installation of structural patches and reinforcement and directs weightdistribution and other involved measures to see the casualty safely afloat.

2-2.3 Coordination of Damage Control and Salvage Operations. The senior salvage shipcommanding officer reports to the commanding officer of the casualty and coordinates assistanto that battle-damaged ship. Where no salvage ship is in attendance at the casualty, the senior svage officer or SART leader is responsible for overall coordination.

A large-scale salvage firefighting and damage control operation arising from a weapons strike ona combatant would typically involve coordinating the efforts of:

• Initial assistance given by a specially detached Navy platform of opportunity (Pgraph 1-4.2.3) that responds by:

(1) Dispatching her rescue and assistance (R&A) party to work on board the cas

(2) Taking the casualty in tow to maintain an optimum heading for firefighting opera-tions.

• Backup firefighting assistance provided by SARTs deployed by helicopter to the battle-damaged ship. SARTs arrive on board with one high-capacity diesel-driven pump, por-table monitors and a limited foam supply. SARTs work with the stricken ship’s cand the platform of opportunity to confine and control fires and flooding.

• Major offship firefighting services given by a salvage ship brought up from a posclose behind the battle group, that may consist of:

(1) Fighting fires from alongside with monitors and heavy hose streams.

(2) Boarding salvage and R&A teams from alongside or by helicopter or small boattransfer.

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(3) Providing vital services (firemain, electrical, power, etc.) from alongside.

(4) Taking the casualty in tow to maintain an optimum heading.

(5) Relieving a platform of opportunity of the above actions, enabling her to return toher primary duties.

As each new firefighting and damage control unit is deployed on or about the stricken ship, reorganization and coordination of firefighting assets is vital. Salvage officers or commandingofficers of salvage ships are specially trained to coordinate assistance to battle-damaged ships.

2-2.4 Salvors’ Interface with Combatants. Salvors assisting battle-damaged ships add to theship’s damage control organization. Salvors report to and take direction from the stricken ship’scommanding officer. The first salvors deployed on board a battle-damaged ship usually cona SART, with air-portable firefighting and pumping assets. The SART leader assesses battle dam-age through the eyes of a specially trained offship salvage firefighter. Fire loads, boundarfire threats are evaluated rapidly and the SART equipment is deployed to reinforce and assist thestricken ship’s own damage control activities. The SART leader reports to the FSC with a verbsituation report (SITREP). The SITREP gives the extent of fire and damage, status of present fire-fighting activities and a brief summary of relevant casualty conditions in salvage terms. From thSITREP, the FSC may deploy additional SARTs or call forward a salvage ship or rescue tug toprovide further assistance.

Timely and objective SITREPs and battle damage control assessments from the salvage officerare vitally important to the battle group commander in deciding to provide an assisting ship oopportunity. The ship of opportunity is lost to the battle group’s mission while assisting a battle-damaged ship. Platforms of opportunity will not be permitted to remain indefinitely with the casu-alty unless there are threats that require armed combatants to protect the casualty and salvageforces.

Stricken ships’ organizations may break down through no inherent fault when the stress of bacombines with the shock of severe battle damage, major fires and extensive personnel caSalvage officers aboard battle-damaged ships should be alert to the possibility of such break-downs and tailor their actions and recommendations accordingly.

Ships’ crews are often depleted in numbers and physically and mentally exhausted by the timeoffship firefighters arrive on board in force. Exhaustion and severe discomfort often focuattention of ship's damage control parties on one or two main threats, allowing apparently minsecondary effects to exist or develop into serious hazards. Salvage officers and SART leadersattending damaged ships must evaluate all threats to ship survivability and assign priorities forcontrol of both immediate and longer term threats.

2-2.5 Integration of Salvage Teams with Crews of Battle-damaged Ships. Salvage teams,especially those who deploy as SARTs, provide stricken ships with fresh personnel, special train-ing and extensive damage control knowledge. The combination of a background in offensive firfighting and high-capacity, air-deployable equipment enables SARTs to make a valu

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contribution to ship survivability.

Salvage teams that board a stricken ship must be integrated quickly into the overall damage con-trol effort if they are to be useful and beneficial. Exactly how this is achieved is decided by theoffending salvage team or SART leader, in consultation with the damaged ship’s commandiofficer. Optimum integration and utilization of the salvage team in damage control efforts dependupon the particular situation:

• If the stricken ship’s damage control parties are still relatively fresh and intact and havebeen able to confine fire and/or flooding, it is usually best for the salvage team totion as an additional, separate party.

• If the stricken ship’s damage control parties are exhausted, weakened or not holdtheir own, it is usually best for the salvage team to form one main damage control teto tackle the most serious threat first.

• If the extent of battle damage is such that it threatens to overwhelm existing damagecontrol parties, it is usually best to split the salvage team into two nucleus groups aboutwhich reorganized damage control parties are formed.

2-2.6 Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE). The NAVSEA Program of Ship Sal-vage Engineering is a microcomputer-based program for ship salvage calculations. The curreversion is designed primarily to support the salvage of stranded ships, but is capable of perfoing afloat stability and strength assessments for damaged ships. POSSE use and capabilities aredescribed in the U.S. Navy Salvage Engineer’s Handbook, Volume 2, S0300-A8-HBK-020.

Timely and accurate stability and strength analyses allow the force salvage coordinator and thsalvage team leader to assess the effects of accumulating firefighting water or additional damageso that tactics appropriate to the situation can be adopted. It is unlikely that a salvage team leaderwill have time or a suitable location to run POSSE calculations after boarding the casualty.POSSE should be used to give the salvage team leader an initial situation assessment, based onreports from the casualty. The initial assessment can be revised and updated by the FSC or svage engineer, based on verbal reports from the salvage team leader on the casualty.

POSSE operates in either a Detailed Analysis Mode that utilizes detailed, previously stored, shipdata files or a Rapid Analysis Mode that approximates stability and hydrostatic characteristicfrom ship length, beam, depth, service speed and full load draft. Detailed data files have beedeveloped for ship classes representing approximately 70 percent of the fleet. By entering detaiof a ship’s current loading condition, an updated load case file can be created in either Detailed orRapid Analysis Mode. Load case files for ships in company are prepared and updated daily by theforce salvage engineer and his staff.

When POSSE is run in the Detailed Analysis Mode, the salvage team leader need provide only thecompartment numbers of flooded spaces to the POSSE operator to get an updated stabilitysis. If POSSE is being run in the Rapid Analysis Mode, approximate size (length, breaddepth) and location of flooded compartments must be provided. POSSE can also analyze th

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effects of weight changes caused by the jettisoning or shifting of weights, consumption of flam-mables by fire, etc. Longitudinal strength degradation can be assessed if the location, nature andextent of hull damage are provided.

2-3 THE SALVAGE TEAM LEADER

The salvage team leader (STL) is the officer in charge of salvage response to a battle damageincident. The STL may be any one of the individuals named below in charge of salvage teamsalvage ship activities on a battle-damaged ship:

• SART leader.

• Salvage officer detached to act as team leader.

• Commanding officer of attending salvage ship.

• Team leader of a R&A team from an attending salvage ship or platform of opportun

• FSC or salvage engineer, in the case of an especially difficult or complex task.

2-3.1 Before Boarding the Casualty. Before boarding the battle-damaged ship, the STL massess the casualty’s situation, preferably by making a helicopter overflight, taking particular noteof:

• Size, location, apparent boundaries of present fire(s) and apparent structural integrity ofthe casualty in salvage terms.

• Drift and/or present heading of the ship, relative to prevailing wind and her presentposition and speed.

• Helicopter landing or VERTREP locations, their availability and proximity to main firefront(s).

• Drafts fore, aft and where possible, port and starboard midships, together with esti-mates of list, trim and roll period/characteristics.

• Potential flooding apertures, their relationship to present waterline and urgency of needto raise them by dewatering or counterflooding.

• Most suitable location for landing and operating salvage fire pumps and salvage equiment.

This initial survey is vitally important, as it is often the first external examination of the battle-damaged ship to be made by a salvage-trained mind and may be the last opportunity the STL hasfor external observation.

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2-3.2 After Boarding the Casualty. After boarding the casualty, the STL must locate her comanding officer or officer exercising command and obtain a general overview of the ship’s situa-tion. Typically, the STL needs up-to-date information on:

• Current extent of fire and estimates of damage, together with status of damage controlorganization and repair party personnel.

• Availability and status of ship’s main and auxiliary power and her ability to maneuver

• Condition and status of onboard systems, including fire pumps, firemains and firefight-ing systems.

• Where, by mutual agreement between the commanding officer and the STL, the sal-vage personnel and their equipment can be deployed to provide the most effective fire-fighting and damage control assistance.

After ascertaining the broad aspects of battle damage sustained by the ship, the STL deployment of salvage personnel and equipment into position and consults with the casualty’sdamage control assistant (DCA) to establish the order of damage control priorities based uponanalysis of:

• Locations and sizes of hull penetrations and flooding rate, if any.

• Stability and structural integrity of casualty, with the STL’s observations as a bench-mark check on the DCA’s damage control plots.

• Firefighting and damage control actions in progress, including specific details ofagents, cooling/boundary control operations in progress and magazine flooding status.

• Immediate threats to casualty survivability, based upon a salvage analysis of tstricken ship’s condition.

On a stranding, salvage crews have at least a little time to analyze and assess a casualty’s situatiobefore starting salvage operations. When assisting a casualty, particularly where offship firefiging operations are a primary task, salvors do not have the luxury of time to reflect on options orpossible permutations of each course of action. STLs have only a limited time to gather, absorband act upon information received about the casualty. Much of their assessment of the casualtunder battle damage response conditions must follow the dictum stated by Commodore ArleighA. Burke:

“ In the heat of battle you don’t remember very much. You don’t really think very fast.You act by instinct, which is really training, so that you’ve got to be trained for battand you will react just exactly the way you do in training.”

2-3.3 Situation Reports. The STL’s first SITREP to the FSC must accurately summarize the battle-damaged ship's condition. That SITREP must also describe actions taken and specify any

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logistic or resupply items that must be brought forward immediately to platforms of opportunityor salvage units attending the casualty.

Typically, a SITREP to the FSC would include:

• Casualty’s drafts: forward, midships and aft—port and starboard. List, trim, displacment, period of roll and a flooding summary could be included.

• Name and designation of attending platforms of opportunity, salvage ships or oceatugs and SARTs, together with their equipment.

• Casualty assessment and estimate of time and level of effort necessary to contain, cotrol and extinguish fires.

• Present foam status in gallons and proposed usage rates of foam compounds, with projected resupply requirements.

• Generalized plan of attack, with the STL’s assessment of the casualty’s survivabiliand future disposition—will the casualty:

(1) Be able to rejoin battle group?

(2) Have to be steamed or towed to an intermediate repair location?

(3) Require major dewatering, damage control repairs and extensive pre-tow prepara-tions before being capable of movement out of area?

Because of the circumstances and urgency of battle damage salvage operations, it is unlikely thatSTLs have either time or opportunity to draft detailed SITREPs. Most information is passed to tFSC or battle group commander as concise, verbal reports via radio circuits.

2-4 SALVAGE ASSISTANCE RESPONSE TEAMS (SARTs)

SARTs are 10- to 18-man teams of salvage specialists with intensive and significant firefightingtraining beyond basic firefighting schools. SARTs undergo frequent firefighting refresher train-ing, both as a team and as individuals. Their specialized training addresses fighting:

• Very large fires.

• Fires of long duration and intensity.

• Special hazard fires.

SARTs are trained in battle damage control methods, allowing them to prosecute offensive fire-fighting when operating:

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• As stand-alone, first-response teams deployed from Navy salvage ships, major logisticor amphibious ships or forward bases.

• From and with Navy salvage ships, salvage platforms of opportunity or chartered sal-vage craft.

Frequently, SARTs deploy with four-man Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) units to form amulti-skilled response group. Coordinated training between SARTs and EOD units is carriregularly to ensure that deployed units are cohesive.

Deployed SARTs also provide diving and salvage services to the battle group, including, but notlimited to the following:

• Routine underwater hull inspection, maintenance and minor repair.

• Recovery of lost articles.

• Hull security swims.

• Initial response and survey for strandings, sinkings, aircraft recovery or other majoroperations.

• Rescue swimmer services.

2-4.1 SART Composition and Qualifications. Table 2-1 defines a nominal 18-man SART.Fleet doctrines may vary the number and specific training of SART members based on operational experience and available manpower.

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2-4.1.1 General Qualifications for SART Members. Team members should be SWO/ESWS-qualified and have served at least one sea tour. Senior team members have more extensive seatime. All team members are qualified first class or rescue swimmers and hold current CPR/basicfirst aid certification. SART members are familiar with the general layout of Navy ships and haveaccess to damage control plates, general plans and other ship documentation at their permanentraining/operating bases. Prior to and during battle group deployment, SARTs will tour all shipsof the group to become familiar with general layout and firemain, drainage and other damage con-trol systems.

An extensive period of team training precedes planned SART deployments. The teams are nomally organized and assembled six months before deployment. Pre-deployment training includes:

Table 2-1. Recommended SART Composition and Qualifications

BILLET SPECIALIZATION/QUALIFICATIONS

Team Leader Special Operations (1140) LCDR/CDR holding Ship Salvage Opera-tions Officer NOBC (9375), command tour on ARS/ATS/ATF.

Assistant Team Leader 61XX/71XX/1140, CWO-4/LT, may be salvage diving officer (NOBC 9314), DCA or Engineer tour

Chief Petty Officer HTC/DCC, DCA or F/F School instructor tour

Leading Petty Officer Engineer rate E-6, repair locker leader, machinery space supervisor qualified

NO 1 HOSE TEAM:

Nozzleman HT1/DC1, first class diver, qualified scene leader

No 1 Hoseman HT2/DC2, qualified nozzleman

No 2 Hoseman BM2, second class diver, qualified nozzleman

No 1 Access BM1, experienced rigger

No 2 Access EM3

NO 2 HOSE TEAM:

Nozzleman HT1/DC1, first class diver

No 1 Hoseman HT2/DC2, qualified nozzleman

No 2 Hoseman BM2, second class diver, qualified nozzleman

No 1 Access EM3

No 2 Access EN2/MM2/BT2/MR2

Pump Operator EN1, first class diver

Assistant Pump Operator EN3/MM3

Communications Specialist/Plotter IC1/EM1, first/second class diver, qualified to operate and maintain UDATS

Medical Support HM2/1, independent duty diving medical technician with advanced training in trauma management, emergency medicine, advanced life support, initial burn treatment and triage.

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• Attendance at shipboard firefighting training (basic and advanced), firefighting teamtraining (basic, advanced and aviation) and DC team training.

• Fire at sea exercises with the Combat Support Squadrons FIVE and EIGHT trainhulks with several platforms, including T-ATF and commercial tugs.

• Diving training and underwater damage assessment/repair exercises.

Visits to ships assigned to the battle group are conducted for the following purposes:

• “Get acquainted” visits between SART leader and senior members and ship COengineer, DCA, repair locker leaders.

• Familiarization tours for SART members.

• Obtain DC plates and other ship information.

• Participate in joint firefighting/mass conflagration exercises.

• Participation in tow-and-be-towed exercises as deck rigging party with selected units ofthe battle group.

• Coordination and planning with the FSC, salvage vessels assigned to battle grouoperating area, Battle Damage Assessment Team (BDAT) and EOD Team.

2-4.1.2 Additional SART Qualifications. In addition to the above qualifications, the SART winclude the following qualifications (by PQS or applicable directive) among its members:

• All BMs qualified as boat coxswains (small boat, LCM and RIB) and boat davit supevisors.

• All EMs qualified as electrical control/switchboard operators and repair party electrcian.

• All EN/MM and pump operators qualified as diesel machinery space supervisors (top-watch) and boat engineer (small boats and LCM).

• 3 qualified emergency medical technicians (EMT) in addition to the Hospital Corps-man.

• 2 qualified LSOs and 2 qualified LSEs.

• 2 qualified dive supervisors.

• 2 qualified shipboard and mobile crane operators.

• 2 qualified gas-free engineers.

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2-4.2 SART Operations. SARTs are attached to a battle, logistics or amphibious group to bplaced in forward positions where they can respond rapidly to major battle damage and fiSince time is critical to effective control and extinguishing of fires, SARTs must board the caalty to control and possibly extinguish a fire before the arrival of a salvage ship. One or moreSARTs deploy aboard vessels with flight deck and staging areas and embarked-helicopter capability, such as major underway replenishment and amphibious ships.

SARTs deploy with helicopter-portable equipment and supplies, including:

• Portable, diesel-driven firefighting pumps of 2,500- to 3,000-gpm capacity, with asso-ciated suction and discharge hoses, monitors, nozzles, etc.

• 500-gpm hydraulic, submersible fire pumps with portable hydraulic power units.

• Limited quantities of three-percent AFFF concentrate in 300/500-gallon containersdesigned for underslung carriage by helicopters and/or 55-gallon drums.

• Self-contained air breathing apparati that are recharged from portable, high-pressure acompressors or portable air banks carried by the team.

• Equipment boxes for fire hoses, tools, breathing and rescue equipment, spare clothingand emergency rations.

• Portable dewatering pumps and hoses, including high-capacity hydraulic submersibles

• Shoring and patching materials.

• Wireless communications.

• Other portable damage control equipment suitable for the type of damage expected.

• Diving equipment and underwater tools.

SART members have special outfitting that differs from the standard shipboard firefighter. Trans-ferring between ships by helicopter or small boat—often under adverse conditions and long peri-ods on “immediate standby” status—requires a lightweight, comfortable, yet fully protectiveSurvivability in water is an important factor. Quick-release breathing apparatus and inflatablelifejackets increase SART members’ chances of survival if lost or forced overboard. Personal protection equipment is light, reliable and easily interchangeable.

As Navy-trained salvors, SARTs integrate rapidly with crews of battle-damaged ships, assistingand encouraging damage control efforts and giving vigor to casualty personnel. SART leadoffer objective, professional advice and a salvor's dedication to preserving the casualty if at allpossible.

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Chemical, biological or radiological (CBR) warfare environments pose special threats to SARNavy salvage forces have no greater ability to detect, monitor or defend against CBR agents thando other fleet units, nor do they have greater training or organic assets to assist with decontamina-tion. Salvage teams are exposed to CBR agents during transit to casualties, when firefighting anddamage control operations must be conducted outside the skin of the ship or when damage hasbreached the ship’s protective envelope. Because of the requirements of mobility and operationsin exposed locations, salvage teams must rely on personal protective clothing and equipment todefend against CBR threats. Protective clothing degrades mission capability, especially for taskssuch as firefighting that require heavy physical exertion and freedom of movement.

2-5 BATTLE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Battle damage assessment teams also board casualties and assist the ship’s force in determiningthe extent of the damage and the repairs required. Both the salvage teams and battle assessmentteams report to the force salvage commander. The salvage team and battle damage assessmenteam share information freely. When the ship is stabilized, the salvage officer briefs the battledamage assessment officer on the situation, any particular dangers and any observations about thship’s condition. There are no personnel that occupy positions on both salvage and battle damassessment teams. All jobs on both teams are full-time for all hands.

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CHAPTER 3

SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING PRINCIPLES

3-1 INTRODUCTION

Salvors play a major role in ship survivability. To do so they must be proficient in firefightstrategies, tactics and use of equipment. They must react quickly and read a fire, anticipatinwill happen before it happens.

Fires on military and commercial ships in the Persian Gulf and the Falkland Islands have clearly that the effects from a single, modern weapon can tax the ability of the crew to cdamage and survive. The tanker fires in the Persian Gulf war and commercial casualties, the 1990 explosion and fire on the T/S MEGA BORG, highlight the extremely difficult firefiging problems these ships present. In all fires, assistance must come quickly before the firegood hold and the casualty crew becomes exhausted. Effective firefighting assistance is both rapidand sustained.

3-2 MARINE FIRES

Several elements of marine fires impede salvage firefighters:

• What is seen from a salvage ship alongside a burning vessel is not always repretive of the total fire situation aboard the casualty.

• A ship has finite dimensions and special hazards munitions, fuel, etc. that govebasic firefighting approach.

• Materials and storage methods aboard ship make firefighting difficult.

• A burning ship has a limited capacity to sustain buoyancy losses caused by the aclation of large quantities of firefighting water.

• Resupplying firefighting consumables is often difficult and may require a high mobile or helicopter logistics priority.

U. S. Navy publications, such as NSTM 555 and NWP 62-1, have detailed explanations nature of fires and firefighting. This chapter contains a brief overview and refresher of fire cistry and characteristics.

3-2.1 Chemistry of Fire. Combustion is oxidation a chemical reaction in which oxygen cobines with other elements, usually with the liberation of energy in the form of heat and somlight. Oxidation may occur at a very slow rate, as in the corrosion of metals or at very highas in fires and explosions. The term oxidation also includes certain chemical reactions that

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involve oxygen. Some of these reactions, particularly those involving fluorine or chlorine,ceed very rapidly, liberate large quantities of heat and may even produce flames in shoexhibit all the characteristics and hazards of fire, even in the absence of oxygen. All fires haelements of the fire triangle, illustrated in Figure 3-1. Without all three sides of the triangleoxygen and heat the fire cannot start or burn.

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Figure 3-1. The Fire Triangle.

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nted byFigure

There are two basic modes of combustion flaming and surface (smoldering) combustion. can burn in either mode or both modes simultaneously. In surface combustion or smolderingen and fuel combine directly, without the formation of intermediate products. Sucombustion occurs at a much slower rate than flaming combustion and consequently evolvat a lower rate. Surface combustion can continue at very low oxygen levels, in some casesas three percent.

Flaming combustion is sustained by an uninhibited chemical chain reaction and is represethe fire tetrahedron, with the chemical chain reaction forming the fourth side, as shown in 3-2.

bustionchainses thatctionsediate

carbonmableof thesetion ofmbus-

Figure 3-2. The Fire Tetrahedron.

Flaming combustion proceeds at a high rate and is three-dimensional, where surface comis essentially two-dimensional, confined to a relatively thin layer of the fuel. The chemical reaction takes place in and around the flames and starts with the heated, vaporized fuel gaare given off by the solid or liquid fuel. The chain reaction consists of several separate reathat occur one after another in the rising flames and combustion gases. A number of intermcombustion products are both formed and consumed before the final products of oxidation dioxide, carbon monoxide, water, etc. are formed. The intermediate products include flamgases, free ions and electrons and molecular fragments called free radicals. The interplay products is necessary to support flaming combustion. A self-sustaining combustion reacsolid or liquid fuel depends on radiative feedback radiant heat from the flames and hot co

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tion products providing energy for the continued vaporization and heating of the fuel. Whenis sufficient heat to maintain the feedback, a positive heat balance exists and the fire will rconstant or grow. If heat is dissipated faster than it is generated, a negative heat balance ethe fire will eventually burn out (gaseous or liquid fuels) or shift to smoldering combustion (fuel).

3-2.1.1 Fuels. Fuels are solid, liquid or gaseous. Any material that gives off flammable vawhen heated or that burns when its ignition temperature is reached is fuel. The fuel bed is tthe structure containing it and other materials nearby. The fuel bed may contain a combinafuels and other materials that affect reactivity and extinguishing options. Fires are classifthe type of fuel. The class of the fire determines the extinguishing agents. There are four clathrough D recognized by the Navy and the firefighting community:

• Class A Fires. Solid (ash-producing) materials. The category includes items sucwood, paper, cloth, rope, rubber and some plastics. Only solid fuels can supportdering combustion.

• Class B Fires. Flammable or combustible liquids and gases. Petroleum fuels, lubring oils, grease, acetylene or liquefied natural or petroleum gas (LNG, LPG) aremon fuels for Class B fires. Gaseous fuels do not require vaporization to suflaming combustion, so less radiative feedback is required to maintain a positivebalance. Liquid fuels generally vaporize more readily than solid fuels. The easewhich a fuel vaporizes is its volatility. The specific gravity and solubility of liquid fuelsare important factors in adopting an extinguishment strategy. Liquids with a spegravity less than the extinguishing agent will float on top of the agent and may conto burn. The specific gravity of seawater is 1.025. Most flammable liquids havecific gravities of less than 1.0. If a flammable liquid is soluble in water, it may be sible to dilute the liquid to the point that it cannot burn. Hydrocarbon fuels aresoluble in water, but alcohols and some solvents are.

• Class C Fires. Electrical fires. Fuels for Class C fires are the circuitry and componof generators, motors, electrical cables and switchboards. When power is securfire becomes a Class A fire.

• Class D Fires. Combustible metal fires most often magnesium in aircraft, sodium, nium, potassium and aluminum. In the solid form, these metals must be heated their ignition temperature to support combustion. As a powder or fine shavings, mare capable of self-ignition. Extreme heat and structural disintegration may resulta thermite reaction the ignited mixture of aluminum powder and a metal oxide.heat of metal fires may break down surrounding substances, including water andate oxygen and flammable gases.

3-2.1.2 Heat. Heat may be transferred to a fuel source by three mechanisms:

• Radiation transfer through the air.

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ard, but

• Conduction transfer through a solid object.

• Convection transfer by hot air or gases.

Figure 3-3 illustrates the effects of radiation, convection and conduction. Radiation and cotion spread heat outward from the source in all directions, including downward. Becausgases tend to rise and expand, heat transfer by convection is principally upward and outwcircumstances often arise that force heated gases downward and outward.

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Figure 3-3. Effects of Conduction, Radiation and Convection.

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3-2.1.3 Oxygen. Air surrounding the fire supplies oxygen. Air contains about 21-percent oxy14 to 16 percent is necessary to support flaming combustion. Some fires generate their owgen supply during combustion:

• Very intense fires, such as Class D fires, may dissociate water molecules to roxygen and hydrogen.

• Oxidizing agents, such as bleaches, nitrates (fertilizers, explosives), chloratespowder, pyrotechnics), etc., release oxygen when heated.

• Some missile and torpedo fuels include oxidizers. Metal oxides release oxygenburned.

Excess oxygen from ruptured oxygen systems, chemical reactions or other sources causefires and explosions. A large volume air supply keeps the fire hot because oxygen is replarapidly as it is consumed.

3-2.2 Fire Behavior and Growth. After ignition, fire size increases as surrounding fuel is heaby convection, conduction and radiation. In the initial or incipient phase of fire growth, oxcontent of the surrounding air has not been reduced significantly and the fire is burning cproducing carbon dioxide, water vapor and small amounts of carbon monoxide and otherdepending on the fuel. Flame temperature may be above 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, but spperature may be only slightly elevated. As fire size increases in the free-burning phase, theemitted also increases, intensifying the ongoing heat transfer and radiative feedback in ethe fire feeds on itself. The fire expands upward first, often without any initial lateral spreadis possible because it is the vapors from both solid and liquid fuels, rather than the fuelsselves, that burn. The fire burns above the fuel, rather than in it. As the fire burns, a naturforms. The heated combustion products rise, creating a low-pressure zone at the base ofthat draws air, along with combustible vapors, from the surrounding fuel bed into the fire. of the fuel vapors and oxygen rise before they are burned and the fire expands vertically. fined spaces, the heated gases spread out at the overhead, forcing cooler air downwadrawn into the fire. The expanding heated gases will eventually ignite all flammable matethe upper levels of the space. At this point, temperatures in the upper levels of the spareach 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. As the fire heats its surroundings, it begins to expand lThe fire will continue to spread upward and outward until combustion reaches a rate that ited by the rate of fuel vapor production or air flow. In open fires, such as tank fires, combrate is limited by fuel vaporization rate.

In most enclosed space fires, the rate of sustained combustion is limited by air flow. If air fsufficient to balance the available fuel supply, fire intensity increases in a linear fashion unflashover point is reached. Flashover occurs when an enclosed space is heated to the poiflames flash over the entire space. Flashover often occurs at about the same time flames impinge on the overhead. The flames begin to spread laterally, initially at about six inchsecond, but with increasing velocity, until flames cover the overhead and shoot out of dooports or other openings. At this point, the space is said to be fully involved with fire.

3-6

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Flashover was originally believed to result from combustible gases collecting at the overheamixing with air until they reached the flammable range. It is now believed that while thisoccur, the collection and ignition of combustible gases in the overhead precedes the actuaover. Flashover is attributed to the buildup of heat from the fire that eventually heats all thtents of the fire area to their ignition temperatures, causing near simultaneous ignition ainvolvement.

If the air supply is limited, fire intensity fluctuates, but overall follows an increasing trend. Etually, the temperature at the overhead reaches about 800 degrees Fahrenheit and then rapidly, without fluctuation, to the flashover point at 1,000 to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. Flasmay occur with explosive violence if any unignited flammable vapor mixture has collected overhead.

Flashover can sometimes occur in spaces where no fire is burning. A slowly developing fireor a heat source may gradually transmit enough energy to cause materials near decks or buof adjacent compartments to emit combustible gases. The combustible vapor that is remixes with surrounding air. Flashover occurs when the flammable mixture reaches the autotion temperature or a source of ignition is introduced. The entire mass ignites almost instan

Confined fires in the free-burning phase will continue to burn until there is not enough oxygsupport flaming combustion. If there are sufficient solid fuels present, the fire will normally tinue in the smoldering combustion mode. Burning is reduced to glowing embers and thefills with dense smoke and gases. As the fire continues to smolder, the expanding gases msurize the space or force smoke out of small openings and the temperature in the space ca1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The intense heat will vaporize the lighter fuel gases, such as hand methane from combustible materials in the space, as well as any liquid fuel. The smocombustion is incomplete oxidation, because there is not enough oxygen present to comcombine with the fuel. The smoke and gases produced will include large quantities of flamfree carbon and carbon monoxide. The smoke and gases do not burst into flame becausenot enough oxygen to support flaming combustion. The heat from the free- burning combremains, however and the unburned carbon particles and flammable gases need only bwith sufficient oxygen to burst into almost instantaneous combustion. Proper ventilatioremove smoke and hot gases from the space. Improper ventilation supplies the missing sidfire tetrahedron oxygen causing a smoke explosion or backdraft as the mass of hot gasmoke bursts into flame with devastating speed and violence. Warning signs of possibledrafts are:

• Smoke under pressure.

• Dense black smoke or black smoke becoming dense gray-yellow.

• Little or no visible flame.

• Smoke leaving the fire area or structure in puffs or at intervals.

3-7

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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• Sounds muffled by smoke.

• Sudden rapid inward movement of air when an opening is made.

Liquid fuels cannot truly smolder, but can still create the conditions required for a backA Class B fire will produce large quantities of smoke just before extinguishing from lack of gen. The hot fuel will continue to give off flammable vapors. The liquid fuel or surrounding sture may be hot enough to ignite the smoke and vapors if the space is aspirated.

Backdrafts can occur whenever combustible gases collect in a location where they can be to their ignition point in the absence of sufficient oxygen to support combustion, either ininvolved spaces or adjacent spaces.

3-2.3 Fire Extinguishment. Fires are extinguished by breaking the triangle or tetrahedron by

• Cooling—applying an agent that lowers the fuel temperature to the point that it doeproduce enough flammable vapor to support combustion. Water is the most comcooling agent. To be most effective, the cooling agent should be applied to the fthe point where it is being vaporized, i.e., the seat or base of the fire.

• Starving—removing or securing all fuel sources or allowing a fire to burn until all fis consumed.

• Smothering—reducing the oxygen content of the atmosphere immediately adjacethe fuel below 15 percent to stop flaming combustion or below three percent tosurface combustion. Many agents may smother, depending upon the material afire. Carbon dioxide is a common smothering agent. It is very difficult to reduce gen content to less than 3 percent, so most Class A fires are extinguished by a cotion of smothering and cooling.

• Disrupting—Interfering with the chemical chain reaction that supports flaming cobustion. Since the chain reaction takes place throughout the flames, disrupters effective even if they do not reach the seat of the fire. Dry chemicals and Halon amost common disrupters.

3-2.4 Special Hazard Fires. Situations arise in marine fires outside the scope of the basic clfications. Special hazard fires are of the basic A, B, C or D classes, but require special tactin some cases, special extinguishing agents.

3-2.4.1 Polar Solvent Fires. Polar solvents are water-soluble, flammable liquids that attwater. Common polar solvents are alcohols, paints, paint thinners, cleaning solvents anmissile, rocket and torpedo fuels. When polar solvents are burning, water is absorbed into twith little extinguishing effect. The solubility of a liquid in water determines which firefightagents and techniques will be effective. Small amounts of polar solvents in a Class A fircause the entire fuel bed to act as a polar solvent, sometimes requiring several agents to exthe blaze.

3-8

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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wasted. the fire-ssel.

3-2.4.2 Pressure Fires. Fuels under pressure produce pressure fires. The pressure may be mechanical source, such as a pump or pressure vessel or may be generated by heatexpansion and boiling. There may be pressure fires at piping system flanges or ruptures, insurized tank or receiver, in a tank next to a heat source or from the uncontained release opropellants. Pressure fires are difficult and dangerous to control; serious open-air explosioresult. There is no effective method of extinguishing burning rocket propellent; the fire mucontained and controlled until the propellent is exhausted.

3-2.4.3 Flowing Fires. A fire with a flowing fuel is a free-flowing fire. These fires occur wheburning fuel oil flows from one deck to another. Flowing fires are Class B fires and are eguishable with standard B agents, but fuel motion makes control difficult. With flowing especially, a direct, unplanned attack may be a wasted and dangerous effort; the extingagent must be chosen carefully and the attack planned.

3-2.4.4 Uncontained Fires. Uncontained fires are not constrained by established boundariefire that partially or fully engulfs a ship is uncontained. When a hull is open, either thrdesign, damage, or failure, conditions are suitable for an uncontained fire.

3-2.5 Characteristics and Hazards of Large and Unusual Fires. Marine fires are often verylarge and present unusual conditions and hazards to firefighters.

3-2.5.1 Size. Large fires generate great heat and may burn for long periods. Some tankehave defeated all extinguishing attempts and have required weeks to burn themselves oufires on large ships have great quantities of fuel heated near the flash point with many poignition sources. Fuel quantity and ignition sources combine to increase not only the difficuextinguishing the fire, but also the explosion and reflash hazard.

Smoke, toxic or irritating gases and particles from large marine fires sometimes engulf asvessels Smoke and radiant heat can damage equipment or injure personnel some distancefire. Very large, uncontained fires can create firestorms high winds drawn into the fire by apressure zone around the fire, caused by the rising of hot combustion gases. The fire winvide oxygen to the fire at a high rate, increasing its intensity. Wind velocities may be high eto move large objects, endangering personnel.

Vast quantities of water are applied to cool and extinguish large fires. Detrimental side esuch as flooding, are proportionately more severe than in small fires.

3-2.5.2 Ship’s Structure. Ship’s structure around a fire becomes so hot that it acts as asource and assists in sustaining the fire. In fighting Large fires, surrounding structures oftebe cooled and isolated before attacking the seat of the fire.

Extreme heat or mechanical damage may cause structural failure. Chemicals released by ction may react with materials, explosions often result in damage to structural members anlonged exposure to extreme heat may cause the material to become plastic (melt) or Changes in the physical properties of materials weaken the structural envelope and exposefighters to toxic fumes, blocked accesses and, possibly, result in the breakup of the entire ve

3-9

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Comparatively low temperatures cause changes that reduce overall strength. Steel, the momon ship structural material, suffers significant strength loss at temperatures greater thdegrees Fahrenheit; shipbuilding steels melt at about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit. Steel thating red is already hotter than 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Steel temperature can be estimaits color, as shown in Table 3-1. Aluminum, the second most common material, flows at degrees Fahrenheit. Cooling must be rapid to maintain structural integrity. Figures 3-4 and 3-5illustrate temperature effects on steel and aluminum.

3-2.5.3 Explosion. Large fires generate explosive gases more rapidly than the gases they csipate. Explosive gases may concentrate or pocket in any confined space before, during aa fire. While pockets may lack either enough oxygen to support combustion or an ignition sfirefighters can unintentionally breathe the gas pockets or expose them to ignition sourceship fire, explosions can occur between deep web frames, in cofferdams or in individual coments. Vapor/air explosions cannot always be avoided, but they are predictable. One telltathat an explosion may occur is panting smoke a body of smoke that alternately expands atracts, appearing to breathe in and out or puff out of the openings. Panting smoke often inthe buildup of explosive gases. Explosions can occur under all conditions common to mfires, especially in large cargo or fuel tanks.

3-2.5.4 Aspiration. A fire may be aspirated fed oxygen by natural winds, winds generatedresult of the fire, improper ventilation systems, broken air or oxygen piping or by inadvertopening confined spaces. Aspiration often increases the fire's intensity or causes it to spcontained fire is probably oxygen-starved. Panting smoke a precursor of explosion is also of a fire that has burned for a considerable length of time, has become oxygen-starvedsmoldering. Premature venting of a space may cause a reflash or a vapor/air explosion. must consider the potential results of aspiration in their attack plan.

3-2.5.5 Boil Over and Spill Over. Fuel or cargo oil storage tanks are formidable hazards in lafires. Most oils are lighter than water. There is invariably water at the bottom of oil tanks humidity or water that has settled out of the oil.

When a tank is afire, an extremely hot zone of oil forms at the top of the tank. This zonexceed 212 degrees Fahrenheit. As the fire progresses, the zone expands downward throil until it reaches the water. When it does, the water flashes to steam, expands as much a

Table 3-1. Color Scale of Temperature for Iron or Steel.

Color Temperature Color Temperature

Dark blood red, black red 1,000 Orange, free-scaling heat 1,650

Dark red, blood red, low red 1,050 Light orange 1,725

Dark cherry red 1,175 Yellow 1,825

Medium cherry red 1,2-0 Light yellow 1,975

Cherry, full red 1,375 White 2,220

Light cherry, light red 1,550

3-10

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3-11

Figure 3-4. Temperature Effects on Steel.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

le dis-iolenttats and

st heat front

back

Figure 3-5. Temperature Effects on Aluminum (6061-T6).

to 1 and produces enough force to rupture the tank and throw burning oil over considerabtances. Boil over usually results in serious structural damage to the ship and a massive, voutflow of burning oil. Boil over is illustrated in Figure 3-6. Spill over is a less disastrous effecof the same phenomenon. In spill over, the tank is vented sufficiently so that as the oil heexpands, it spills from tank vents under considerably less pressure.

There is a second type of boil over that does not involve water. Sometimes, after the firfront begins to move downward, a second, faster moving front forms. When the secondovertakes the first, the liquid is agitated and may be ejected from the tank.

A distinctive whir commonly indicates that a spill over is about to occur. Firefighters shouldup and prepare to redirect efforts when a spill over is imminent.

3-12

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, a tankof thethod toels can-d may

Figure 3-6. Boil Over.

The theoretical speed of expansion of the heated zone is about 1 foot per hour. Therefore30 feet deep would boil over in about 30 hours. In reality, the time varies with the severity fire, time of fire impingement on the tank and the tank contents. There is no guaranteed meobserve the progress of the phenomenon. However, feeling the side of the tank at low levdetermine how far the heat zone has traveled. Extreme caution should be taken in the investigation, especially when the fire has been burning for a significant time. This shoreside metho

3-13

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which

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fuel or

ke

ls, pro-enic orease the Some

other

not be practical aboard ship. Another method is to spray water lightly on the tank side, should create a definite wet-dry line along the boundary of the heated zone.

3-2.5.6 Class D Fires. The preferred method of fighting Class D fires is jettisoning the fuel bIf this is not possible, Class D fires (other than sodium fires) can be cooled with water besmothering agent is introduced. However, water may splatter the molten metal or react wmetal to generate oxygen. Firefighters must know the kind of metal that is burning and hreacts when exposed to heat and water. Careful application of a fine water spray can accelecombustion of some metals so the fire burns out sooner. A solid stream can break up thepush it overboard or away from hazards and uninvolved areas.

3-2.5.7 Combustion and Hazardous Materials. All fires produce flame, heat, gases and smothat are potentially hazardous to the firefighter.

Plastics, rubber, chlorine- or bromine-based refrigerants and most hydrocarbon-based fuepellants and lubricants are hazardous in fires. These products may be toxic or carcinogreactive in the presence of heat and, in some cases, water. Many of these materials incrintensity of a fire, while others may generate explosive gases or ignite spontaneously.potential hazards are:

• Smoke, soot particles and partially burned or unburned solid particles of fuel andmaterials in the fire.

• Carbon dioxide from combustion or released as a firefighting agent.

• Carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion.

• Hydrogen cyanide from acrylic plastic.

• Hydrogen chloride from PVC plastic.

• Hydrogen fluoride from Halon 1301.

• Sulphur dioxide from rubber and rubber-based products.

• Hydrogen sulfide (sewer gas) from marine sanitation devices.

CAUTION

Hazardous materials are highly toxic and often difficult to detect.Familiarization with the effects and warning signs of exposure tothese materials is a matter of education and training. The U.S.Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual, S0-400-AA-SAF-010, pro-vides guidance concerning hazardous materials.

3-14

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• Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and phosgene, from TFE coatings (Teflorefrigerant gases (Freon) and Halon 1211.

• Dioxins from the breakdown of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's).

• Any of the above gases from the breakdown of explosives.

Any and all of these hazardous materials can be carried in smoke and heated gases, stefirefighting water or water containing solids and liquids or in fuel and water run-off.

Hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas, present in smoke from virtually all shipboard fires, is espedangerous. The gas itself is not toxic, but forms hydrochloric acid on contact with water, smoisture in the respiratory passages or wet skin. Severe burns to the lungs, nasal passagand exposed skin may result.

Smoke inhalation is a particular hazard to firefighters because the initial symptoms of mmoderate exposures coughing, watering eyes, respiratory discomfort, etc. pass quickly avictim may think that no harm was done. However, the symptoms of edema and other lungage caused by inhaled combustion products may not become noticeable until 24 to 48 houthe incident. Treatment for the effects of smoke-inhalation-caused lung damage must beginsix hours of the incident in order to be effective. For many cases, where smoke inhalationdiagnosed until lung edema becomes obvious, there is little to be done except to make thecomfortable and hope for the best.

The lessons firefighters should learn from these facts are:

• Fire atmospheres are inherently hazardous to human life and breathing apparalways required when fighting internal fires, working close to external fires or wotherwise exposed to combustion products.

• All cases of smoke inhalation must be reported so that prompt medical attention cprovided.

Toxic and explosive gases can also evolve in spaces where heat has been great enoughmaterials to break down and exude these gases, but not great enough to leave obvious esuch as charred or blistered paint. This is particularly true of spaces where explosives andlants are stored or spaces that contain chlorinated plastics (PVC). These gases may repoorly ventilated spaces long after the fire is extinguished. Charred plastics will continue to toxic vapors for many days.

Radiological hazards may be found in the cargoes of logistics vessels or as propulsion andons systems in combatants. In a major fire, the protective containers for radioactive materiabe damaged and the ship and personnel contaminated.

3-15

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3-2.5.8 Weapons and Explosives. Explosives, in bulk or as munitions, are inherently dangeroIn a fire, explosives dramatically increase the potential for detonations, the introduction ofgases and the prospect of deflagration free-burning of explosives.

Most military and commercial explosives except primers, fuses and detonators are somresistant to heat and shock. They burn violently, but do not detonate unless confined. Howea large, hot fire, explosives or munitions stored in confined spaces can absorb enough heaonate. Heat causes many explosives, particularly glycerine-based explosives, to become uand susceptible to shock detonation. The most stable explosives may be detonated symcally from a nearby explosion.

Because of the sensitivity of primers and detonators, armed munitions are extremely hazara fire:

• Pyrotechnic or incendiary munitions greatly increase the intensity of a fire, often introduburning metals to the fuel bed.

• Missiles and rockets on launchers, aircraft or on deck are a dual hazard. The warhead monate or the propellant may ignite, creating a large danger area behind the missile and plaunching it. Launching may lead to warhead detonation or ignite fires behind firefighterUnevenly burning solid propellants can create jets of flame along the sides of the missilspew large masses of burning fuel. Because of the danger areas ahead, behind and to of rockets and missiles, the safest position for firefighters cooling the weapon or attackinearby fires is ahead of the weapon at a 45-degree angle to its long axis.

3-2.5.9 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion. A boiling liquid expanding vapor explo-sion (BLEVE) is the rapid and violent release of gases from the rupture of a closed contaiBLEVE can occur whenever closed containers e.g., tanks, air receivers, nonshattering etc., are damaged or exposed to fire.

Liquid in containers exposed to heat will flash to vapor and expand rapidly; the vessel ruviolently and completely. The rupture usually within 60 degrees of the longitudinal axis oends of a cylindrical tank creates a shock wave, flame front and airborne fragments. Whmaterial in the container need not be flammable for a BLEVE to occur, the flammability andproperties of the stored material are important in the explosion. For example, a high- pressreceiver without a relief valve may contain moisture that boils and ruptures the receiver dufire, showering fragments without bursting into flame. Alternatively, the BLEVE of a 55-gadrum of lubricating oil sends out fragments along with a fireball, toxic gases and a flowinfire. The most serious BLEVEs are those of flammable and toxic materials.

Gas cylinders, storage drums, hydraulic accumulators, day tanks, air receivers, vehicle andble equipment fuel tanks and LPG and LNG tank vessels are the most common souBLEVEs. The Department of Transportation (DOT) requires most compressed gas cylinderfitted with rupture discs to prevent fragmentation of the cylinder. Tanks or containers susceto BLEVEs should be cooled immediately.

3-16

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3-3 EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

Understanding fire extinguishing agents, their properties and their effects on the fire trianglebasic to marine firefighting. Because Navy salvors may fight fires on merchant vessels aneign warships, as well as U.S. Navy ships, they must be familiar with all extinguishing acommonly found at sea.

Most agents attack one or more sides of the fire triangle by cooling, smothering and staSome agents disrupt the chemical reaction of combustion. Proper application of the righfights the fire effectively.

3-3.1 Types of Agents. Extinguishing agents are usually categorized by their effectivenessparticular class of fire. Agents that are effective on one class may be useless or even detron other classes. In this section, agents are grouped by their method of attacking the fire aeffectiveness on particular classes. Later discussion addresses the disadvantages and hchoosing incorrect extinguishing agents.

3-3.1.1 Starving Agents. As the fuel source can seldom be removed from the fuel bed durifire, no agent completely starves a fire. Typically, starving keeps free oxygen away from thbed or prevents the introduction of additional fuel.

3-3.1.2 Cooling Agents. Cooling removes the heat leg of the fire triangle. Without a sourcheat, fire cannot burn.

Water is the primary cooling agent for several reasons. It absorbs heat and cools burning mbetter than any other common agent; it is effective, to some extent, on all classes of fire; aalways available in the marine environment. The cooling agent reduces the temperatabsorbing heat and moving it away from the burning material. In fine droplet form as low-vefog, water protects firefighters from the effects of heat and dilutes many fumes and smoke.curtains not only cool but help contain fires and protect equipment by blocking heat transradiation and convection.

It is possible to make water more effective by adding certain chemicals. Wet water is treated tolower the surface tension of the water, increasing its ability to penetrate the surface of materials, such as bedding. Thick water is treated to increase the viscosity of the water, allowinto remain in place on the material longer and absorb more heat. Slippery water is treated to reduceviscosity, which reduces resistance to flow and pressure drop in long hose lays.

WARNING

Water fog will non conduct electricity, but an inadvertentshift to solid stream causes severe electrocution hazards forthe firefighter.

3-17

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steams physi-ent. Ontheringshould

Water is most effective on Class A fires, but can be effective when applied as a fog on Cfires. Water is effective as a secondary extinguishing medium and as a primary boundary cmedium for Class C and D fires.

Before applying water to a Class C fire, power should be secured to the affected circuit. Ifpower cannot be secured, water can be applied with minimum risk if the firefighter appliesvelocity fog (from a vari-nozzle or all-purpose nozzle) and keeps the nozzle at least four feethe energized source.

3-3.1.3 Smothering Agents. To smother a fire, the agent must be effective at either separathe fuel source from its oxygen supply or reducing the oxygen content of the space belonecessary to support combustion. Several agents fill these requirements for different clafires.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is extremely effective in diluting air and displacing oxygen. CO2 is storedas a gas, liquid or solid; above 87.8 degrees Fahrenheit, it is always a gas. In its gaseouCO2 is 1.5 times heavier than air, so that it falls through air and blankets a fire. Its weight maless likely to dissipate after application. The agent does not conduct electricity and leaves no residue. CO2 is available in portable (hand-held bottles), semi-portable (fixed bottles with reel) and fixed flooding systems.

CO2 is applied primarily to Class C and B fires, but can knock down Class A fires. It is the of choice on electrical and electronic equipment and hazardous and semi-hazardous materdo not contain oxygen. CO2 is particularly effective in confined spaces that may be flooded. limitations of CO2 are discussed later.

Both steam and sand are adequate smothering agents for Class B fires under some condBoiler rooms in merchant ships have sand for smothering small Class B fires. In Navy repair lockers have sand for shoring and extinguishing small sodium fires. Sand is effectivsmothering agent for shallow oil spill fires, however, because it sinks to the bottom of depools (more than one inch deep), sand is generally ineffective in preventing the hot surfafrom reflashing.

Steam forces air away from a fire and dilutes the surrounding atmosphere. As long as theblanket remains intact, it prevents reignition. Several disadvantages of steam, based on itcal properties, i.e., high temperatures and hazard to personnel, limit its use as a first line agNavy ships, steam smothering systems are found only in boiler casings. Fixed steam smosystems installed on older ships usually in fireroom bilges, boiler casings and cargo holds be used as designed.

WARNING

Inert gases will not support life and many of the vapors beingdisplaced may be toxic. Ensure the safety of personnel andmonitor the atmosphere at all times.

3-18

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ow the

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Tank or space inertion can be an effective smothering process. Ullage spaces in tanks aretinely inerted on many merchant vessels to make tank atmospheres inflammable and to sincompatible cargoes. An inert gas reduces the oxygen content of a vapor mixture belLower Explosive Limit (LEL).

In a fire, inerted spaces may lose their inertion, become open to the environment and aspiraresult is often a vapor/air explosion. Once the fire is extinguished, the tank or space shoreinerted. The space must be made as fume-tight as possible and the inerting gas admitteto prevent a buildup of static electricity that may ignite the mixture. Inerting over a foam blto achieve an inert environment may be necessary. The foam smothers the fuel bed, prethe release of vapor while the atmosphere is being inerted. Inerting is effective in containewhen explosives or chemicals are exposed to fires in adjacent cells.

Some salvage firefighting systems employ portable inert gas systems. In salvage firefioperations, portable inert gas systems may:

• Fill ullage spaces of cargo tanks to prevent the tank atmosphere from entering themable range during transfer operations.

• Reduce the oxygen content in holds already afire or where cargo has been heatextinguish fires by smothering.

Good inert gas should have:

• No soot.

• No solid particles in suspension.

• Negligible traces of SO2, NO and NO2.

• Minimum residues of O2, CO and H2.

Portable inert gas generators burn marine diesel oil and produce inert gas with only .50 poxygen by volume, traces of carbon monoxide and no measurable soot. Because there bustion in the inert gas generator, it is an ignition source for flammable vapors. The genshould be located on the forecastle or stern well clear of areas where flammable gases col

Inert gases, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen, can also be used to inert or smother enclosed spaces. Compressed CO2 or nitrogen in small 15-pound bottles can inert small amedium-sized spaces or ullage spaces in a ship's fuel tanks. Tanks can be inerted by admithrough the tank vent gooseneck after the ball valve is removed. Liquid inert gas, in pressbulk containers, can inert large spaces rapidly. Bulk CO2 and nitrogen are supplied by tank truckor specialized portable tanks from a pier or support vessel and by generating systems deplship or aircraft.

3-19

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an con-echan-

e pro- asburning. The

The Navy does not maintain portable inert gas generators in its inventory, but the Supervisorvage can arrange for generators. Appendix C of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5,S0300-A6-MAN-050, describes a common commercial inert gas generator.

Foams are very effective extinguishing agents for smothering large fires, particularly those gasoline, jet fuels and other Class B materials. Foams are formed by mixing water, air and amaking concentrate to produce a bubbly solution that is lighter than most oils. The ability toon top of oil, flow around obstacles and adhere to itself and solid surfaces allows the agentarate the fuel bed from its oxygen supply. Foams may be employed alone or in combinatioagents that disrupt the chemical reaction of the fire while the foam removes the oxygen sBecause of their wetness, foams are effective against Class A fires.

Foams are categorized by the makeup of the concentrate mechanical or chemical methoderation and by their expansion rates. The three basic categories of expansion rate are: lowsion [LX] up to 50:1, medium-expansion [MX] 50:1 to 500:1 and high-expansion [HX] 500:1,500:1. Most military and commercial salvors employ low-expansion foam. High-expanfoams are useful in extinguishing fires in confined or inaccessible areas that can be closedflooded with the agent. Unlike conventional foam blankets, HX foam produces a frothy, tdimensional foam that quickly fills an entire space, such as a cargo hold or engine rosmother the fire.

Classification by makeup and production is:

• Mechanical foams (sometimes called air foams) are generated by mixing a foam concentrate with water at a specified concentrate to water ratio. The water-concemixture is aspirated by the nozzle to blend in air and form the bubbles that makemost of the volume of the mixed foam. Some foams require special nozzles to asproperly. Foam concentrates are often identified by the required percentage of cotrate in the water-concentrate mixture; for example, a six-percent concentrate is with water in the ratio six parts concentrate to 94 parts water. Mechanical foameither protein- or synthetic-based. Protein foam consists of protein-rich animavegetable matter. Synthetic foam concentrates are detergent-based solutions thmore rapidly than protein foams. Several varieties of mechanical foams are in seSpecific types are discussed separately.

• Chemical foam is produced by mixing an alkali usually sodium bicarbonate withacid usually aluminum sulfate in water. The foam generated is a froth of bubblestaining carbon dioxide. These systems are being phased out and replaced with mical systems and are not discussed in this chapter.

Mechanical foams are similar, but each has particular firefighting capabilities. The foams arduced from proteins, detergents and surfactants. Surfactants are a group of compounds, suchwetting agents and synthetic soaps, that produce an aqueous film on the surface of the material. Figure 3-7 illustrates the production and action of chemical and mechanical foamsmost common mechanical foams are:

3-20

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rizede low-tes a while

Figure 3-7. Production of Foam Concentrates.

• Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) or light water is a low-expansion (8:1) syntheticfoam made from complex chemical surfactants that produce a thin film of polawater with low surface tension between the fuel source and the foam blanket. Thviscosity film spreads rapidly and evenly over the surface of the fuel and creavapor seal. One end of each polarized AFFF molecule bonds to a fuel molecule,

3-21

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ances

nd in dry

ozzles

ncen-alledanu- solu-Polars pro- polarydro-

r sol-blanketandardrcent

ercent cost.turesnd fleet

agent

ar II. andxious-erald, theothycom- sys-

the other end bonds to the water in the mixed foam. The polarized bonding enhfoam performance by:

(1) Promoting regeneration of the aqueous film, limiting reflash.

(2) Restricting the breakdown of the foam by water-soluble liquids.

(3) Penetrating porous materials with its low surface tension.

These characteristics make AFFF a suitable agent for all Class A and B fires acombination with other agents. AFFF can be applied in combination with somechemicals and halons. AFFF-water mixtures are adequately aspirated by vari-nand by foam nozzles designed for protein foam.

AFFF is manufactured in two types: standard AFFF in a three- or six-percent cotration for water-insoluble hydrocarbons and polar-solvent-type concentrate (calcohol-resistant concentrate, ARC or alcohol-type concentrate, ATC, by most mfacturers). Special formulations are required for polar solvent fires because waterble solvents are not bonded by the oil bonding end of normal AFFF molecules. solvents may also deteriorate standard AFFF foam rapidly. Some manufacturerduce dual-purpose concentrates (AFFF/ATC) that can be applied to water-solublesolvent fires when mixed in a six-percent concentration and are effective against hcarbon fires when mixed in a three-percent solution. AFFF/ATC applied to a polavent first creates a membrane over the fuel that separates the water in the foam from attack by the solvent. The blanket then performs in the same manner as stAFFF. Fleet units other than salvage forces are provided with standard six-peAFFF concentrate. Salvage ships and SART teams are supplied with three-pAFFF concentrate to gain maximum coverage from low storage volumes at lowMost foam concentrates have a shelf life of from five to 20 years at temperabetween 35 degrees Fahrenheit and 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Manufacturers’ adirectives for testing and replacement must be followed.

AFFF is applied by hose line pickup systems or from fixed tanks that supply the directly to a firemain.

• Protein foam is the oldest type of foam and has been in the fleet since World WProtein foam is no longer found in Navy ships other than the T-ATF ClassSHIPALTS are in progress to convert these ships to AFFF concentrate. The obnosmelling compound is mostly protein-rich animal and vegetable matter, with minsalts added to reduce withering of the blanket. When mixed with water and aeratesolution is hydrolyzed, creating a weak acid that mixes with the water to form a frfoam. Protein foam is an LX foam, expanding about 8:1 when mixed. The most mon method of generating protein foam is with an assortment of hose line pickuptems. Chapter 5 describes some of these devices.

3-22

S0300-A6-MAN-030

thatohol,liquidsips.

r theed later.rchant

d cre-al met- types

ing to

ion.ending

micallly are

t hoodswithoutguishedlied.

rigi-ass Bn the

onustione acid

. Whiled fire.oniummercial

aking

• Alcohol foam is similar to protein foam, but is blended with an insoluble soap allows it to be employed on water-soluble organic flammable liquids, such as alcketones, ethers and aldehydes. Under normal circumstances, the water-soluble would break down ordinary protein foam. Alcohol foams are not found in Navy sh

Dry Powders are formulated specifically for Class D burning metals. Dry powders smothemetal and have some cooling effects. They are not the same as the dry chemicals discussThese agents are not found in U.S. Navy ships, but are common in foreign navy and meships.

Two forms of dry powder, both chiefly graphite, are available. The graphite cools the fire anates large amounts of heavy smoke to aid in smothering. Either sodium chloride, for generals or sodium carbonate, specifically for sodium fires, are combined with the graphite. Bothof dry powder form a crust over the burning material, smothering the fire.

Water, in addition to cooling, also smothers by separating solid fuels from air and by flashsteam in the heat of the fire.

3-3.1.4 Disrupting Agents. Disrupting agents extinguish by acting on a fire's chemical reactThey neither smother nor cool the fire. Instead, they interrupt the chemical reaction by suspfine particles or molecules as a temporary screen between the sides of the fire triangle.

Dry chemicals are the most common disrupting agents. While there are several different chepowders available, only the two normally found at sea are discussed. Dry chemicals normadelivered to a fire in portable extinguishers, reel systems or fixed systems in galley exhausand ranges. Disrupters are often combined with secondary agents, but can extinguish fires assistance. Because dry chemicals do not cool the fuel bed or exclude oxygen, fires extinwith dry chemicals may reflash if cooling or smothering agents (typically foam) are not app

Purple-K-Powder (PKP), dry potassium bicarbonate, is the most common dry chemical. Onally developed to be combined with AFFF foam, PKP acts to control and extinguish Clfires primarily by disrupting the chain reaction and driving back flames. PKP knocks dowflames; foam smothers the fuel and controls reflash. Alone, PKP is likely to allow reflash.

Multipurpose ABC (Monoammonium phosphate) is a multipurpose dry chemical effectiveClass A, B and C fires. Its basic attack is twofold. The ammonium salts interrupt the combreaction while the phosphate changes to metaphosphoric acid. At fire temperatures, thbecomes a glassy, fusible material that covers the fuel source with a fire-retardant coatingABC chemical is a good “first aid” treatment, it may not completely extinguish a deep-seateComplete extinguishment may require and should include, backup with a hose. Monammphosphate extinguishers are no longer found in U.S. Navy ships, but may be used on comvessels.

Other commonly used dry chemicals include potassium chloride, sodium bicarbonate (bsoda) and urea potassium bicarbonate.

3-23

S0300-A6-MAN-030

l andmake

A firestems.d com-argoes

s D met-

ationsber of

ine.e fireainingoder-hloride

mercialspaceson 1211

il field trian-

fog.ome fire

mostater to degrees, carry-applied

nt.r the

te or

Halogenated extinguishing agents, known as Halons, act by disrupting the reaction of fueoxygen. The ability to disrupt the reaction rapidly, with little hazardous effect on personnel, Halons fast, safe, clean agents for most Class A, B or C fires.

Halon is effective on all Class A, B and C fires, but its effectiveness on deep-seated Classis limited and a hose backup may be required. Usually, Halon is deployed from fixed sysSystems are most often fitted in engine rooms, flammable storage lockers and electronic anputer spaces. Halon is particularly suited to electronics or other delicate equipment and csince it does not damage components or leave a residue. Halons are not effective on Clasals or materials that generate oxygen.

The two most common Halons are Halon 1301 and Halon 1211. The number designdescribe the chemical makeup of the Halon molecule, with each digit indicating the numcarbon, fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms, in that order. For example, Halon 1301 bromotrif-luoromethane is one carbon atom, three fluorine, no chlorine and one bromine; Halon 1211bro-mochlorodifluoromethane is one carbon atom with two fluorine, one chlorine and one bromBoth Halon 1301 and 1211 have the same basic firefighting capabilities they extinguish thrapidly, are electrically nonconductive and leave no residue. The difference is in 1211 contthe chlorine atom. Both 1301 and 1211 give off hydrogen bromide and hydrogen fluoride, mately toxic by-products, at about 900 degrees Fahrenheit. 1211 also produces hydrogen cgas that is more toxic than the by-products of 1301. Fixed systems aboard naval and comvessels are fitted only with 1301. Portable extinguishers for use in selected vital electronic use Halon 1211. Fixed systems on some foreign warships and commercial vessels use Hal(BCF).

Explosives are a disrupting agent. Controlled explosions have been used successfully in oand tank fires to create a vacuum around a flame orifice to remove the oxygen leg of the firegle instantly.

3-3.2 Water. Water is applied as a solid or straight stream, high-velocity fog or low-velocityEach form has different advantages and disadvantages and each is more applicable to ssituations than others.

Water extinguishes fire by the combined effects of smothering and cooling. Water coolsefficiently when converted to steam it takes more than five times as much heat to convert wsteam as it does to heat the same amount of water from 32 degrees Fahrenheit to 212Fahrenheit. When flashing to steam, the water expands its volume more than 1,700 timesing the absorbed heat away from the fire and displacing oxygen. How best to ensure that water flashes to steam depends on the characteristics of the fire.

3-3.2.1 Critical Flow Rate. For any fire, there is a critical flow rate required for extinguishmeHigher flow rates will also extinguish the fire, but lower rates will not, regardless of whethewater is applied as high-velocity fog, low-velocity fog or a straight stream. Critical flow rarequired application density rate calculations, are described in Paragraph 3-3.4.

3-24

S0300-A6-MAN-030

theequently,re areuels willained.ates,heat as

some of is mostnheit) in. Fog isc.) andtinguish-older-ndle ifolved

ntly.s of per-

gases,vantageventilate induce

ereressure

the airity andith noening,g fire-

s downdegreeser,ifficulty. Fahr-

3-3.2.2 Water Fog. Water fog's principal advantage is that it offers protection from heat toadvancing fire party. Fog streams expose a greater surface area to the fire's heat and consproduce more steam. However, the extinguishing effect of steam is limited, especially if theopenings through which the steam can escape. As air replaces escaping steam, hot solid frekindle and burn intensely within a few minutes if the steam concentration is not maintFlammable liquid fires extinguished by fog will usually not rekindle as the steam dissipunless the fuel contacts a hot surface or source of ignition, because liquids do not retain well as solids.

To generate large quantities of steam, the fog droplets must strike hot surfaces, although the water will evaporate as it passes through the hot gases and flames around the fire. Fogeffective against intense fires (overhead temperatures greater Than 1,000 degrees Fahreconfined spaces, where steam production is high and the steam cannot dissipate rapidlyused in indirect attacks, where water droplets striking hot surfaces (bulkheads, fixtures, etpassing through the heated atmosphere generate enough steam to smother the fire. Exment will not usually be complete in solid fuel fires, however, as the fire retreats into a sming phase, with heat intensity too low to produce steam efficiently. The hot embers can rekiair is introduced. It is usually necessary to apply water or other agents directly to the invfuels to complete the extinguishment.

Low-velocity fog presents water in a very finely divided form that can absorb heat efficieReach is limited and low-velocity fog devices (applicators) typically have very low flow rateabout 30 to 50 gallons per minute. Low-velocity fog is primarily used for indirect attacks andsonnel protection, often in conjunction with high-velocity fog.

Flowing water streams entrain surrounding gases and particulates (air, smoke, combustionetc.). Fog entrains far more air than straight or solid streams. Air entrainment can be an ador disadvantage, depending on the situation. Fog streams can be used to desmoke or compartments. When advancing down a narrow passage or ladderway, fog can sometimesan airflow from behind, improving visibility and providing fresh air to the firefighters. Whthere is no source of fresh air, the entrained airflow away from the nozzle creates a low-parea at the nozzle that pulls smoke and heat toward the firefighter. Vigorous clockwise rotation ofthe nozzle can overcome this effect.

Air entrainment is a serious disadvantage when a fogstream does not reach the fire, butdriven ahead of the fog stream does. The air feeds and fans the fire, increasing its intensdriving it into uninvolved areas. A fog stream directed through an opening into a space woutlet through which the entrained air can escape will force the fire back towards the opusually along the overhead. Flames often shoot out through the tops of doorways, burninfighters who are standing instead of crouching or kneeling.

Fog also upsets the thermal balance in a fire-involved space. Heat characteristically bankfrom the overhead in layers the temperature at the overhead is commonly more than 1,000 higher than at the deck, as shown in Figure 3-8. The layering of heat enables firefighters to entas humans can tolerate dry area temperatures of 300 degrees Fahrenheit without much dAfter heavy fog application, the temperature of the now very moist air is about 200 degrees

3-25

S0300-A6-MAN-030

g then driveted tolkhead.

vari-streamsuse ofe water heatthe hots can be

reachedor move

Figure 3-8. Thermal Layering Disrupted by Water Fog.

enheit throughout the space. Moist air transmits heat more effectively than dry air, lowerinmaximum tolerable temperature below 200 degrees. The disruption of thermal balance cafirefighters out of the space or prohibit their entry. The heat balance disruption can be mitigasome extent by not allowing the fog stream to strike the overhead and upper parts of the bu

3-3.2.3 Straight Streams. Solid streams from all-purpose nozzles and straight streams from able-pattern nozzles have greater reach, will penetrate deeper into the fuel bed than fog and can apply the cooling effect of water where it is needed the most. An often effective straight streams on internal fires is to bounce the stream off the overhead above the fire. Ththen falls in large drops, reaching the seat of the fire in a fairly well-divided form, absorbingand producing steam. There is little evaporation of the solid stream as it passes through gases, so the heat layering in the space is not disrupted. In the same way, straight streambounced off the overhead or solid bulkheads to reach fires behind obstructions.

Straight streams are used to break up and scatter solid fuel beds, so burning fuel can beand extinguished. Straight streams can also be used to push burning materials overboard them away from sensitive items.

3-26

S0300-A6-MAN-030

nd ashuld notiquid a rainflowing

th-alvage

in-ble, as

ms do

to fighteated

At short range, straight streams may scatter solid fuels with such violence that embers aclouds are thrown into the faces of the firefighters. In most situations, straight streams shobe applied to liquid fuels because they will scatter the burning fuel without extinguishing it; lfuel fires can be attacked from a distance by lofting straight streams above the fire to fall asof heavy droplets. In some cases, straight streams can be used to wash shallow spilling or fires overboard.

3-3.3 Agent Applicability and Compatibility. It may be necessary to combine agents and meods to combat large, multiple-source ship fires. Procedures vary with the circumstances; sfirefighters must be able to change their attack to suit the changing situation.

3-3.3.1 Applicability and Decision Making. The selection of agents and equipment to extguish a fire depend primarily on the types and quantities of equipment and agents availawell as the class of fire.

In selecting agents for an attack, several basic questions must be answered:

• Where is the fire?

• What is burning?

• What class of fire is the primary target?

• Is there more than one type of combustible material?

• What is the extent of the fire?

• What other combustible materials are located nearby and what special problethey present?

With this information, the scene leader or salvage officer selects the agents and methods the fire. Navy doctrine on priorities for agents to extinguish different classes of fires is delinbelow:

• Class A fires in woodwork, bedding, clothing and similar kinds of combustibles:

(1) Fixed water sprinkling.

(2) High-velocity fog.

(3) Solid water stream.

(4) AFFF.

(5) PKP.

3-27

S0300-A6-MAN-030

(6) CO2 extinguishers.

(7) Halon 1301.

• Class A fires in explosives or propellants:

(1) Magazine sprinkling or flooding.

(2) AFFF.

(3) Solid water stream and high-velocity fog.

• Class B fires in paints, spirits and flammable liquid stores:

(1) Fixed CO2 or Halon 1301 systems.

(2) AFFF (and/or ATC).

(3) Installed water sprinkling.

(4) PKP.


(6) CO2 extinguishers.

• Class B fires in gasoline:

(1) Fixed Halon 1301 or CO2 systems.

(2) AFFF and PKP applied together.

(3) AFFF.

(4) PKP.

(5) Water sprinkling systems.

(6) Portable Halon 1211 extinguishers.

(7) Water fog.

• Class B fires in fuel oil, JP-5, diesel oil and kerosene:

(1) Fixed Halon 1301 or CO2 systems.

3-28

S0300-A6-MAN-030

d cir-

a-d theilablek solu-nd the

el fuel

(2) AFFF and PKP applied together.

(3) AFFF.

(4) PKP.

(5) Water sprinkling systems.


(7) Portable Halon 1211 extinguishers.

• Class C fires in electrical and electronic equipment after de-energizing affectecuits:

(1) Portable CO2 extinguishers or hose reel CO2 systems.

(2) Halon 1301 or 1211.

(3) PKP.


• Class D fires in combustible metals:

(1) Jettison to the sea, if possible.

(2) Dry powder extinguishers.

(3) High-velocity fog in large quantities except on sodium.

(4) Sand.

3-3.3.2 Agent Compatibility and Precautions. All extinguishing agents have preferred appliction; all have limitations and side effects. The firefighting team leader must know the fire anagents and methods available. It is usually better to conduct a holding battle with avaresources until sufficient quantities of compatible agents are on hand than to rush for a quiction with inadequate tools. In considering the agents to select, firefighters should understacharacteristics of each.

Water:

• Solid streams are accurate in reaching the base of the fire, but may splash or propinto nonburning areas.

3-29

S0300-A6-MAN-030

fight-

nse fuel

s away too

eciald

er-

ace,ckuppace

such

ofg the5 and

• Fogs absorb heat more efficiently than solid/straight streams and can protect fireers and exposures from radiant and convective heat.

• Fogs are less accurate, have less reach and are less effective in penetrating debeds than solid/straight streams.

• Improperly applied fogs can cause the fire to blow back on the firefighter.

• Water fog can disrupt the thermal balance, driving firefighters from the space.

• Water fogs entrain air that ventilates the space and drives the smoke and flamefrom the firefighter. The entrained air may aid combustion. If the water flow rate islow to extinguish the fire, the net result of fog application can be a larger fire.

Carbon dioxide:

• CO2 is not effective on most metal fires that generate oxygen. Magnesium is of spconcern, because the reaction between the metal and CO2 produces oxygen, carbon anmagnesium oxide to fuel the fire.

• Outside a confined space, CO2 tends to dissipate rapidly into the atmosphere. The opator must be within the five-foot effective range of the agent.

• As CO2 has little cooling effect and may be disturbed by ventilation of the spreflash is common. To be effective, the agent must remain confined. Periodic baapplications may be required to maintain the concentration. At a minimum, the sshould not be disturbed for 15 minutes.

• CO2 is suffocating in concentrations that extinguish a fire. Personnel exposed toconcentrations suffer dizziness, unconsciousness and death.

• Liquid CO2 effectiveness is limited on uncontained fires. When liquid CO2 is applied,the surrounding decks, bulkheads and shell plating must be cooled continuously.

Steam:

• Fires in large cargo oil tanks should NOT be smothered with steam. Large chargesstatic electricity may be built up when steam is introduced into the tank, increasinchance of explosion. This precaution applies particularly to ships that carry JP-other static accumulator oils in bulk.

Foams:

3-30

S0300-A6-MAN-030

s forpplied

m is

eplaced con-

taken

e lost

boils

ndingtches

rotein dif-

ntra-

ip-

ulk

• Foams contain water that makes them electrically conductive. The precautionwater should be enforced when foams are applied to electrical circuits. Foam awith a vari-nozzle presents little risk.

• Water may dissociate and add oxygen to a Class D fire. Foams are NOT suitable forwater-reactive metals.

• Foams are not effective on cryogenic liquids such as LNG. The water in the foarapidly frozen and breaks down the blanket.

• Enough foam concentrate must be on hand to cover the fire completely and to rthe blanket as it deteriorates. When foam is scarce, the fire should be cooled antained until enough foam is available to complete the job.

• When a foam attack is conducted in conjunction with water cooling, care must be to prevent water streams from disturbing or washing the foam blanket away.

• Foam blankets may be difficult to maintain on steeply inclined surfaces and may bif a blanketed liquid overflows its container as a ship lists or trims.

• When applied to a surface exceeding 212 degrees Fahrenheit, the water in foamwith frothing of the blanket, causing spattering or slop over, as shown in Figure 3-9.Slop over should not be confused with boil over, described in Paragraph 3-2.5.5. Slopover occurs as the water on top of the flammable liquid boils, creating an expaemulsion with the liquid. The expanding emulsion slops over the sides of tank haor out the vents of the tank. Slop over may result in a flowing fire.

• Foams, in general, are fully compatible when applied to the fire. For instance, pfoam may be combined with AFFF on the same blaze if they are discharged fromferent generating systems. Incompatibility may occur if different types or concetions are mixed in the same system. The basic rules of compatibility are:

(1) Never mix different types of foam concentrate in the same equipment.

(2) Do not mix different brands of the same type of concentrate in the same equment.

(3) Avoid mixing different batches of the same brand and type of concentrate in bstorage tanks.

3-31

S0300-A6-MAN-030

andces or

a vio-

oatingManyce of

in themixed,

on toinned

Figure 3-9. Slop Over.

Dry chemicals:

• The cloud developed in large discharges of dry chemicals can impair visibilitycause breathing difficulty. A breathing apparatus should be worn in confined spawhen large quantities are discharged.

• Dry chemicals are not effective on materials that generate oxygen and may causelent reaction if applied.

• The chemicals coat the surface of the material leaving a cleanup problem. The cmay damage delicate electrical or electronic equipment and turbine blades. chemicals (particularly potassium chloride) are extremely corrosive in the presenmoisture.

• While chemical agents are compatible on a fire, they may not be when mixed same container. Some chemicals are acid-based while others are alkali. When they tend to lump and may clog the extinguisher.

• Dry chemicals often break down foams; mixing should be avoided. The exceptithis rule is in the mating of AFFF and PKP. These products were developed as twagents and are fully compatible.

3-32

S0300-A6-MAN-030

mpairations with

off dur-

entm.

hed soliden at com- sevennt ofenheitletely cubic

vapor-uce.

helps will atmo-nt of itubicoccupyume by

y 200n that

water

Halon:

• Halon effectiveness is comparable to PKP, but there is no corrosive residue.

• Although Halon vapors are not immediately toxic, they may cause dizziness and icoordination when inhaled in large quantities. Repeated exposure to low concentris a potential health risk. Breathing apparatus must be worn to enter floodedHalon.

• Halons begin to decompose at about 900 degrees Fahrenheit. The vapors given ing decomposition may be hazardous in high concentrations.

3-3.4 Application Density. Application density describes the quantity of extinguishing agapplied and the rate of application. Application density is applied primarily to water and foa

3-3.4.1 Water. Ideal firefighting water flow rate formulas are based on two facts:

• In a direct attack, water extinguishes fire chiefly by cooling. The fire is extinguisonly if the water applied removes heat faster than it is produced. Most commonfuels produce about 535 btu when burned completely with one cubic foot of oxygatmospheric pressure. Normal air contains 21-percent oxygen, but open (flaming)bustion is arrested at oxygen levels of less than 14 percent. Thus, approximatelypercent of normal air is oxygen that can combine with fuel in a fire. Seven perce535 is 37 btu. One gallon of water converted to steam at 212 degrees Fahrabsorbs 9,330 btu; 9,330 divided by 37 is 252, i.e., one gallon of water, compvaporized, absorbs all the heat that is produced by the normal combustion of 252feet of air. Assuming that water can be applied so that at least 80 percent of it is ized, one gallon of water will absorb all the heat that 200 cubic feet of air can prod

• The steam produced by firefighting water dilutes the oxygen content. This effect extinguish the fire, but more importantly, prevents reflash. One gallon of waterproduce approximately 240 cubic feet of steam at 212 degrees Fahrenheit andspheric pressure. Assuming that water can be applied so that more than 83 perceis vaporized, one gallon of water applied to a fire will produce approximately 200 cfeet of steam. Heating the steam above 212 degrees will cause it to expand and greater volume, each 100-degree increase in temperature increasing steam volapproximately 25 cubic feet per gallon of water.

These two factors lead to the assumption that volume of the fire in cubic feet divided bequals the number of gallons of water required to control the fire. Experiments have showbest results are obtained when flow rate is sufficient to introduce the required amount ofinto the involved area in 30 seconds, leading to a rule of thumb formula:

F W V

100---------=

3-33

S0300-A6-MAN-030

mmon-

e. At

pplied

ation

pliedsteam

d sofoamn den-

where:

Fw = water flow in gallons per minute (gpm) for Class A fires

V = volume of the fire in cubic feet (ft3)

Petroleum-based liquid fuels produce, on average, approximately twice as much heat as cosolid fuels. For Class B fires, the flow rate is twice that for Class A fires.

EXAMPLE 3-1

WATER APPLICATION DENSITY RATE

(a) A space 35 feet long, 25 feet wide and 12 feet high is involved in a Class A firwhat rate should water be applied to this fire to extinguish it?

Water should be applied to the fire at 105 gallons per minute.

(b) The same space is involved in a Class B Fire. At what rate should water be ato this fire to extinguish it?

As a Class B fire requires twice as much water as a Class A fire, the applicdensity rate for water is 2 × 105 or 210 gallons per minute.

The flow rate given by this rule of thumb is for nearly ideal conditions. If water cannot be apso that it is vaporized effectively, more water is required. Water that is not converted to may collect in inconvenient locations and have to be removed.

3-3.4.2 Foam. Enough foam must be applied to blanket the fire completely; it must be appliequickly that it is not burned off or splashed away before it is effective. The amount of required to extinguish a fire is determined by the surface area of the fire and an applicatiosity rate that in turn is determined by the characteristics of the foam and the fuel bed

FW V

100---------=

FW 35( ) 25( ) 12( )

100---------------------------------=

FW 10 500,

100------------------=

FW 105 gallons per minute=

Ff A ADR×=

3-34

S0300-A6-MAN-030

where:

Ff = foam solution flow in gallons per minute to extinguish a Class B fire

A = area to be covered in square feet

ADR = application density from Table 3-2

Table 3-2. Foam Application Density Rates (ADR)

Application Method Type of LiquidADR

gpm/ft 2

Handline or monitor stream Machinery space bilges 0.20

Tanks or deep pools of hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flam-mable liquids with narrow range of boiling points greater than 100°F

0.16

Tanks or deep pools of hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flam-mable liquids with wide range of boiling points

0.20 (after formation of sur-face heated zone)

Tanks or deep pools of hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flam-mable liquids with boiling points greater than 100°F

0.18 or greater

Shallow spills of hydrocarbons or nonpolar-flammable liquids in open areas

0.08 (AFFF)0.10 (protein or flouropro-

tein)

Gasohols with more than 10% alcohol, methyl and ethyl alco-hol, acrylontrile, ethyl acetate, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)

0.10 (alcohol-resistant con-

centrate)1

Acetone, butyl alcohol, isopropyl ether 0.24 (alcohol-resistant con-

centrate)1

Installed sprinkler system Machinery space bilges 0.16

Enclosed tanks or deep pools of hydrocarbons and other non-polar-flammable liquids with narrow range of boiling points greater than 100°F


tein)

Shallow spills of hydrocarbons or nonpolar-flammable liquids in open areas


tein)

Methyl and ethyl alcohol, acrylontrile, ethyl acetate, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)

0.10 (alcohol-resistant con-centrate)

Acetone, butyl alcohol, isopropyl ether 0.15 (alcohol-resistant con-centrate)

Note: 1. Alcohol-resistant foams require gentle surface application. Type I outlets are defined as those that deliver foam gently onto the liquid surface without foam submergence or agitation of the surface. Type II outlets do not deliver foam gently onto the liquid surface but are designed for low foam submergence and surface agitation.

3-35

S0300-A6-MAN-030

e. At

fires.

re

face. Ift struc-

lar sol-rpedo

life is ratesoam-

sually

EXAMPLE 3-2

FOAM APPLICATION DENSITY

An area of machinery space bilge 25 feet by 35 feet is involved in a Class B firwhat rate should foam be applied to the fire to extinguish it?

where 0.2 is obtained from Table 3-2 as the value appropriate for machinery space bilge

The application density rates given in Table 3-2 are minimums. Higher application rates arequired for:

• Very intense fires.

• Three-dimensional fires.

• Uncontained fires.

• Flowing fires.

• Fires attacked with a small number of high-volume foam streams.

• Fires screened by obstructions.

• Fires near maximum stream reach.

Foam may burn back from hot structure, leaving a gap in the vapor seal over the liquid surthe structure cannot be cooled before foam is applied, higher application rates near the hoture can cool the structure and replace burned-off foam.

Certain polar solvents, such as isopropyl alcohol, amines, anhydrides and mixtures of povents in general (typical components of paint thinners, some solvents, liquid rocket and tofuels, etc.), are particularly foam-destructive, even to alcohol-resistant foams. Foam increased by minimizing foam submergence and surface agitation. Very high application(0.3 - 0.5 gpm/ft2) and/or gentle application may be necessary to extinguish fires fueled by fdestructive liquids.

Foam application should continue for the run times given in Table 3-3. Increasing the applicationrate will usually decrease the time to extinguish the fire. Decreasing the application rate uincreases the time to extinguish the fire or makes it impossible to do so.

Ff A( ) ADR( )F 35 25×( ) 0.2( )F 175 gpm=

==

3-36

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rate-
The stocks of foam concentrate required for a particular fire can be determined with the flowand the run time:
where:

Vf = volume of foam concentrate in gallons

Ff = foam solution flow

C = foam concentration percent expressed as a decimal

t = run time in minutes

Table 3-3. Foam Application Time

Application Method Type of Liquid Minimum Run Time min

Handline or monitor stream Machinery space bilges variable1

Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flamma-ble liquids with flash points greater than 100°F

50

Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flamma-ble liquids with flash points less than 100°F

65

Crude petroleum 65

Shallow spills of hydrocarbons or nonpo-lar-flammable liquids in open areas

15

Polar solvents and other liquids extin-guished with alcohol-resistant foams

65

Installed sprinkler system Machinery space bilges 4 - 62

Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flamma-ble liquids with flash points greater than 100°F

20 Type I discharge outlet3

30 Type II discharge outlet3

Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar-flamma-ble liquids with flash points less than 100°F

30 Type I discharge outlet55 Type II discharge outlet

Crude petroleum 30 Type I discharge outlet55 Type II discharge outlet

Shallow spills of hydrocarbons or nonpo-lar-flammable liquids in open areas

10

Polar solvents and other liquids extin-guished with alcohol-resistant foams

30 Type I discharge outlet55 Type II discharge outlet

Notes: 1. Sufficient to establish uniform 6” foam layer over exposed flammable liquids and cost fire involved machinery.2. With properly designed systems, 4 minute discharge will create uniform 6” foam layer.3. Alcohol-resistant foams require gentle surface application. Type I outlets are defined as those that deliver foam

gently onto the liquid surface without foam submergence or agitation of the surface. Type II outlets do not deliver foam gently onto the liquid surface but are designed for low foam submergence and surface agitation.

Vf Ff C t××=

3-37

S0300-A6-MAN-030

d to

ill vary

the

, hasthe twoeing fedeet ofd long

EXAMPLE 3-3

FOAM CONCENTRATE REQUIREMENTS

A 25-foot by 35-foot tank of crude oil is afire. How much foam concentrate is requireattack this fire if a 6-percent concentration is to be applied?

where ADR is from Table 3-2 and t is from Table 3-3

A reserve of foam should be on hand before attacking the fire. The size of the reserve wwith the nature of the fire but should be large enough to:

• Allow for locally high application density.

• Allow for the development of unanticipated conditions and errors in estimatingfire.

• Replenish the foam blanket after the fire is extinguished.

EXAMPLE 3-4

An AOE Class ship, loaded with a mixed cargo of DFM, JP-5, gasoline and munitionstaken serious battle damage and is on fire. The most serious fires are concentrated in aftermost cargo tank groups, have extended into boiler and machinery spaces and are bby cargo leakage. The salvage officer estimates that fires cover approximately 250 fAOE's length, measured from aft and her entire breadth of 107 feet. Fires have burneenough to heat a thick surface zone.

Ship fire area = L × B

= 250 × 107

= 26,750 square feet (a)

Spilling fire area = L × B ~ approx.

= 100 × 60

= 6,000 square feet (b)

Total (estimated) fire area = 32,750 square feet

Vf Ff C t××Vf A ADR×( ) C t××Vf 35 25 0.18××( ) 0.06 65××Vf 614.25 gallons of foam concentrate=

===

3-38

S0300-A6-MAN-030

gpm/ly-

pru- 0.25

based5

in-ea 60-s for

ected tovided

e to itseffec-t mustte thef a fire

From Table 3-2, application density rate for machinery spaces and deep oil tanks is 0.20ft2. Minimum foam requirement (MFR) for an oil fire of this nature is calculated by multiping total square area on fire by ADR:

Total area on fire × ADR = MFR in gallons per minute

32,750 × 0.20 = 6,550 gallons per minute

Allowing for loss of foam and difficulties in directing foam into some spaces and tanks, adent salvage officer would allow a 25% margin on theoretical ADR. Thus 0.20 × 1.25 =gpm/ft2. Revised MFR then becomes:

32,750 x 0.25 = 8,187.5 gallons per minute 8,200 gpm

With a 3% concentrate and an MFR of 8,200 gpm, the required foam quantity is on application time. From Table 3-3, application time is 50 minutes for DFM or JP-(flash point > 100ºF), variable for machinery spaces (but generally less than 20 mutes) and 65 minutes for gasoline (flash point < 100ºF). The quantities of gasoline arlikely to be small compared to those of JP-5 and DFM foam quantity based on minute application time should give enough foam to apply foam to JP-5/DFM tank50 minutes and to gasoline tanks for 65 minutes.

and

Foam concentrate/minute × minutes of firefighting = quantity of concentrate

246 gpm (inducting foam) × 60 minutes = 14,760 gallons of concentrate

3-4 FIREFIGHTING HYDRAULICS

Once the required flow rate of water or foam has been determined, apparatus can be selprovide the required flow. Unless a sprinkler system is used, the required agent flow is proby one or more fire streams (the stream of water or foam solution extending from the nozzlpoint of intended use or its projection limit) from nozzles on handlines or monitors. To be tive, a fire stream must deliver water or foam into the body of the fire from a safe distance. Ihave sufficient velocity to overcome gravity and air friction and sufficient volume to penetraheat field and reach the burning materials without being vaporized. The characteristics o

MFR100

------------- Contentrate percentage = foam concentrate/minute

8,200 100

---------------------------

×

3 246 gallons=× foam concentrate/minute

3-39

S0300-A6-MAN-030

nozzle

Navyy ships

traight-

justablestalled

noz-

zzleses and

zles aresignifi-

stream, including its horizontal and vertical reach, depend on discharge pressure and design, adjustment and condition. Fire streams are either solid, straight or fog streams:

Solid streams are produced by smooth-bore, tapered nozzles (suicide nozzles) orall-purpose nozzles in the solid stream setting. Smooth-bore nozzles are not carried by Navfor handline use, but may be used on installed or portable monitors.

Straight streams are produced by variable-pattern fog nozzles (vari-nozzles) set to the sstream position.

Fog streams of varying patterns are produced by vari-nozzles set in their fog range; nonadfog streams are produced by Navy all-purpose nozzles in the fog setting, applicators and insprinkler heads.

3-4.1 Discharge Rate. The volume flow of solid streams depends on nozzle orifice size and zle pressure and can be determined from the following formula with reasonable accuracy:

where:

ND = nozzle discharge, gpm

29.72 = a constant, commonly rounded to 30 for field calculations

D = nozzle tip (orifice) diameter, in

P = nozzle pressure, psi

Straight stream orifice diameter for Navy all-purpose nozzles is 5/8-inch for 1-1/2-inch noand 1-inch for 2-1/2-inch nozzles. Nozzle pressure should be 50 psi or greater for handlin80 psi or greater for monitors.

Discharge from fog nozzles depends on design, as well as nozzle pressure. Most fog nozdesigned for a 100 psi operating pressure, but most operate satisfactorily at 80 psi without cant reduction in discharge. Discharge at 100 psi for Navy fog nozzles are:

1-1/2" vari-nozzle (fixed flow rate, internal use) 95 gpm

1-1/2" vari-nozzle (fixed flow rate, external use) 125 gpm

1-1/2" vari-nozzle (adjustable flow rate) 60/95/125 gpm

ND 29.72 D2× P× 30 D2× P×==

3-40

S0300-A6-MAN-030

nozzlelso bepplyingt to fog

e fol-

ly/4-inch.

reams.h is

side a

2-1/2" vari-nozzle (fixed flow rate) 250 gpm

1-1/2" APN (fog setting) 52 gpm

2-1/2" APN (fog setting) 132 gpm

Since the minimum diameter in a fog nozzle is always smaller than the hose diameter, thelimits discharge. In other words, if nozzle pressure is adequate, flow to the nozzle will aadequate, as long as the desired discharge is within the capacity of the pump or pumps suthe hose lay. Vari-nozzles discharge their rated capacity regardless of whether they are seor straight stream.

3-4.2 Reach. Effective vertical and horizontal reach for solid streams can be predicted by thlowing empirical relationships:

where:

NP = nozzle pressure, psiSH = horizontal reach for a stream projected 35 above the horizontal, ft.CH = horizontal factor

= 21 for a 5/8" tip, increased by 5 for each 1/8" increase in tip sizeSV = vertical reach for a stream projected 70 above the horizontal, ft.CV = vertical factor

= 90 for a 5/8" tip, increased by 5 for each 1/8" increase in tip size

The relationships give approximate effective reach in still air and tend to become increasingconservative for nozzle pressures greater than 100 psi and tip diameters greater than 1-3Opposing winds will shorten the reach of horizontal streams and may scatter vertical stAssisting winds can extend horizontal reach, but may also break the stream. Effective reacnottotal reach. An effective stream is arbitrarily defined as having the following characteristics:

Has not lost continuity by breaking into showers of spray.

Appears to shoot nine-tenths of its water inside a 15-inch circle and three-quarters of it in10-inch circle.

Is stiff enough to attain the height required even though a moderate breeze is blowing.

SH NP2

-------- + CH

S CV NP×=

=

3-41

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ithinheavy

orizon-, max-imentsove the

zzle isprojec-

reas-ks upeached,use onlygreater

g noz-s have on thehan antreamter area

aterme as

appli-rom thepump,ange in

The point at which a solid stream becomes “ineffective” is called the breakover point. It is verydifficult to define the breakover point in terms of precise distance from the nozzle or even w5 or 10 feet. Water is thrown farther than the breakover point, but generally in the form of a rain, that is easily carried away by wind or violent flames.

The maximum practical elevation angle for a vertical stream is 70 to 75 degrees, as some htal reach is required for the stream to be effectively employed. In the absence of air frictionimum horizontal reach would be obtained with a stream elevation of 45 degrees; experhave shown that maximum reach is obtained from streams elevated 30 to 35 degrees abhorizontal.

Increasing pressure increases reach to a point. The velocity of the stream exiting the nodirectly related to nozzle pressure. The exiting water stream can be likened to a series of tiles. Distance traveled by a ballistic projectile is directly related to its initial velocity, so incing velocity increases reach. But air friction also increases with velocity and air friction breaand scatters the stream. As nozzle pressure is increased, a point of diminishing returns is rwhere further pressure increase will accelerate stream breakup and shorten reach. Becathe outer layer of the stream is exposed to air friction, heavier streams generally have reach than lighter streams.

There are no relationships for predicting reach of straight streams or fog patterns from fozles; reach at various settings is usually included in the manufacturers data. Fog patternmuch shorter reach than straight or solid streams because of the greater effect of air frictionsmall water droplets. Hollow straight streams from fog nozzles generally have less reach tequivalent flow smoothbore nozzle operating from the same monitor or hose. The hollow shas a higher surface area to volume ratio than a solid stream; air friction acting over a greahas a greater retarding effect.

3-4.3 Pressure Drop. The ability of a nozzle to create an effective fire stream depends on warriving at the nozzle with sufficient pressure and flow rate. Nozzle pressure is not the sapump or firemain pressure, however. Water flowing through hoses, wye-gates and otherances experiences friction that causes pressure to drop continuously as it moves farther fpump. The pressure drop is commonly called friction loss. Differences in height between the nozzle and pump or fire plug also cause differences in pressure. If the nozzle is higher than thenozzle pressure is decreased; if the nozzle is lower, nozzle pressure is increased. The chpressure caused by the relative heights of pump and nozzle is called head pressure. Nozzle pres-sure is thus calculated by:

NP = SP - FP ± HP

where:

NP = nozzle pressure, psiSP = supply pressure, psiFL = friction loss, psiHP = head pressure, psi

3-42

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rk-gagedalculatedned to00-footn lossed to

hting

gthndsths of

f theted than

lowlingmeter

loss.te andharge

um- inmorech asrentnticalally

uble- 6 per-rease

in flow

3-4.3.1 Supply Pressure. Supply pressure is normally the pump discharge pressure when woing with portable pumps. If pressure is known at a point downstream from the pump (at a manifold, for example), this pressure can be used as supply pressure and pressure drop cfrom that point on to determine nozzle pressure. Fire main piping on Navy ships is desigensure that fire plug pressure is sufficient to provide a 70-psi nozzle pressure through a 1length of hose. Since a 100-foot length of 1-1/2-inch double-jacketed firehose has a frictioof approximately 40 psi, Navy fire stations and offship firefighting manifolds can be assumsupply water at 110 psi.

3-4.3.2 Friction Loss. Friction loss through closed channels, such as hose, pipe and firefigappliances, is governed by five fundamental principles:

• If all other factors are held constant, friction loss is directly proportional to the lenof the flow path. If hose length is doubled, friction loss is doubled. This principle leitself to the common practice of basing friction loss calculations on standard lenghose (usually 100 feet).

• For constant flow path diameter, friction loss varies approximately as the square oflow rate. Friction increases as flow velocity increases; flow velocity is directly relato volume flow rate for a given diameter hose. Friction loss increases more rapidlythe flow rate; if flow rate is doubled, friction loss is increased four times.

• For constant flow rate, friction loss is inversely proportional to the fifth power of fpath diameter. If hose diameter increases, friction loss is greatly reduced. Doubhose diameter reduces friction loss to 1/32 of its former value; halving hose diaincreases friction loss 32 times.

• For constant velocity flow, friction loss is essentially independent of pressure. Flowvelocity (which determines volume flow rate), not pressure, determines friction Nozzle pressure determines discharge through solid stream nozzles, so flow rapressure are related, but pressure does not directly affect friction loss. Discthrough fog nozzles is not affected by nozzle pressure.

• Friction loss is directly related to the internal roughness of the flow path and the nber and sharpness of bends in the flow path. Internal roughness, sudden changesflow path diameter and changes of direction contribute to flow turbulence. The turbulent the flow, the greater the resistance to flow (friction). There may be as mu50-percent difference in the friction loss of hoses of similar construction by diffemanufacturers. Friction loss in old hose is typically 50 percent greater than in idenew hose. Lightweight, synthetic-jacket hose (recognizable by its vinyl, longitudinribbed, outer surface) has significantly lower friction loss than the standard, dojacketed, rubber-lined hose. Friction loss in hose laid in a snakelike course is 5 tocent greater than when the hose is laid perfectly straight. Hose kinks greatly incflow turbulence because each kink is both a sharp bend and two sudden changes

3-43

S0300-A6-MAN-030

similar

ose

ations;ly by

a:

diameter. Improperly designed or damaged appliances, protruding gaskets and conditions all increase flow turbulence and friction loss.

3-4.3.3 Friction Loss in Hose. Friction loss for standard double-jacketed, rubber-lined fire his calculated by:

FL = (2Q2 + Q) x L x C

where:

FL = friction loss, psiQ = flow rate in hundreds of gpm = gpm/100L = length of hose in hundreds of feet = length/100C = hose diameter coefficient, from Table 3-4

Equivalent fractions for the decimal factors are included in Table 3-4 to ease mental calculsome may find it easier to divide by a whole number or nearly whole number than to multipan odd decimal equivalent.

Friction loss for lightweight, synthetic-jacket hose is calculated by a slightly different formul

FL = Q2 x L x C

where:

FL = friction loss, psi Q = flow rate in hundreds of gpm = gpm/100

Table 3-4. Hose Correction Factor for Friction Loss Formula FL = (2Q2+Q)LC.

Hose Diameter in. Correction Factor C

1 1/2” 13.5

1 3/4” with 1 1/2” couplings 7.76

2” with 1 1/2” couplings 4.5

2 1/2” 1

3” with 2 1/2” couplings 0.4 = 1/2.5

3” 0.38 = 1/2.6

3 1/2” 0.17 = 1/5.8

4” 0.09 = 1/11

4 1/2” 0.05 = 1/20

5” 0.03 = 1/32

3-44

S0300-A6-MAN-030

um iden-izes of

ngs, appli- of better

L = length of hose in hundreds of feet = length/100C = hose diameter coefficient, from Table 3-5

As friction loss increases with flow velocity, which is directly related to volume flow, a maximpractical flow that can be carried without excessive friction loss (greater than 20 psi) can betified for each hose size. Table 3-6 gives maximum practical flow rates for some standard sNavy double-jacketed, rubber-lined hose.

3-4.3.4 Friction Loss in Appliances. Appliances, such as monitors, gates and siamese fittiall cause friction loss. Manufacturers data should be consulted to determine friction loss forances in use, as loss depends greatly on internal roughness and flow path. In the absenceinformation, the following values can be used:

Portable monitor 25 psiWye gate, tri-gate 15 psi

Table 3-5. Hose Correction Friction Loss Formula FL = Q2LC.

Hose Diameter in. Correction Factor C

1 1/2” 24

1 3/4” with 1 1/2” couplings 15.-

2” with 1 1/2” couplings 8

2 1/2” 2

3” with 2 1/2” couplings 0.8 = 1/1.25

3” 0.68=1/1.5

3 1/2” 0.34 = 1/2.94

4” 0.2 = 1/5

4 1/2” 0.1 = 1/10

5” 0.08 = 1/12.5

6” 0.05 = 1/20

Table 3-6. Maximum Efficient Flow Rates for Rubber-lined Hose.

Nominal Hose Diameter in Maximum Efficient Flow gpm

1 1/2” 100

1 3/4” with 1 1/2” couplings 135

2 1/2” 250

3” 500

3 1/2” 750

5” 1,800

3-45

S0300-A6-MAN-030

gh herifold or

con-

pli-that will from

genge.ercialn theness.d to 250 150 psi

-centintro-osity-, but pur-

Clappered siamese 10 psi

A friction loss of 15 to 20 percent can be expected when energizing a ship's firemain throushore connection. Greater friction losses may occur when energizing through a deck manfire station.

3-4.3.5 Head Pressure. Relative difference in height or head, between pump and nozzle is verted to pressure by:

where:

h = vertical difference in elevation between pump and nozzle, ft.HP = pressure, psi

3-4.5 Overcoming Friction Loss. After accounting for head pressure and friction loss in apances, for a given supply pressure and hose diameter, there is a maximum length of hose provide the minimum required nozzle pressure. This effectively limits the firefighters reachthe supply point. There are three ways to overcome friction loss:

• Increasing supply pressure. This option has limited application for the Navy salvafirefighter. Navy portable pumps can vary pressure within only a limited raNo Navy salvage ship has the ability to vary fire pump discharge pressure. Commor municipal fire boats may have the ability to vary supply pressure. Even wheability to increase supply pressure exists, there are definite limits to its effectiveFire hose and appliance operating pressures cannot be exceeded most are limitepsi or less. Pump capacity decreases as pressure increases. Pumps rated atdevelop only 70 percent of their capacity at 200 psi.

• Using a viscosity-reducing water additive. Polymer-based additives in very low concentrations create a low-viscosity “slippery water” with friction as much as 50 perlower than equivalent flow rates with untreated water. The additives are best duced by an in-line eductor or metering system on the inlet side of the pump. Viscreducing additives are not currently stocked by the Navy for use by afloat forcesmay be available to the salvage firefighter through commercial sources (openchase).

HP h 0.445 h

2.25----------=× (seawater)=

h 0.434 h

2.3-------=× (freshwater)=

3-46

S0300-A6-MAN-030

near

0 feeteatlycting five hose. loss

.

em in

Figure 3-10A. Minimizing Friction Loss.

• Reducing flow rate in all or part of the hose lay. Flow rate is reduced by:

(1) Laying parallel hose lines and re-combining the flow through a siamese fittingthe nozzle, as shown in Figures 3-10A, 3-10B and 3-10C.

(2) Using larger hose (reduced to a size to match the nozzle for the last 50 or 10if necessary). Using a larger hose with the next smaller size couplings grreduces friction loss without forcing the use of adapters or seriously affemobility. For example, a 3-inch hose with 2-1/2-inch couplings has only aboutpercent greater loss than a 3-inch hose, but 60 percent less than 2-1/2-inchA 1-3/4-inch hose with 1-1/2-inch couplings has about 40 percent less frictionthan a 1-1/2-inch hose.

(3) Laying hose in as straight a line as possible, avoiding sharp bends and kinks

(4) Using hose and appliances designed to minimize friction loss and keeping thgood repair.

(5) Accepting reduced nozzle pressure in solid stream nozzles.

3-47

S0300-A6-MAN-030

5/8-

e

fire- effec- cause

h the

Figure 3-10B. Minimizing Friction Loss.

(6) Using smaller solid stream nozzles, e.g., substituting a 1-1/2-inch APN with ainch solid stream orifice for a 2-1/2-inch APN with its 1-inch orifice.

• Supplying from a pump or fire plug closer to the nozzle. It may be necessary to movportable pumps about the ship or relocate assisting vessels to shorten hose lays.

3-5 VENTILATION

Fire ventilation is the planned and systematic removal of smoke, gases and heat fromeffected spaces. Properly executed and timed ventilation can greatly increase firefightingtiveness, while improper ventilation may increase fire intensity, accelerate fire spread orexplosion. Ventilation is performed for several reasons. Proper ventilation:

• Allows firefighters to approach and attack fires in closed spaces and to extinguisfires quickly.

3-48

S0300-A6-MAN-030

exten-

tion to

ther

re. Theily, but

Figure 3-10C. Minimizing Friction Loss.

• Clears the atmosphere of smoke-filled spaces so firefighters can search for fire sion or trapped or injured personnel.

• Controls and limits fire spread.

• Prevents explosions of accumulated smoke and gases.

• Removes life-threatening gases.

Escaping combustion products are replaced immediately by air. The air allows combuscontinue but has several favorable effects:

• Visibility is improved.

• Smoke, hot gases and flames are drawn away from the firefighters.

• Properly applied firefighting agents are drawn into the fire by the natural draft, rathan repulsed by expanding and escaping gases.

• Heat escapes from the space and is dispersed over a large volume.

• Toxicity of the atmosphere around the fire is reduced.

Fires are ventilated when firefighters are ready to approach and attack a fire, but not befosudden loss of heat when a space is ventilated may reduce the fire intensity momentar

3-49

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ntilation

peningsmulateIf air is

gs areread.ire arecovers.e well.

rs and off withessuretion or

k takesuld bedvan-

affectsn can-s of fire be pre-

he case/or coolsas andty, per-

burning accelerates as air reaches the fire. An aggressive attack must begin as soon as vebegins.

Openings above the fire ventilate the fire space and permit smoke and gases to escape. Obelow permit air and firefighters to enter. Smoke and other combustion products that accuabove and around a fire are flammable and usually are heated to above their flash point. introduced while flammable gases are still trapped, a backdraft or smoke explosion may occur.The first openings must be above the fire, preferably directly above the fire. If the openindirectly above the fire, an updraft is created that draws the fire in on itself and limits its spOpenings away from the fire draw the fire through uninvolved areas. Openings above the fcreated by cutting holes in the deck above or opening scuttles, hatches and ventilation Cutting holes in the hull just below the deck above the fire sometimes ventilates a spacMachinery spaces are ventilated most effectively through the uptakes.

If the deck above the fire is an interior deck, smoke must be ducted clear through doohatches. Small compartments can serve as smoke ducts; passageways may be closedsmoke curtains. Mechanical ventilation can assist smoke removal or maintain positive proutside the smoke duct. Usually, horizontal smoke movement requires mechanical ventilanatural winds.

Fires cannot be ventilated in a haphazard manner. Ventilation as a part of direct fire attacprecedence behind only agent application and boundary establishment. Not all fires shoventilated. The decision to ventilate must consider the effects of ventilation, the relative atages and difficulties of direct versus indirect attacks and how the arrangement of the shipventilation and smoke clearance. To ventilate a fire is to take a calculated risk; the fire oftenot be observed directly until the space is opened, so decisions are based upon estimatesize and intensity. The fire team must be prepared for a fire larger than estimated and mustpared to back out and reseal the space.

Hose streams applied to ventilation openings often do more harm than good, especially in tof openings above the fire. The hose stream blocks the escape of smoke and gases andthem so they spread laterally instead of rising. The fire may spread into uninvolved areflames, heat and combustion products may be forced into the face of the advancing fire parhaps violently.

3-50

S0300-A6-MAN-030

4-1

CHAPTER 4

FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

4-1 INTRODUCTION

Firefighting equipment must deliver extinguishing agents in sufficient quantity with enough pres-sure to contain, cool and extinguish a shipboard fire. The equipment must not only deliver theagent effectively in a marine environment, it must also simultaneously protect the Delivery plat-form or firefighting team and be simple and reliable. Combatants and auxiliaries have bothinstalled systems and portable equipment with which the crews fight fires. Salvage firefighters aretrained and equipped especially for offship firefighting services. Publications such as NSTM 555provide detailed descriptions and instructions for general firefighting equipment. This chaptercontains only a brief overview and refresher for this equipment and concentrates on the equip-ment of the salvage firefighter.

4-2 PERSONAL EQUIPMENT

Firefighters’ personal equipment protects them from fire and enables them to work in or nearfires. Just as there is a wide range of fire types and conditions, there is a range of personal fire-fighting equipment. This section addresses only the personal equipment that has a function in fire-fighting.

4-2.1 Protective Clothing. Firefighter’s clothing must protect against radiant heat and hot gasesand surfaces, enabling them to work close to the fire. This clothing varies in the degree of protec-tion offered. The outfits that give the most protection usually have some restrictions that limittheir utility. No one firefighting outfit or ensemble, is the best choice for all fire situations. Thechoice of clothing must weigh the protection gained against restrictions accepted and consider thethreats posed by fire, loss of mobility and internal heat stress. The choice of clothing is dictated bythe situation and must be made by firefighters and team leaders on-scene, rather than by set doc-trine. The following paragraphs discuss advantages and disadvantages of Navy protective cloth-ing for firefighting, beginning with the clothing that offers the most protection.

4-2.1.1 Proximity Firefighting Suits. Proximity firefighting suits give thermal protection to fire-fighters who must approach large fires closely. The suit consists of a two-piece trouser and coatoutfit, hood and gloves of ARAMID fabric, with an aluminized exterior. Rubber boots and anOxygen Breathing Apparatus (OBA) complete the suit. The suit is worn most often during rescueof personnel from crashed aircraft. Since the introduction of the standard naval firefightingensemble, the proximity suit has been removed from repair lockers and is limited to flight deckfire teams.

4-2.1.2 Standard Naval Firefighting Ensemble. The standard naval firefighting ensemble, thebest available protection from external heat and flames, is standard fleet-wide issue. The ensem-ble consists of multilayered firefighter's coveralls, anti-flash hood, damage control/firefighter’s

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helmet, fireman’s gloves and boots and an OBA. The ensemble is worn by the principal membersof firefighting teams: the scene leader, attack team leaders, nozzlemen, hosemen and accessmen.The protective coverall provides an extremely effective heat barrier and is recommended for usein high-heat environments, such as machinery space fires, fully involved internal spaces and areasdirectly exposed to the radiant heat of large external fires. The coverall, as an effective heat bar-rier, also slows the escape of the wearers’ body heat. This is of no consequence in high heat envi-ronments; a lightly protected firefighter would absorb heat from his surroundings faster than hisbody heat is dissipated. However, in low-heat environments, the heavy coverall limits thewearer’s ability to stay cool, decreases his stay time and increases internal heat stress. Firefighterswaiting to enter the fire area should don the coveralls only to the waist (tying the arms around thewaist) to prevent premature heat stress. NSTM 077 gives procedures for employment of the fire-fighting ensemble and discusses heat stress considerations.

4-2.1.3 Lightweight Firefighting Outfit. A lightweight firefighting outfit, as shown in Figure4-1, is recommended for members of firefighting teams who do not enter high-heat environments,particularly those performing strenuous work. The lightweight outfit protects personnel withoutinducing the internal heat buildup of the standard ensemble. The outfit consists of fire-retardantengineering coveralls, anti-flash hood, boots and gloves, firefighter’s helmet and may include anOBA.

4-2.1.4 Alternative Clothing. When the naval standard firefighter’s ensemble or lightweightfirefighting outfits are not available or appropriate, multilayered clothing should be worn as alter-native protection. Choices available to the fleet include fire-retardant or cotton coveralls, raingear, cold weather gear, flight deck jerseys and welding clothing. Navy (Type X) rain gear wornover coveralls or standard battle dress gives fair radiant heat protection and is an excellent vaporbarrier. Additionally, firefighters can spray water under the tunic to enhance cooling.

4-2.1.5 Salvage Firefighting Outfit. The salvage firefighting outfit, shown in Figure 4-2, is avariation of the lightweight firefighting outfit, with the addition of long Nomex or Polyaramid(PBI®, Kevlar®) underwear for added protection. The outfit includes a personal flotation device,radio and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Like the lightweight firefighting outfit, thesalvage firefighting outfit affords more mobility and less internal heat buildup than the standardensemble. The flexibility of the outfit allows easy personnel transfer from ships and aircraft andbetter survivability for personnel who may fall overboard. Salvage firefighters should don thestandard ensemble coveralls before attacking intense fires.

4-2.1.6 Standard Shipboard Battle Dress. Standard shipboard battle dress is the minimum pro-tection worn for firefighting. Battle dress consists of:

• Long-sleeve shirts and full-length trousers.

WARNING

Corfam shoes and polyester clothing are not appropriate forany form of battle dress. When exposed to flame or high tem-perature, these materials melt and stick to the skin.

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Figure 4-1. Lightweight Firefighting Outfit.

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Figure 4-2. Salvage Firefighting Outfits.

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• Sleeves and collars buttoned, trousers tucked into socks.

• Safety shoes.

• Anti-flash hood and gloves.

• Helmet.

• Lifejacket.

• CBR mask.

4-2.2 Breathing Apparatus. Fires deplete oxygen from the atmosphere and produce noxious andtoxic fumes. Firefighters require SCBAs to provide them a respirable atmosphere (air or oxygen).There are three basic types of SCBAs:

• Closed-circuit oxygen breathing apparatus supplying pure oxygen generated by chemi-cal reaction,

• Open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus supplying air from back-mountedhigh pressure cylinders or

• Closed-circuit oxygen rebreathers supplying pure oxygen from high-pressure cylindersthat is recirculated through a carbon dioxide scrubbing system.

Each type of breathing apparatus has distinct advantages and disadvantages for shipboard fire-fighting and damage control work. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 show firefighters wearing typical exam-ples of each type of breathing apparatus.

4-2.2.1 Oxygen Breathing Apparatus. The Oxygen Breathing Apparatus (OBA) is the standardfirefighting breathing apparatus used throughout the Navy. The OBA is a self-contained oxygengeneration system that allows the wearer to breathe in compartments, voids or tanks that containsmoke, dust, fire or an oxygen-deficient atmosphere. A removable canister contains chemicalsthat are activated by the discharge of CO2 and moisture in the breath, producing oxygen for respi-ration. The duration of the canister varies with the activity and breathing habits of the wearer.When the wearer has a light work load, the canister generates enough oxygen for comfortablebreathing for up to 45 minutes. A stressful, heavy work load, such as firefighting, limits safe oxy-gen production time to about 30 minutes. The safe setting for OBA timers is 30 minutes.

The primary advantages of the OBA are its compactness and the close body fit that allows wear-ers to pass through scuttles and other tight areas. Prior to activation, the canisters are inert andhave no special storage requirements. The OBA has several disadvantages for firefighting:

• The duration of canisters depends upon the wearer’s activity.

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• A ship’s allowance may not have enough canisters needed for a large, long-durationfire.

• Canisters must be changed outside the work area.

• Inadvertent activation of the breathing bag relief valve deflates the bag, often distract-ing the wearer.

• Firefighters cannot cradle firehoses close to their bodies without deflating the breathingbags; firefighting while holding the hose at arm’s length is awkward and fatiguing.

• Spent canisters are hazardous waste.

• During oxygen generation, the canister creates heat. The OBA should not be worn inatmospheres containing flammable or combustible gases.

• OBAs do not maintain positive pressure within the face mask—toxic gases can bedrawn into the mask through small leaks in the seal or mask.

4-2.2.2 Self-contained Breathing Apparatus. While the OBA is a self-contained breathingapparatus, in this manual and most usage, SCBA refers specifically to compressed air breathingdevices. The SCBA is a convenient source of clean, cool fresh air, similar in appearance and oper-ation to a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA). The most common SCBA isthe positive-pressure demand-type that provides air to the wearer through a regulator. Wearers aresupplied air at different rates, depending on their individual demand. The positive pressure featurekeeps air pressure slightly higher than ambient pressure; if leaks develop, air will flow out andtoxic gases or smoke will not be drawn into the mask. There are also combination respirators thatinclude an SCBA and a Type C positive-pressure or continuous-flow airline. Typical endurancewith standard air bottles is 30 to 45 minutes, depending on work level.

SCBAs find widespread use with shore-based fire departments, commercial vessels, marine fire-fighters and foreign navies because of their advantages:

• Ease of donning.

• Quick-charging of air bottles from diving air banks or portable compressors duringfirefighting operations.

• Air bottles can be changed in contaminated atmospheres.

• No heat-generating reaction to restrict use in flammable atmospheres.

• Some SCBAs are equipped with “buddy breathing” or rescue connections, so that twomasks can be rigged to one bottle.

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The principle disadvantage of compressed air breathing apparatus is the requirement for extensivecompressed air storage or portable air compressors. Bulk air storage cylinders and compressorsmust be tested to the same standards and at the same frequency as diving air systems. SCBAs arebulkier than either OBAs or the low-profile oxygen rebreathers described in Paragraph 4-2.2.3;the backpack must be removed to pass through the Navy standard 18-inch-diameter scuttle. Someforeign navies have adopted elongated scuttles to accommodate personnel wearing SCBAs.Lower profile (smaller diameter) bottles can be used with most SCBAs, but endurance is severelylimited by the reduced air volume.

While SCBAs are not a standard item in fleet repair lockers, some are found aboard ships. Thoseships armed with Mk-46 torpedoes have SCBAs near the torpedo magazine because of the haz-ardous nature of the torpedo propellent (OTTO Fuel). Salvage firefighters may be outfitted withSCBAs.

4-2.2.3 Oxygen Rebreathers. In the typical closed-circuit oxygen rebreather, oxygen is suppliedby a small high-pressure bottle. The wearer’s exhaled breath is routed through a scrubber wheresodasorb or a similar chemical absorbs carbon dioxide. A demand regulator maintains oxygenpressure at slightly more than ambient pressure. Because the exhaled breath is not exhausted andthe demand regulator permits oxygen flow from the cylinder only as required to maintain pressurewithin the mask and breathing hoses, oxygen usage is only enough to match the wearer’s meta-bolic oxygen consumption. As a consequence, very compact packages can give long endurance.One manufacturer provides units with breathing endurances of 45, 60 and 240 minutes. Scrubberchemical canisters or cartridges are typically sized to last as long as the oxygen Cylinder. Thechemical scrubber should be refilled when the oxygen bottle is recharged or changed.

4-2.3 Communications. Communications are vital to the success of firefighting. Existing fire-fighting communications depend primarily on sound-powered phone circuits within the ship andverbal communication between firefighters at the scene. However, wireless communications areproving more effective, especially in emergencies when wire-dependent communications can bedisrupted and messenger access denied. Portable VHF communications are very effective for sal-vage firefighting. Information may be transmitted directly from scene leaders to repair lockers,between attack teams or between ships. Wireless communications save valuable time and elimi-nate the need for messengers that may be better employed as team members. Normally, salvagefirefighters have wireless VHF or UHF communications built into their firefighters’ helmet. Theradio has a suspended boom microphone for hands-free communications. The system is compati-ble with the WIFCOM wireless communications system on combatants.

4-3 FLEET FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Combatant ships and auxiliaries carry a wide variety of fixed and portable equipment to fight firesof limited size and duration. Fixed systems are specific to the needs and designs of particularclasses of vessel.

The firefighting equipment found in all Navy repair lockers is standardized. The amount of equip-ment depends on the size and specific needs of each ship. Firefighting equipment is itemized inthe ship's Allowance Equipage List (AEL). NSTM 555 (Rev. 5/88) provides detailed information

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on standard fleet firefighting equipment and its maintenance and operation. This section providesan overview of some standard items found in all U.S. Navy ships.

4-3.1 Fire Pumps. Fire pumps provide seawater to the firemain in quantities tailored to the fire-main capacity and the mission of the ship. The pumps are normally centrifugal and may be drivenby steam turbines, electric motors or diesel engines. Usually, fire pumps are located in maIn orauxiliary machinery spaces and in other spaces throughout the ship. Spreading the pumps outenables firemain flow and pressure to be maintained if some pumps are destroyed or inaccessibleor if firemain sections are taken out of service.

4-3.2 Fire Stations, Hoses and Accessories. Fire stations are outlets from the firemain, locatedthroughout the ship and fitted with accessories—hoses, nozzles, connecting fittings, etc.—todirect water from the firemain to the fire. Figure 4-3 shows a standard fire station. The principalfirefighting tools at fire stations are fire hoses. U.S. Navy ships are equipped with two sizes of firehose for own ship firefighting—1-1/2-inch and 2-1/2-inch. All fire stations on frigates and smallerships are equipped with 1-1/2-inch hose; larger vessels have 2-1/2-inch hose at weather deck sta-tions and 1-1/2-inch hose at interior stations. The equipment at each station is sized for the hose.

Figure 4-3. Typical Fire Station.

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4-3.3 Nozzles and Low-Velocity Fog Applicators. Firefighting nozzles are sized to fit the hoseand shape the water stream for delivery from the hose to the fire. Applicators supplement sometypes of nozzles by extending their reach and converting the solid water stream into low-velocityfog.

4-3.3.1 The Vari-Nozzle. Standard fire stations are equipped with variable-pattern fog nozzles orvari-nozzles. The vari-nozzle can be adjusted to deliver three basic types of water or foamstreams:

• A wide, almost radial, high-velocity fog stream for self-protection,

• Fog cones of various widths to optimize coverage or,

• A straight stream that provides a long reach.

There are two types of vari-nozzle, as illustrated in Figure 4-4: a trigger-operated nozzle for 1-1/2-inch hoses and a bail-operated version for both 1-1/2- and 2-1/2-inch hoses. Because of the vari-nozzle’s self-flushing feature, quick-acting Marine strainers are not required at fire stations usingvari-nozzles.

4-3.3.2 Navy All-Purpose Nozzles and Applicators. The Navy all-purpose nozzle (APN) can delivereither high-velocity fog or a solid stream, depending on the position of the firefighter-controlledbail. The APN can deliver AFFF foam in the fog position but does not aspirate the solution as wellas the vari-nozzle, producing a lower quality, less expanded foam. The APN mates with an appli-cator to deliver low-velocity fog. Figure 4-5 shows the possible combinations. There are threesizes of low-velocity fog applicators—4-, 10- and 12-foot. The 4- and 10-foot applicators matewith the 1 1/2-inch APN; 12-foot applicators mate with the 2-1/2-inch APN. Each size is for dif-ferent parts of the ship. The 4-foot model is for interior spaces, the 10-foot model is for weatherdecks on frigates and smaller ships and the 12-foot applicator is for weather decks on ships largerthan frigates and flight deck firefighting on all ships. All provide a wide, fine water spray to coolfires and protect personnel. Applicators are useful for applying water fog around corners andthrough small openings and for projecting wide fog patterns. Specially designed, straight, piercingapplicators can be driven through sheet metal and light plate with mauls or pneumatic hammers.Standard fire stations are no longer equipped with all-purpose nozzles or applicators; 1-1/2-inchand 2-1/2-inch nozzles and various size applicators are held in repair lockers. Certain fire stationsare equipped with an applicator and APN in addition to the vari-nozzle on the hose:

• Fire stations serving galleys are equipped with a 1-1/2-inch APN and a 4- or 10-footapplicator for fighting deep-fat fryer fires.

• Fire stations serving 3-inch and larger guns are equipped with an appropriately sizedAPN and applicator for hot gun cooling.

• Fire stations serving ASROC launchers are equipped with an appropriately sized APNand piercing applicator.

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Figure 4-4. Vari-Nozzle.

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4-3.4 Portable In-line Eductors and Water Motor Proportioners. In-line eductors and propor-tioners meter foam and water for application to fires.

4-3.4.1 The In-line Foam Eductor. The in-line foam eductor, shown in Figure 4-6, is a venturi-operated unit with an attached foam pickup tube. Water from the firemain feeds the unit and cre-ates a suction in the tube that draws foam concentrate from a portable container. Two in-line

Figure 4-5. Navy All-Purpose Nozzles and Low-Velocity Water Fog Applicator Combinations.

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Figure 4-6. In-Line Foam Eductor.

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eductors models are in service: a fixed-orifice model set for a 6-percent foam solution and a dial-valve selector unit that meters 1-, 3-, 6- and 12-percent foam solution. To maintain a six-percentsolution, inlet pressure must be 95 to 100 psi. Continuous operation requires about five gallons ofAFFF concentrate per minute for each 100 gallons of water.

4-3.4.2 The FP-180 Water Motor Foam Proportioner. The in-line eductor is replacing theFP-180 water motor foam proportioner. The FP-180, illustrated in Figure 4-7, is a water-driven,positive-displacement pump that injects a metered solution of foam into the water stream byattached pickup tubes. The designed solution is six-percent AFFF at pressures from 75 to 175 psi.The FP-180 can meter protein foam but must be cleaned thoroughly afterwards to ensure contin-ued proper operation.

4-3.5 Emergency Portable Fire Pumps. Portable pumps provide firefighting water and dewa-tering capabilities to augment installed equipment. Several portable pumps are part of ships'allowances. The P-250 (Mod 1) is the fleet standard, the P-250 (Mod 2) is a recent developmentand some P-250 and PE-250 models are still in service. All models are self-contained, engine-driven, centrifugal pumps that provide 250 gpm at 100 to 125 psi. The P-250 (Mod 2) is essen-tially the same as the P-250 (Mod 1), but its primary fuel is JP-5. In an emergency, the pump canoperate on gasoline. All other models are fueled with gasoline. Figure 4-8 shows several hookupcombinations that are possible with P-250 pumps with tri-gates, nozzles and in-line eductors toprovide water or foam to a fire. Figures 4-9A and 4-9B provide details and specifications for theP-250 (Mod 1 and Mod 2) pumps. The P-250 (Mod 1 and Mod 2) pumps can be fitted withhydraulic power modules that can power electrical generators and submersible hydraulic pumps.

Figure 4-7. Water Motor Foam Proportioner.

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Figure 4-8. P-250 Firefighting Arrangement.

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Figure 4-9A. P-250 (MOD 1) Pump Unit.

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Figure 4-9B. P-250 (MOD 2) Pump Unit.

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All P-250 pumps are powered by two-cycle engines that require lubricating oil in their fuel. TheP-250 (Mod 1 and Mod 2) pumps use an oil meter system; oil is mixed with the fuel in the fuelcan for the P-250 and PE-250 pumps. Fuel to oil ratios are different for each pump model—usingthe wrong ratio or using fuel without oil on P-250 or PE-250 pumps can cause failure in a shorttime. SARTs and R&A teams may be equipped with different model pomposity the casualty. Fuelcans should be marked for the applicable pump model and fuel mix, to preclude inadvertentengine breakdown.

4-3.6 Portable Dewatering Equipment. Firefighting operations introduce large volumes ofwater into the casualty. Excess water in the hull adversely affects the ship’s buoyancy and stabil-ity. To maintain buoyancy and stability, floodwater must be removed from the vessel in coordina-tion with firefighting. Numerous portable tools are available for this purpose:

• The P-250 series or other portable, engine-driven pumps.

• Portable S-type and Peri-jet eductors, shown in Figures 4-10A and 4-10B. Eductors areoperated from portable pumps or the ship’s firemain and are particularly suited fordewatering compartments that are contaminated with oils or other liquids that may notbe pumped by other means. Eductors allow the passage of small particles of debris andrags and may be placed in a compartment and operated unattended while firefightingefforts continue. Four-inch discharge (2-1/2-inch supply) eductors can operate fromwater sources that provide 200-gpm flow at 60 psi or greater, including the P-250pumps and the portable firefighting module described in Paragraph 4-4.4. The 2-1/2-inch discharge (1-1/2-inch supply) eductor can operate from water sources that provide44-gpm flow at 50 psi or greater.

• Water-turbine pumps. The 500-gpm water-turbine pumps are designed for operationfrom portable pumps or the ship’s firemain and like eductors, are particularly suited fordewatering compartments that are contaminated with oils.

• Portable electric submersible pumps. Electric submersible pumps are used primarily ininaccessible compartments without installed pumping systems. The 2-1/2-inch pumpmoves 140 gpm at a 70-foot discharge head and can operate in tandem for greaterheads. Salvage ships also carry 1-1/2-inch and 4-inch electric submersible pumps.Although electric submersible pumps are manufactured to pump flammable liquidssafely, they may loose their explosion proof rating if damaged or overhauled. Thepumps should be operated totally submerged to avoid igniting flammable vapors.

• Hydraulic submersible pumps. These 250- and 800-gpm pumps are designed to operatefrom the P-250 (Mod 1 and Mod 2) hydraulic power module. Large-capacity pumpsdriven by hydraulic power units, described in Paragraph 4-4.3, are carried aboard sal-vage ships and deployed with SARTs. Because they are not spark-producing, hydraulicpumps can be used to pump flammable liquids or water contaminated with flammableliquids.

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The discharge of portable submersible pumps and eductors may be led to the suction of portablecentrifugal pumps to provide a positive suction head when the suction head is more than 20 feet.The 250-gpm hydraulic submersible pump driven by the P-250 (Mod 1 and Mod 2) hydraulicpower module is specifically designed to feed the P-250 pump and allow it to operate with a suc-tion head of up to 70 feet.

Figure 4-10A. Eductors.

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4-3.7 Desmoking. Usually, portable blowers generate air flow to remove smoke, explosivefumes, noxious atmospheres and other gaseous combustion products from the interior of the shipand supplement installed ventilation systems.

The most common portable blower is the electrically driven “Red Devil” shown in Figure 4-11.The Red Devil has a rated capacity of 500 cfm. Portable electric blowers have explosion-proofmotors, but the explosion-proof quality of the motor may be compromised during overhaul.

Figure 4-10B. Eductor Operations.

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Motors not re-certified as explosion-proof after overhaul should not be operated in atmospheresthat may be explosive.

Compressed air at 80 psi drives the air turbine-driven blower shown in Figure 4-12 to move 750cfm of air. The air-driven blower is the preferred unit for hazardous atmospheres.

The Ramfan is a compact, water-turbine-driven blower, capable of operating from a ship’s fire-main or portable pump. Depending on the model, capacity may be as high as 5,000 cfm. This typeof blower finds application where electricity or compressed air blowers are unavailable orunsafe—such as in areas subject to flammable gas concentrations.

Placement of portable blowers greatly influences the quantity of air and smoke that can be moved.As shown in Figure 4-13, total air flow may range from much less than the blower-rated capacityto more than twice the rated capacity.

As an alternative to portable blowers, fog nozzles can move air and desmoke spaces. The amountof air moved and smoke dissipated depends on the size of the opening. At 100 psi and 60 gpm, a 21/2-inch fog nozzle can move 30,000 cfm through a 30-square-foot opening; a 1 1/2-inch nozzlemoves about 20,000 cfm through a 20-square-foot opening.

Figure 4-11. Red Devil Electric Blower.

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Figure 4-12. Air-Turbine-Driven Blower.

Figure 4-13. Portable Blower Use.

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4-3.8 Naval Firefighter’s Thermal Imager. The Naval Firefighter’s Thermal Imager (NFTI),shown in Figure 4-14, is a camera-like device that allows the operator to see differences in tem-perature shown by infrared radiation. The NFTI responds to temperature differences as small asfour degrees Fahrenheit through smoke and light steam. The device assists in investigating fires,locating the seat of a fire, indicating hot spots during overhaul and locating injured personnel.Prolonged exposure to excessive heat or water or dirt on the lens, reduces the effectiveness of theunit until it is cleaned or cooled. The NFTI cannot “see” through glass.

4-3.9 International Shore Connection. The international shore connection, shown in Figure4-15, allows charging of the firemain from shore in any U.S. or foreign port. The fitting also per-mits offship firefighting equipment to connect to any vessel’s firemain. Bolt slots on the flangeconnect to different bolt patterns. All Navy ships and all commercial vessels are required to carrythis device. For the salvage ship, it is a suitable firefighting connection for assisting both navaland commercial vessels. The unit may be purchased through the stock system or manufactured onboard.

Figure 4-14. Naval Firefighter’s Thermal Imager.

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Figure 4-15. International Shore Connection.

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4-4 OFFSHIP FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

In addition to standard firefighting equipment, salvage ships maintain an inventory of fixed andportable equipment specifically designed for offship firefighting. Specially trained firefightingteams of salvors augment casualties’ damage control parties. This section discusses the specialequipment available to salvage ships and SARTs for offship firefighting. Some commercial fire-fighting equipment proven effective in the field is also discussed.

4-4.1 Fixed Fire Pumps. Fixed fire pumps range in output from 150 to 2,000 gpm at pressuresup to 150 psi. The ARS-38 and ATF-76 Classes have two 2,000-gpm salvage and fire pumps,electrically driven by a main propulsion generator with two 150-gpm electric fire and flushingpumps. The ARS-50 Class can pump 4,500 gpm at 150 psi with four 1,000-gpm electric firefight-ing and tunneling pumps and two 250-gpm fire and flushing pumps. The ATS-1 Class has three1,000-gpm electric fire pumps and one 2,000-gpm diesel unit. The T-ATF-166 Class has two1,500-gpm diesel-driven pumps.

4-4.2 Offship Delivery Capability. In addition to large-capacity pumping systems, salvage shipshave specialized systems to deliver water and foam to a fire on the casualty. Delivery systemsinclude high-capacity pumps, monitors and offship firefighting manifolds. Figures 4-16A and4-16B show monitor and firefighting manifold locations for Navy salvage ships. The systemsshown are representative of the systems found in salvage ships. Salvage ships and units are outfit-ted with portable diesel pumps either specifically for or adaptable to firefighting.

4-4.2.1 Monitors. All classes of salvage ships have fixed fire monitors. Monitors allow the sal-vage ship to project large amounts of water or foam on the exterior of the casualty. The water maybe delivered as a solid stream for cooling a specific area or as a high-velocity fog that both coolsthe fire area and screens the salvage ship from the heat of the fire. At this writing, the dual-water-way monitor, shown in Figure 4-17, is being replaced in all ships by the single-waterway moni-tor, shown in Figure 4-18. This and other equipment upgrades, will increase monitor throw to 250feet or greater with 1,000-gpm flow on all Navy salvage ships. Those ships that still have thedual-waterway monitor are equipped with the Fog-Master nozzle, also shown in Figure 4-17. Theair-aspirated monitor shown in Figure 4-19 is found only on the T-ATF-166 Class. This monitorwill also be replaced by the single-waterway type.

Portable fire monitors are supplied from on-deck connections to the ship’s firemain or from porta-ble pumps. These monitors can be placed at the site on the salvage ship or on the casualty to per-mit the most effective use of their water streams. Wherever the monitors are placed, they must besecured so the reaction from the nozzle does not upset them.

4-4.2.2 Offship Firefighting Manifolds. To deliver water to hoses or portable equipment for off-ship firefighting, salvage ships have one or more on-deck valve manifolds. Offship manifolds orChristmas trees, vary in location and arrangement with ship classes. The usual configuration foroffship manifolds is a 4- to 6-inch line with four or more 2-1/2-inch angle valves, as shown inFigure 4-20. From each angle valve, 2 1/2-inch hoses may be rigged or wye-gates can be installedfor 1-1/2-inch lines. The ARS-50 Class can furnish pre-mixed AFFF foam directly to the forwardand aft offship manifolds. The forward and aft offship manifolds are fitted with two 2-1/2-inch

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Figure 4-16A. Salvage Ship Offship Firefighting Systems.

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Figure 4-16B. Salvage Ship Offship Firefighting Systems.

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Figure 4-17. Dual-Waterway Monitor and Fog-Master Nozzle.

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Figure 4-18. Single-Waterway Monitor.

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Figure 4-19. Air-Aspired Monitor.

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and one 3-1/2-inch valve, while the midships manifolds are fitted with four 2-1/2-inch valves.With in-line eductors, individual hoses or monitors may direct foam to one area while other linessupply water nearby.

4-4.2.3 Portable Diesel Pumps. Salvage ships carry an assortment of salvage pumps. Six- and ten-inch salvage pumps may be rigged for firefighting in an emergency or when no other pumps areon hand. Figure 4-21 shows a connection that can be made up in the field for attaching four 2-1/2-inch fire hoses to a 6-inch connection. The firefighting fitting can be put on the 6-inch pump dis-charge or on the triple 6-inch discharge fitting for 10-inch salvage pumps described in Paragraph5-2.8.2, U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 2, S0300-A6-MAN-020. Operating salvage pumpsas firefighting pumps is a field improvisation—the pumps are not efficient firefighting units. Theportable firefighting module, described in Paragraph 4-4.4, is much more effective and efficient.

4-4.3 Hydraulic Power Units and Pumps. Both the Model 2 and Model 6 Hydraulic PowerUnits (HPU) are portable, skid-mounted, diesel-powered pumps that provide high-pressurehydraulic fluid flow. This flow is used to operate hydraulic submersible pumps that boost suctionpressure and dewater spaces. The Model delivers a hydraulic flow of 15 gpm at 2,000 psi andpowers a 4-inch submersible pump. The Model 6 develops 25 gpm at 2,500 psi from each of twooutput ports. The Model 6 powers two 4-inch or one 6-inch submersible pump.

4-4.3.1 Four-inch Hydraulic Submersible Pump. The 4-inch pump is primarily used for dewa-tering compartments. The pump moves water at 700 gpm with low head pressure when driven bya Model 2 HPU. The Model 6 HPU can drive two 4-inch pumps simultaneously, each pumping1,100 gpm.

Figure 4-20. Offship Manifold and Portable Equipment.

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4-4.3.2 Six-inch Hydraulic Submersible Pump. The six-inch pump is a high-capacity unit forpumping water or petroleum products. It may dewater compartments, control stability and trimand offload petroleum products from stricken tankers. Power for the pump is provided by theModel 6 HPU. The pump has a rated output of 1,800 gpm with a 40-foot discharge head.

Details and specifications for hydraulic power units and submersible pumps are found in Appen-dix B, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2, S0300-A6-MAN-020; Appendix C, U.S.Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5, S0300-A6-MAN-050; and the U.S. Navy EmergencyShip Salvage System Catalog, NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-3010.

4-4.4 Navy Portable Firefighting Pump Module. NAVSEA has developed a portable firefight-ing pump module modeled after commercial fire pumps. The module is a complete, skid-mounted, firefighting package ready for deployment to a casualty from salvage ships, platformsof opportunity or shore-based warehouses. The module, illustrated in Figure 4-22, may be set upas an independent system or tied into a salvage ship’s offship firefighting manifold.

The portable firefighting module consists of:

• A diesel-driven pumping unit (rated 3,000 gpm at 175 psi) with a suction lift of 20 feetand a total weight of about 7,000 pounds.

• Built-in fuel storage.

• A foam proportioning system.

• Monitors.

• Nozzles, hoses, hose fittings, tools and adapters.

Figure 4-21. Firefighting Connection for Salvage Pumps.

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• Personnel protective devices and clothing.

• Spare parts.

The complete module is packaged for air transport and helicopter slinging. The 6-inch hydraulicsubmersible pump can be rigged to the firefighting module to increase suction lift.

4-4.5 Hydraulic Submersible Firefighting Pumps. The 4-inch discharge hydraulic submersiblepump provides approximately 450 gpm of firefighting water at 125 psi. The pump is driven by theModel 6 HPU. It was developed to give SART teams the ability to operate portable fire pumpsfrom ships with freeboards greater than the effective suction lift of diesel or P-250 pumps (15-20feet) and to increase the firefighting capacity of salvage ships equipped with installed or portableHPUs. As the pump and HPU need not be co-located, the pump can be placed near the fire front,reducing the length of the hose lay and attendant friction loss.

Figure 4-22. Navy Portable Firefighting Pump System.

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4-4.6 Commercial Portable Firefighting Pumps. In addition to the Navy portable firefightingmodule described in Paragraph 4-4.4, Navy salvage firefighters may operate commercial firepump units as assets of opportunity. Commercial fire pumps vary in design; the following para-graphs describe the general characteristics of such pumps.

4-4.6.1 Small Commercial Firefighting Pump Systems. The compact commercial salvage fire-fighting pump normally has an output of 2,900 gpm (2,400 Imperial gpm, 11,000 liters) perminute at its rated capacity. These pumps are:

• Deployable in commercial jet aircraft and light enough for underslung transport byhelicopter.

• Operable in hazardous areas equivalent to Lloyd’s Register Zone 2 Category.

• Foam-capable with one or two high-powered monitors mounted on the package frame.

• Deployed on any convenient low-freeboard platform.

• Single, high-power monitor and/or multi-hose line capable.

• Employable with additional suction lift booster pumps.

A typical small commercial salvage firefighting pump has the following characteristics:

• A compact, turbo-charged, four-stroke diesel engine, developing about 500 bhp at2,000 to 2,100 rpm, fitted with heat exchanger cooling and a seawater-cooled exhaustmanifold. Engines normally are started hydraulically and are safe for operation in andaround hazardous areas.

• An end-suction, nonself-priming pump with a rated capacity between 2,800 and 3,000gpm with a discharge head of approximately 173 psi. The pumps are most efficientbetween 9- and 15-foot suction lift, measured from center of impeller intake and waterlevel. They do not perform efficiently when suction lift exceed 16 feet.

• The 10-inch-diameter end-suction connection is fitted with a special manifold for fourstandard 6-inch salvage pump hose suction lines. On some pumps, the suction manifoldconnects to five 4-inch suction hoses.

• A single 6-inch-diameter, hand-trained and elevated monitor is mounted on top of thepump and engine frame. On the underside of the monitor connection, a manifold for upto six 2-1/2-inch diameter fire hoses is arranged inside the frame housing.

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• The dimensions and weight of these units are approximately:

Length, pump frame: 7 ft, 9 inLength, pump and suction manifold: 9 ft, 2 inWidth: 3 ft, 3 inHeight, excluding monitor: 4 ft, 8 inHeight, with monitor: 7 ft, 0 inNet weight, excluding suction manifold and monitor: 5,060 lbsNet weight, including manifold and monitor: 5,500 lbs

Figure 4-23 illustrates a pump of this type.

4-4.6.2 Large Commercial Firefighting Pump Units. A larger transportable unit overcomes thesuction lift disadvantages of the small pumps with high-capacity, hydraulically driven submers-ible pumps that pump directly to monitors mounted on the power unit module. The modules con-sist of:

• A self-contained, easily transportable, hydraulic power pack unit. The power pack is a620-650 bhp diesel engine coupled to dual hydraulic fluid power sources for high-capacity, hydraulically driven pumps.

• Two six-inch monitors mounted on top of the power pack unit.

• Two high-capacity hydraulic submersible pumps that can:

(1) Pump water to one or both monitors.

(2) Dewater spaces.

(3) Pump POL or hydrocarbon products.

The units can operate from salvage ships, platforms of opportunity or aboard casualties.

The output of the large unit is:

Maximum output: 4,830 gpmMaximum pressure: 210 psiRated output & pressure: 2,645 gpm @ 200 psi or

4,385 gpm @ 148 psi

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4-35

Figure 4-23. Small Commercial Salvage Firefighting Pump Module.

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The general dimensions of the pump unit are:

Length: 7 ft, 5 inWidth: 4 ft, 2 inHeight: 4 ft, 5 inNet weight, empty: 8,360 lbsNet weight, full: 10,340 lbs

Like other commercial firefighting pumps, these units are configured for both air and forklifttransportation and for working in hazardous atmospheres associated with tanker and oil fieldoperations. Figure 4-24 illustrates a typical large pump unit.

Monitor outputs of 10,000 to 12,000 gpm per monitor are not uncommon on larger FiFi ships orthe more powerful “portable” FiFi package units sometimes deployed. In terms of offship and bat-tle damage firefighting operations, the sheer volume and weight of water that any certified FiFimonitor can project must be treated with great caution.

Paragraph 6-5.3 discusses use of FiFi category oil field service ships and summarizes the threeFiFi categories with diagrammatic and tabular information that may be useful to Navy salvorswhen evaluating the firefighting capability of commercial vessels.

4-4.7 Special Firefighting Tools and Adapters. Every portable fire pump unit and all SARTAELs include boxes of special tools that have proven their worth in firefighting operations. Sometools are common to all salvage applications; others are solely to service the specific engine andequipment of a portable fire pump. Where practical, all engine-related tools and frequently usedspare parts should be stowed in lightweight boxes and transported inside the pump's protectiveframework.

Tools most frequently required by salvage firefighters or R&A teams include:

• Tool and parts kits for particular engine and pump sets that accompany the salvageteam.

• Heavy-duty wrenches, hammers, cold chisels, pry bars, valve wheel wrenches, sockets,bolt cutters and banding tools.

• Hose leak repair kits and other small quick-repair kits.

• Pipe patching kits.

• Overhaul tools (axes, pike poles, rakes, shovels).

• Hose fittings and accessories (spanners, adapters, reducers, wye-gates, tri-gates,Siamese fittings, etc.).

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4-37

Figure 4-24. Large Portable Firefighting/Dewatering System.

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• Exothermic cutting equipment.

• Portable hydraulic/pneumatic tools.

Adapters and fire hose fittings are an integral part of firefighting equipment. The importance ofcarrying a good selection of fittings and adapters cannot be overstated. When fittings or adaptersare required, there is never time to fabricate or modify them on scene. Experienced salvage fire-fighters usually carry at least two of every fitting or adapter listed below:

• Double-male and double-female fittings for all hose sizes carried.

• Reducers from largest to smallest sizes of hose carried, i.e., 3- to 2-1/2-inch, 3- to 2-inch, 2-1/2- to 1-1/2-inch, etc.

• Adapters for transition from large-diameter sexless or Storz, couplings to standardmale and female hose fittings carried.

• Direct adapters from U.S. pattern hose thread to NATO-type Storz couplings in 2-1/2-and 3-inch sizes.

• Direct adapters from U.S. pattern hose thread to British instantaneous or bayonet cou-plings in 2-1/2- and 3-inch sizes.

• A pair of international shore connections modified for use as battle damage adapters fordamaged pipelines.

• Miscellaneous adapters, nipples, valves, wyes and other fittings that experience hasshown to be useful on firefighting hoses.

4-4.8 Portable Foam Containers. Foam concentrate is usually supplied to Navy firefightingassets in 5- and 55-gallon containers. Shoreside and commercial salvage firefighting experiencehas shown that for many applications, larger foam concentrate tanks are more efficient andrequire less overall storage space.

The most efficient large foam storage tanks are typically of 300-400 gallon capacities and skid-mounted for transport by trucks or small trailers. Salvors have successfully modified agricultural-type pesticide spray tanks to store and transport large quantities of foam. When fitted inside light-weight, tubular steel frames, these tanks may be carried as underslung cargo by larger helicopters.The tanks may also be loaded into 35-foot salvage workboats or landing craft for operation withembarked portable fire pumps. Skid-mounted tanks are also convenient for deployment on plat-forms of opportunity, such as offshore supply vessels that have portable pump units on board.A capstan or deck tugger winch can move skid-mounted tanks around the supply vessel’s deckwhen lifting equipment is not available.

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44 (Imp) gal = 200 liters = 53 (US) gal4.4 (Imp) gal = 20 liters = 5.3 (US) gal

Although 55-gallon drums are more common in the Navy supply system, they are labor-intensiveto handle, stow and secure for sea transport. Fifty-five gallon drums of foam are consumedquickly, even at low concentrations. A 400-gallon tank will last more than seven times as long asa single drum. Commercial salvage firefighters normally rig foam eductor systems to three skid-mounted, 300- or 400-gallon tanks. A backup foam crew uses a small diesel or electric pump totransfer foam concentrate from 55-gallon drums to an emptied tank. For more convenient trans-port and storage, four or six 55-gallon drums can be placed in skid-mounted pipe or angle racksthat resemble soft drink “six packs.”

CAUTION

Navy salvage firefighters responsible for ordering or arrangingresupply of foam concentrate overseas should realize that foamcontainer sizes are figured in Imperial gallons or liters. An orderfor 55-gallon drums will confuse the foreign supplier who is usedto an international system of “standard” drum sizes, where:

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CHAPTER 5

FIREFIGHTING STRATEGIES FOR ASSISTING SHIPS

5-1 INTRODUCTION

A major fire at sea is one of the worst disasters that a seaman can encounter. Fires causedstrophic events, such as battle damage, encompass all the basic difficulties of shipboard fiing, with further dimensions that include:

• Personnel casualties, coupled with varying degrees of shock, trauma and degradathe command and control organization.

• Damage to and degradation, of installed firefighting equipment and capability.

• Reduced ship survivability caused by structural damage and loss of watertight rity.

• Possible loss of propulsion and maneuvering capabilities or other vital services.

A large fire on a casualty, whether caused by battle damage or a catastrophic accident, psalvors with a major challenge in rendering timely and effective salvage services. Salvagfighting is difficult because a freely floating casualty’s condition presents immediate probeither singly or in various combinations of:

• Fire spread because of breakdown of onboard fire boundaries, firefighting andcontrol capabilities.

• Loss of buoyancy because of flooding caused by structural damage and firefigwater.

• Difficulties in delivering firefighting equipment onto high-freeboard or limited accships.

• Damage to both assisted and assisting ships caused by accidental hull contact, nations of list and trim and stationkeeping difficulties.

Because fire conditions vary with time-fire and firefighting water almost always worsen the alty’s situation-rapid and effective firefighting services are time-critical. Salvors must implea fire containment and control program without delay. There are several methods of contand extinguishing major shipboard fires, none of which is either correct or equally applicable inevery circumstance. Like strandings, there are some basic rules that apply to fighting all fires, but there are no magic formulae that can be fed into a series of equations to develop rect mix of tactics and equipment to suit each individual ship fire.

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This chapter addresses principles that affect salvage firefighting on battle-damaged ships avides general guidance for the development of salvage firefighting strategies, including:

• General concepts of the phases through which most offship firefighting operaprogress from arrival of salvage forces until completion of firefighting.

• Drift characteristics of disabled ships in relation to wind and the handling and coof casualty’s heading with regard to wind effects on firefighting.

• Positioning and handling of assisting salvage ships working close to or alongsidcasualty.

Strategies are plans and procedures developed to answer the questions:

• What is to be done?

• What is needed to do it?

• Who is to do it?

Tactics answer the question “How is it to be done?” Firefighting tactics are addressed in Ch6 and 7.

The ultimate purpose of any battle damage firefighting operation is to extinguish the fire(s) limit fire damage. Most professional shore-based firefighters and fire engineers regard shas generally difficult and dangerous to extinguish. This is because most internal ship fires hbe attacked from the top, working downwards to the seat of the fire. Compared to shoreside buings and industrial facilities, access to ship fires is usually restricted and working areacramped. The design and fire defense characteristics of ships make it difficult for smoke, hecombustion products to escape from inside ships. These factors, combined with the limitedof any freely floating ship to remain stable or afloat when large quantities of water are pumpboard, present salvage firefighters with a difficult problem. The salvage firefighter must conand tailor his actions around the facts that fire extinguishing and maintenance of buoyanstability are interrelated aspects of the same problem.

5-2 BATTLE DAMAGE FIREFIGHTING STRATEGIES

Battle damage fires usually result from direct or secondary effects of weapons strikes on Typically, a ship may sustain rocket, missile, shell, mine or torpedo damage that either direindirectly ignites a major fire adjacent to the weapon-struck area. In most cases, the propenetrates the ship's shell or deck plating and explodes inside the ship. The fire(s) usually remaiwithin the structural containment of the ship, burning upwards and away from the point of oSince fire-spread physics are governed by many factors, a battle damage fire may alsosideways and ignite secondary fires below the ignition point. In many cases, the initial fire cby a mine or torpedo that ruptures hull plating below the waterline is swamped or extinguishfloodwater entering the damaged compartment. However, blast effects, structural misalig

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and damage to shipboard fittings and services can ignite major fires adjacent to the breacflooded primary strike area. On most smaller combatant ships, modern weapons cause internalfires, that burn within the structural confines of the damaged ship. Some fire effects, suflames, heat and combustion products, may be both visible and accessible to firefighters tweapon entry and blast damage holes. Salvage firefighters should never base their tactics oable to attack a battle damage fire through the initial strike rupture, unless a burning interiorhas large openings in the shell plating due to primary or secondary blast effects.

5-2.1 Basic Operational Phases. Successful extinguishment of most battle damage fires is ried out in three basic operational phases that can be grouped under the headings of:

• CONTAIN. Contain fires within existing structural or salvor-imposed horizontal avertical boundaries. Uncontained fire can spread to engulf the entire casualty.

• CONTROL. Control fires inside the imposed boundaries and secure all adjacent from threat of fire.

• EXTINGUISH. Extinguish fires with concerted and systematic attacks by firefightiteams moving through the fire control boundaries and attacking the fire fronts.

with the associated, but subsidiary phase of:

• CLEANUP. Clean up debris; access and overhaul main fire and damage areascomplete temporary repairs, patching or dewatering to render the ship safely afloat.Some debris removal may be necessary during active firefighting to clear draindewatering and allow access to the seat of the fire.

Controlling and extinguishing ship fires by salvage forces depend upon salvage firefigboarding the casualty to attack contained fires with portable monitors and hand-held hose

Fixed and portable fire monitors are the salvors’ heavy artillery, but as soldiers and marinwell aware, it is the combat infantryman who performs the bulk of dirty, dangerous street figand building clearances. It is the same with salvage firefighters. Monitors may contain, cosuppress external fires and areas adjacent to internal fires, but eventually salvage firefightego in to extinguish most fires with hand-held hose lines and portable monitors. Fighting infires from long ranges with monitors is rarely successful. Water and foam streams from mocannot be made to turn corners or penetrate intact bulkheads or shell plating. Ship fires thbroken out of the ship’s structural envelope, as when a section of deck plating has been away, may occasionally present a clear line of attack that leads directly from monitor nozfire front. These circumstances do not occur very often on small combatants.

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Table 5-1 illustrates, in a generalized form, the basic salvage firefighting strategies of contain,control and extinguish as applied to battle damage firefighting.

5-2.2 Strategies. Firefighting methods and equipment vary with tasks and are based on fireand intensity, maintenance of adequate buoyancy and the availability of personnel and appHowever, the three basic strategies of containing, controlling and extinguishing remain foundation stones of successful firefighting.

5-2.2.1 Containing Fires. General Specifications for Ships of the U.S. Navy (GENSPECS) mdate that all U.S. Navy ships be divided into watertight compartments that extend verupwards from keel to main deck. The same GENSPECS also require that Navy ships bevided into Fire Zones with lengths less than 131 feet by bulkheads, decks and boundary clohaving specified resistance to heat transfer and fire spread. In theory and to some extent in practice, shipboard fires should be confined to the fire zone in which fire occurs. Shipboardshould be confined within these structural boundaries to limit spread of fire and allow firefigto control fire within predetermined boundaries. Uncontained fire spreads rapidly, generatown momentum and in worst situations can engulf the entire ship. Alternately, an expandinuncontained fire may reach a structural or physical boundary that it cannot penetrate. Fire

Table 5-1. Salvage Battle Damage Firefighting Strategies.

• Assess fire and flooding condition and present firefighting/dewateing status.

• Establish, reinforce or reset boundaries.• Place ship under control on optimum speed and heading to minim

fire spread.• Commence, redirect or reinforce dewatering operations.• Prepare line of approach for firefighters.• Establish foam compound stockpile.

• Prepare lines of approach to fire edge through boundary cooling.• Vent excess smoke and heat when practical and safe.• Position fire teams at designated attack front(s).• Verify cooling, boundary control and optimum heading are main

tained.• Establish adequate foam stocks at fire perimeter.

• Pass fresh or rested attack firefighting team(s) through fire contrteams.

• Maintain self-protection and cooling sprays on attack teams.• Make all-out foam, water or applicable agent attack or, fire.• Ensure heading control and boundary cooling.• Extinguish fire.

• Check fire source, set reflash and cooling watches with charghoses.

• Commence debris removal and increase or deploy dewatering opetions.

• Carry out temporary plugging and patching where necessary render ship safely afloat.

5-4

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aries confine fire to one specific area of the ship and prevent that fire from spreading lonnally, transversely or vertically. A boundary may be:

• An intact structural bulkhead that is being actively cooled by damage control person the other side.

• Change in direction of relative wind because of an alteration of ship's headingdirectionalizes fire travel patterns.

• A temporary high-volume water screen that deflects fire spread because the fire cpenetrate this “water wall.”

Battle damage caused by weapon strikes and shock or whipping effects can degrade orboth fire zone and watertight bulkheads, allowing fires to spread outside their zone of origithis reason, firefighters must establish fire containment zones or boundaries as a first pwhen dealing with burning, battle-damaged ships.

Ship fires are contained by salvage firefighting teams and salvage ships performing some othe following actions:

• Adjusting ship’s heading, speed, list and trim to prevent the spread of the fire aallow fire and combustion products to clear the casualty without sweeping uninvoareas or assisting ships.

• Establishing and cooling fire boundaries to confine fires within a specified area oship.

• Protecting exposures (structures and objects not involved in the fire, but exposed theat through radiation, convection or conduction) by:

(1) Flooding/sprinkling magazines within the fire boundaries.

(2) Removing ordnance and flammable materials adjacent to or in contact withboundaries to safer locations away from the fire or cooling them if they cannremoved.

(3) Cooling bulkheads or structures exposed to radiant heat from a large fire for eple, superstructure bulkheads exposed to a flight deck fire.

• Securing ventilation and liquid circulating systems inside fire boundaries and verithat systems left operating can have no adverse effects on fire control and extinguoperations.

• Boarding or mustering and deploying sufficient firefighting equipment and consables to enable fire control efforts to be mounted with a high level of personnel prtion and sustainability.

5-5

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oyancy

ndaries

• Operating or establishing dewatering systems to ensure that adequate reserve buis maintained and list and trim control are available.

Figure 5-1 shows differences between design fire zone boundaries and the fire control boucreated by salvors.

n-com-ceeds fires,nd the car-

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Figure 5-1. Design- and Salvor-Imposed Fire Zone Boundaries.

5-2.2.2 Controlling Fires. Shipboard firefighting does not always follow a direct path from cotaining or confining a fire to an all-out assault aimed at extinguishing that fire. On smaller batants with battle damage fires, it is quite possible that the work of extinguishing a fire proalmost in parallel with preventing the spread of that fire. However, in major battle damagethere is often an intermediate phase where all minor or peripheral fires are extinguished amain fire is isolated or beaten back. On large fleet auxiliary-type ships carrying petroleumgoes, the control phase is vitally important if petroleum cargo is on fire.

Control of a major tanker fire involves continuous cooling of the fire and tank or hull to bdown thermocycle processes and reduce fire intensity. Extinguishing major fuel oil fires snot be attempted if the steel structures around the fuel bed are above the fuel’s flash po

5-6

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foam supplies are limited. JP-5 and diesel fuels (DFM, F-76) that meet Navy standards foboard fuels have flash points of 140 degrees or slightly higher. Commercial diesel fuels maflash points as low as 125 degrees. With fire temperatures in excess of 1,200 degrees Fahit is obvious that a prolonged control and cooling period may be necessary to reduce steel ature around the fuel bed. If foam attacks on oil cargoes are mounted too early, the foam will probably be burned off, because foam is primarily a smothering rather than a cooling Since water is the major component of fire extinguishing foams and as water boils at 212 dFahrenheit, there is little to be gained by projecting foam on surfaces where the temperatunificantly exceeds 212 degrees Fahrenheit. A foam attack on an oil tank that is too hot uresults in a violent re-ignition of combustible gases by contact with residual heat as the foamket breaks down. The degree of cooling depends on the intensity of the fire, the type of foaand the nature of oil cargo. On some occasions during the 1984-88 Persian Gulf tanker wcontrol and cooling period extended to six days before a foam attack could be mounted wsonable prospects of success.

Other important activities that are part of the control phase include:

• Rigging attack hose and monitor lines and positioning equipment for extinguisoperations.

• Establishing adequate foam stocks on board the casualty and attending salvagand arranging to bring additional foam forward when dealing with a large tanker f

• Venting excess combustion products trapped within the ship—if this can be acplished safely. Venting a fire properly can divert smoke, heat and gases away fromfighters. Venting also enhances possibilities of successful direct attacks by redfirefighters' exposure to heat and combustion products.

• Controlling the heading of the casualty to ensure that ship motions or wind-indaspiration of fire is minimal.

5-2.2.3 Extinguishing Fires. A fire that is contained and controlled can be extinguished by:

• Allowing it to burn itself out by consuming all combustible materials within the fboundaries.

• Forcibly extinguishing it with foam, water or other agents.

The nature of many shipboard fires is such that the salvage firefighters’ strategy is primariltaining and controlling a fire within boundaries. A confined fire that does not have a self-suing fuel bed, such as one being fed by a ruptured fuel oil tank, eventually runs out of combmaterial within the fire boundary perimeters. This is particularly true of fires that occur in accommodation or superstructure blocks, contained within both structural or firefighter-impboundaries. The speed and rate of combustion in this type of fire is such that major combmaterials are consumed rapidly during early phases of the fire’s development. As thexpands out of its original zone, it is deflected or stopped by firefighter-imposed bound

5-7

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Without anywhere to spread horizontally and with only vertical development possible, suchare usually best left to burn themselves out under the watchful control of firefighters. Ininstances, fire extinguishing is largely a matter of knocking down small isolated fires thaburning on residual fuel bed material. Salvage firefighters’ most valuable service in such cestablishing efficient fire boundaries because:

• A contained and controlled fire cannot spread to unaffected areas of the ship.

• A large percentage of combustible material and fire fuel is consumed in the early sof fire development.

• Some fuel bed material, particularly missile propellant fuels, defy all known firefiing agents during uncontrolled combustion.

Other fires, particularly those involving large liquid fuel beds, must be extinguished by conated, aggressive firefighting. Fires burning in fuel or cargo tanks or fed by leakages of fuel, present salvage firefighters with a particular set of problems to overcome. These prousually arise out of combinations of:

• The primary fire extinguishing agent, foam, is susceptible to chemical and phybreakdown caused by heat.

• Fuels with a low flash point can re-ignite rapidly and violently if surrounding steenot cooled adequately before foam attacks.

• Final extinguishing attacks with foam cannot be started until an adequate quanfoam is on site.

5-2.2.4 Flooding During Firefighting Operations. Flooding is a major hazard to any battledamaged ship, because it can lead to loss of ship through:

• Loss of reserve buoyancy that, if extensive enough, can cause a ship to sink.

• Loss of stability that may lead to capsizing.

Firefighting water, applied as either boundary cooling, fire control or fire extinguishing wprojects liquid inside the watertight envelope of the ship. The free surface effect of loose woften more damaging to stability than the weight of the water. Flooding from firefighting wcan be particularly dangerous because:

• It may be high in the ship and collect in spaces to create high, off center weights.

• It may drain down, affecting several levels and creating a free surface in each spa

Whenever fires are fought with water or other liquids, careful attention must be paid to wthose liquids go, both during and after the fire. For these reasons, it is essential to estabmaintain adequate dewatering systems during the fire containment stage. As firefighting

5-8

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tions increase in tempo, moving from containment into control and then extinguishing pheven the best trained firefighters can easily concentrate all their attention on fire extinctionexclusion of dewatering considerations. Firefighting is intensive and dangerous work; the nhuman trait of total involvement with the immediate threat must be anticipated and dewaproblems accounted for early in the operations.

Section 3-3, “Impaired Stability,” of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010, contains a detailed discussion and analysis of flooding and free surface eSection 5-2, “Pumps and Pumping,” of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2,S0300-A6-MAN-020, discusses dewatering by salvage pumping systems. Figure 5-2 illustratesthe effects of unintentional flooding and loss of stability caused by firefighting operations.

5-2.2.5 Cleanup. After a shipboard fire is extinguished, a number of subsidiary and terminaoperations are performed, including:

• General surface and debris cooling that includes turning over fire debris and seaout local hot-spots and patches of smoldering material.

• Search for and removal of unexploded ordnance in conjunction with EOD person

• Setting of reflash watches and boundary patrols to guard against further outbrefire.

• Gas testing and, where appropriate, smoke dispersal and gas-freeing.

• Local patching, sealing, making watertight and assisting with debris removal.

• Dewatering of any spaces flooded by either battle damage or firefighting operastabilizing the casualty.

• Removal, cleaning, maintenance and repair of salvage firefighting equipment.

5-3 HANDLING AND CONTROL OF A CASUALTY’S HEADING DURING FIRE-FIGHTING

Wind and weather conditions may have a major effect on how a shipboard fire is containecontrolled. Passage of wind or motion-generated relative wind and drafts can either inspreading rate and area of a shipboard fire or can slow the fire’s spread. Alterations of ship'ing and speed may greatly assist in containment and control of shipboard fires by forcing fircombustion products to be blown downwind of the casualty. Handling and control of the alty’s heading relative to wind and fire location are considered under two principal categorshipboard firefighting:

• Casualty with complete or partial use of engine(s) and steering facilities.

• Casualty without engines or steering, totally immobilized and drifting dead inwater.

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ghting.ectionpera-tive to

Figure 5-2. Unintentional Flooding and Loss of Stability.

Shore-based firefighters cannot alter wind or weather patterns around a fire that they are fiSalvage firefighters can, in many situations orient their casualty’s heading and relative dirto make wind and weather conditions contribute positively to fire containment and control otions. Establishing early and positive control of a burning casualty’s heading and speed relawind is a critical factor in checking fire spread and establishing fire boundaries.

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5-3.1 Casualty with Complete or Partial Control of Engines and Steering. The casualty thatretains control of her engines and steering is often able to take early and effective actiogreatly restricts fire spread. Maneuvering a ship to facilitate firefighting and damage contrmatter of skilled seamanship and judgement of relative risks. While mobile salvage teamsrarely if ever be in a position to initiate the maneuvers described in this paragraph, all sshould understand the basic principles that apply to such maneuvers because they maburning casualties where such maneuvers could spell the difference between success anin a major offship firefighting operation. The basic principles that apply to all evasive maneintended to contain shipboard fires include:

• Rapidly assessing fire extent and the areas wherein the fire can be contained.

• Executing the maneuver and evaluating its effects.

• Appreciating that the situation may change continually as the wind shifts and asfighters alter their tactics from initial defensive to offensive operations at fire front

The key factor in limiting fire spread through maneuvering is a rapid assessment of the firetion and relative wind direction and velocity across the ship. The object of the maneuveadjust the ship's heading and speed to:

• Prevent the spread of fire to unaffected areas,

• Improve firefighters’ ability to control and attack fire,

• Disperse flames, heat and combustion products away from the ship by the mostline and

• Prevent flames, heat and combustion products from sweeping assisting ships.

The result of the maneuver should be a relative wind of not more than 12 to 15 knots acrfire-affected area. Ship's speed must be regulated to avoid fanning fires, while still ensurinmost flames and combustion products are blown clear of the ship. There are three basic vers in these situations. The type of maneuver is governed by the location of fire. Other mincluding searoom, the tactical situation and presence or amount of other ship traffic havebearing on the ship's ability to execute these maneuvers.

• Fire Aft. Bring the ship directly into the wind or with wind fine on the appropriabow, to create a suitable relative wind for directing flames and fire spread astern;late speed to avoid unnecessary fanning of the fire.

• Fire Midships. Bring the ship beam onto wind or with wind opposite the burning aand adjust speed to avoid creating a relative wind that forces fire towards stern ship.

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oneetimes

are fre-

a

lsion to driftmes is

ange-

wind

owever,hting

ards

e they

hting

face.

urviv-r the

• Fire Forward. Bring the wind astern and adjust speed to keep fire tending overbow. Speed is usually reduced to a minimum in this case and astern bells are somnecessary to prevent fires from blowing back.

These maneuvers are not applicable to every fire situation. However, the basic principles quently applied during operations on disabled or immobilized ships.

The basic maneuvers are shown in Figure 5-3, where a ship is depicted originally steaming oncourse of 270 degrees true at a speed of 20 knots with wind from northeast at 20 knots.

5-3.2 Casualty Drifting. Battle damage that causes major fires may also immobilize propuand ship control systems. As a result of power loss, the ship loses headway and beginsunder prevailing weather. The exact angle and wind aspect ratio that any drifting ship assugoverned by several factors, including:

• Sail area and distribution.

• Resistance offered by immersed hull area in terms of form and amount and arrment of appendages.

• Additional underwater resistance or drag created by underwater damage.

• Trim and list, particularly where one or the other is extreme.

• Relative angle between direction of wind and waves; the greater angles betweenand wave directions result in greater angles of drift.

The relationship between these factors is complex and beyond the scope of this manual. Hthe drift characteristics of any disabled, burning ship are important factors for marine firefigand ocean rescue towage operations.

Drift aspect of a ship may hamper firefighting operations because:

• The drifting ship takes a drift angle that permits the resultant wind to fan fires towpreviously undamaged areas of the ship.

• The resultant wind drives flames, heat and combustion products into areas wherhamper fire containment and control operations.

• The ship may lie beam to the seas and roll heavily, making embarkation of firefigpersonnel and equipment by boat or helicopter extremely difficult.

• The ship may be partially surrounded by large areas of oil burning on the sea sur

These difficulties may be present singly or in various combinations. Any one threatens the sability of a burning ship. Salvors must quickly establish some degree of control ovecasualty’s heading as part of rendering firefighting services.

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ppositequatortation.

tablish

Figure 5-3. Basic Evasive Maneuvers.

Typical drift aspects for high-freeboard ships are shown in Figures 5-4A and 5-4B. Differences indrift direction and aspect between northern and southern hemispheres result from the odirection of the Coriolos effect in the two hemispheres. The Coriolos effect is zero at the eand increases with increasing latitude. Drift headings are shown to identify casualty orienDepending on initial heading, the reciprocal heading is equally probable.

Salvors assisting a disabled drifting casualty generally have two options available to esheading control on a casualty. They can:

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Figure 5-4A. Typical Drift Aspects of High-Freeboard Ships in Wind Force Beaufort 9.

Figure 5-4B. Typical Drift Aspects of High-Freeboard Ships in Wind Force Beaufort 9.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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excel-

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d fire-

• Take the casualty under tow with a salvage ship or a platform of opportunity. action enables the casualty to be removed from immediate dangers of oil burnisea surface. Towing also allows firefighters to put the casualty on an optimum herelative to prevailing wind direction.

• Anchor the casualty, if water depths are suitable for anchoring and the casuanchored heading does not create a relative wind that hampers firefighting operaParagraph 5-4.1 addresses fighting fire on anchored ships.

The U.S. Navy Towing Manual, SL740-AA-MAN-010, describes Navy towing practices and toing components. Section 4-10 of that manual addresses “Tow and be Towed” practices relemergency tows where a combatant ship assists a disabled Navy or NATO ship. In terms otowing practice, there is some difference in the towing rig of a U.S. Navy ocean tug or saship making a hawser tow in ocean rescue circumstances and making a ship-control tow ffighting.

Under certain conditions, salvors may find that a burning, drifting casualty takes up a beamnear beam-on drift heading that does not aggravate fires. In such cases, it is usually prefeallow the casualty to drift slowly to leeward, provided sufficient searoom exists and there anavigational or tactical reasons to prevent it. An assisting salvage ship or ocean tug can mon the casualty’s windward side for firefighting. Chapter 6 discusses positioning and handling salvage ships and tugs assisting or working close alongside battle-damaged casualties.

Where only one salvage ship or large tug is deployed for firefighting assistance to disabledcombatants, alongside towing may be a practical means to control casualty heading while ffires. Paragraph 3-5.1(c), “Single Tug, Single Tow,” of the U.S. Navy Towing Manual, SL-740-AA-MAN-010, does not recommend towing alongside for open ocean because of motion betug and tow in a seaway. However, if weather, sea and swell are suitable, twin-screwed salvships may secure alongside the casualty and can provide heading control with a modifieding-on-the-hip” rig. Under the special circumstances that exist when one salvage ship is asand providing firefighting services to a disabled small combatant, alongside towing offers lent control if:

• Sea, swell and weather conditions are suitable for the salvage ship to lie safely side the disabled ship, without damage to either ship.

• Suitable high-energy absorption fenders are deployed and heavy synthetic mhawsers, doubled-up as appropriate, are rigged from the salvage ship.

• The salvage ship does not intend to “tow” the casualty and utilizes her power apower to provide only heading or relative wind control of casualty.

• The assisting salvage ship secures a position that permits both ship control anfighting.

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com-ed byG-51oderate

ogistica large

d fire-ualtyboardstrainsis posi-hips ises, theree awayudder

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Alongside towing in the context of this paragraph does not contemplate any attempt to make dis-tance with the casualty. With low power settings and good seamanship, a salvage ship’smanding officer can “wind” a casualty to port or starboard in small increments as requirfirefighting ship control operations. The method is applicable to combatant ships up to DDClass and could be used with reasonable prospects of success for CG Class ships in mwinds. The method would not give any heading control on large deep-draft combatants, lships or amphibious ships. It would not be appropriate for a single salvage ship assisting disabled casualty that had major petroleum-fed fires burning out of control. Figure 5-5 shows aT-ATF-166 Class fleet tug secured on the hip to a disabled casualty for heading control anfighting operations. By adjusting lines so the bow is allowed to move further from the casthan the stern and turning away from the casualty with slight rudder (and/or running the inscrew slightly faster), the after quarter is brought hard against the casualty, while the bow against the head line. Hydrodynamic pressure against the tug’s inboard side helps hold thtion. Heavy contact is limited to a short length at the quarter. Separation at bow and midsincreased, lessening the chance and severity of contact. Because there is tension on all linis less surging and boarding from the fantail is safer because the fantail is less able to movfrom the casualty. Once the position is attained, it is possible to relax the rudder angle. Rangle and engine orders can be balanced against the drag of the casualty to maintain heading.

5-3.3 Ship Control Methods for Tugs Handling Large Casualties. A large, immobilized,burning casualty, particularly an AOE or other large oil-carrying ship class, presents salvagfighters with particular difficulties in ship control and firefighting. Navy salvage firefightexperience with these problems in World War II has been validated by numerous major shon missile hit commercial oil carriers during the Persian Gulf tanker war. Typical firefightingship control difficulties created when a large oil-carrying ship is struck by a weapon and imlized and on fire are:

• A liquid hydrocarbon fire that burns with severe intensity and usually affects tanksspaces adjacent to the initial blast area.

• Breached tanks leak or spill oil cargo or fuel into other spaces or the sea and tignites. As a result, fires move to other compartments and burning oil may partiallyround the tanker.

• A loaded tanker drifts slowly downwind, with internal and spilling fires in her immeate vicinity.

• Severe radiant heat is generated, particularly when light oil products are the prfuel.

• The combination of internal and external fires increases the probability of serioustrength loss on the casualty.

• The fuel bed is, to some extent, self-sustaining because oil leakage rates increcompartmentation degrades with time.

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anding isre thegside a

ngesside and theby con-sualty

Figure 5-5. Casualty Secured on Hip for Heading Control During Firefighting Operations.

5-3.3.1 Taking the Casualty in Tow. Under these circumstances, assisting salvage shipsfirefighters cannot give effective assistance until positive control over the casualty’s headestablished. Experience has shown that fighting oil-fed fires on large ships drifting befowind is rarely successful. It is a very dangerous practice to place one salvage vessel alondrifting casualty that is spilling burning oil. Small wind shifts and comparatively minor chain sea state can alter drift patterns of spilled burning oil. An assisting ship moored alongdrifting casualty may not see local weather changes until it is too late and flames surrouassisting ship. Single assisting salvage ship or tug tactics that attempt to combat this risk ducting standoff cooling and firefighting seldom succeed. Changes in wind direction or ca

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inment

g and

uitable

.11 and

or tak-s arete.

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heading rearrange fire fronts and usually defeat most of the salvors’ cooling and contaefforts.

The most important and critical first stage of salvage firefighting services to a badly burninimmobilized oil carrier is to take the ship under tow to:

• Move the casualty away from burning surface oil fires in its immediate vicinity.

• Bring casualty head either stern or beam on to wind as appropriate to establish srelative cross winds at the fire fronts.

Procedures for taking the casualty under tow are described in Paragraphs 4.10 through 4Appendix K of the U.S. Navy Towing Manual, SL-740-AA-MAN-010.

Figure 5-6 shows the relative casualty and towing ship positions and sequence of events fing a large, disabled, burning oil carrier in tow for two generalized drift patterns. The figurerepresentative only. Drift patterns and casualty aspects vary with wind velocity and sea sta

5-3.3.2 The Towing Rig. Because taking the casualty in tow is time-critical and the presencburning surface oil endangers the salvage ship, a conventional towing rig connection may bunwise and impractical. The primary purpose of towing the casualty is to move it awayburning oil and establish a relative wind flow to limit fire spread. Thus, optimum towing rig nections at the casualty’s bow or stern might consist of:

• A 2- or 2-1/4-inch wire rope towing pendant led inboard through the casuabullnose chock and secured on two or three sets of bitts.

• The salvage ship’s own main towing wire shackled into the heavy wire pendant.

This towing connection does not have a high degree of resistance to chafe and wouldacceptable for ocean rescue or point-to-point towage of the casualty. However, when fightion an oil-carrying ship with burning cargo, speed is the most important element in conntows.

Figure 5-7 shows two emergency towing connections that have been frequently used by cocial salvors to take large burning tankers in tow. A short length of chain between a long (1300-foot) pendant connected to the tow and the main tow wire makes it possible to discquickly at sea by bringing the chain on deck, holding it with a quick-release-type (pelican chain stopper, slacking and disconnecting the tow wire and releasing the pendant by trippchain stopper.

As the directional control tug may be working in close proximity to burning surface oil, self-tection and drenching spray curtains should be rigged. A close watch must be kept on thcrew connecting or supervising connection of the towing gear on board the casualty. A spjet monitor should be manned at all times to set up a protective curtain around or behindworking on a casualty during tow rigging. Both the tug’s and boarding crew’s approach t

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ning oil

e and

ipe opti-ay onr mer-rcome.

Figure 5-6. Moving Burning, Disabled Tanker to Optimum Heading.

casualty must be carefully assessed to ensure that an “escape route” is open if drifting, burendangers the towing ship or her personnel. When available, helicopter assistance to VERTREPunderslung towing connection components and the boarding party may save valuable timreduce dangers.

5-3.3.3 Getting the Tow Underway. After completing the towing connection, the assisting shtows the casualty clear of burning surface oil and turns her onto the heading that gives thmum relative wind. Power must be applied slowly and in progressive increments that put wthe casualty gradually. Commanding officers should be aware that large, loaded auxiliary ochant oil carriers have high displacement tonnages and correspondingly high inertia to ove

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ve fullns andr with fully

loadedot par-e tow

hip and

Figure 5-7. Emergency Towing Connections Suitable for Rigging on Disabled Burning Casualties.

T-AO-105 Class oilers have a full load displacement of 35,000 tons, AOE-1 Class ships haload displacement of 53,500 tons. By comparison, BB-61 Class ships displace 59,000 toCV/CVN displacements vary from 81,000 to 91,000 tons. A medium-sized merchant tankea cargo capacity of 100,000 tons displaces somewhere in the vicinity of 115,000 tons inladen condition and very large crude carriers (VLCCs) average 250,000 to 275,000 tons displacement. Thus, overcoming the casualty’s inertia and getting the tow under way are nticularly easy and should not be hurried. Speed in connecting the tow is vital, but getting thunderway and changing its heading cannot be rushed and requires skilled seamanspatience on board the towing ship.

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m-gs. One duty.y, posi-hips,ams ofrl ser-nough

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5-3.3.4 Assisting Ship Tactics. Large fires of the magnitude and intensity of those in battle-daaged oilers and tankers are most successfully fought by three assisting salvage ships or tuship usually the least capable firefighting craft is assigned to towage and ship controlWeather permitting, the other two salvage ships or tugs moor on each side of the casualttioning themselves forward and to windward of the main fire fronts. These two firefighting saugmented with portable fire pumps where appropriate, maintain continuous monitor strecooling and minor fire control water on the casualty’s deck. Figure 5-8 shows a large oiler undetow with two firefighting salvage vessels alongside providing cooling and boundary controvices. No attempt is made to extinguish major fuel-fed fires until steel surfaces are cooled eto ensure that an all-out foam attack can be successful. Time spent cooling is not wasted it allows additional foam stocks to be brought on site to stockpile enough for extinguishing otions. The additional foam and cooling requirements can be demonstrated by reexamining.ple 3-4.

The total foam concentrate requirement was calculated to be 14,760 gallons. If an attendin50 Class ship and an attending T-ATF-166 Class ship have only their normal allowance oconcentrate on board (3,600 + 3,400 = 7,000 gallons), there is an insufficient amount oavailable to mount a successful fire extinguishing operation. Because of the fuel beds invothe example calculation and the necessity for major boundary cooling, shortfall in foam qudoes not present an immediate threat to the casualty’s survival. As stated earlier, comexperience dealing with large crude oil fires during the Persian Gulf tanker war indicatecooling periods of between four and six days were not unusual. Given that light oil fires gemassive radiant heat, a cooling period of three to four days would not be unusual for theClass ship fire described in the example.

The history of marine firefighting has many examples of unsuccessful foam attacks on quately prepared and pre-cooled casualties. Ships loaded with low flash point oil cargohave burned for more than a few hours must be properly cooled before foam attacks can cessful. It is normal firefighting practice to bring forward all the foam concentrate required dthe cooling down period.

See paragraph 3-2.5.9 dealing with tank boil over fires and BLEVEs.

5-4 FIREFIGHTING ON ANCHORED OR BEACHED SHIPS

Battle damage may ignite fires aboard ships that are anchored or deliberately beached astheir amphibious assault or military support missions. In other cases, casualty crews migherately anchor a disabled ship to prevent it from being driven ashore by sea or wind actionvors sometimes have to beach burning ships when deficiencies in stability, reserve buoyaboth dictate that beaching is the only option available to prevent a casualty from capsizsinking. Ships may also be impaled on rocks or other fixed objects or structures that limit ment of the burning casualty. One common condition that occurs in these various scenarlimiting of salvage firefighters’ ability to control or alter environmental effects on burning casties. Wind and other environmental forces dictate much of salvage firefighting strategy. Straanchored or impaled burning casualties can impose on salvage firefighters some of the distages that shore-based firefighters work under. Because control over a burning casualty’s h

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of they rela-

Figure 5-8. Optimum Configuration for Fighting Fires on Large Oil Carrier.

and aspect relative to wind is basic marine firefighting strategy, this section examines somemore common difficulties created by a casualty in a position that cannot be adjusted freeltive to prevailing weather.

Fires aboard ships berthed alongside fixed piers or military installations are discussed inPara-graph 5-5 as a separate aspect of battle damage firefighting.

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5-4.1 Firefighting on Anchored Casualties. Anchored casualties are affected by three princienvironmental phenomena:

• Wind direction and force.

• Sea and swell.

• Currents—tidal or drift.

The effect that each has on an anchored ship is generally governed by:

• Relationship of the exposed sail area to the submerged underwater body of the s

• Wind strength relative to current velocity and duration of flow of tidal currents.

• Height and direction of the prevailing sea and ground swell in the anchorage aremay cause the ship to lie to sea and swell.

• Depth of water in anchorage area in relation to the draft of the casualty. Deep draative to water depth leads to strong current effects.

Salvors fighting fires on a casualty burning at anchor or planning to bring a burning ship to afor firefighting, should evaluate all the above conditions when developing their firefighting segies. Typical difficulties encountered include:

• Current effects being generally greater than those of the wind, resulting in caslying head—or stern—to current with a disadvantageous wind across or dowdecks.

• Anchored casualties swinging to regular changes in current direction that reverseeffects complicating boundary control, heat and fume dispersion and firefighefforts.

• Casualties responding to wind or current influences and lying beam-on or nearly bon to sea or ground swell. Rolling of the casualty creates difficulties in laying dfoam, aggravates sloshing and free surface water effects and makes it hard for firers to maintain footing.

• Ships at anchor in moderate seas or wind often yaw through 60 to 90 degrees oing, even if the winds and seas remain constant. The constant change of headintive to wind direction may cause the fire to spread in several directions along a front and may fan fire and smoke into ventilation intakes, assisting ships or firefighThe ship may roll violently during part of the yaw cycle. Yaw characteristics depenship form.

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ing

caused

e, eitherh cases,

f cur-

craftible to strong

ying flow

inst theattend-tug offantail

se herurrents

ing.or fire-

ay beTM,oni-boats boatsoats’ortants fromlliances

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Figure 5-9 shows how an anchored ship, initially well-positioned head-to-wind for firefightpurposes, can be swung onto a disadvantageous heading by a current change.

Figure 5-10 shows the effects of an approximate 180-degree change in casualty heading by a change from a flooding to an ebbing current.

Under some circumstances, salvors cannot remove a burning casualty from her anchoragbecause of lack of salvage and towing assets or because of the tactical situation. In sucfires must be fought on board the anchored ship. Salvors must keep a very close seaman’s eye onboth wind and current changes. If firefighting operations are hindered by wind as a result orent changes, salvors may:

• Attempt to hold or tow the casualty with harbor tugs, towboats or smaller landingonto a better heading. In strong currents, this option may be dangerous or impossexecute. There is also the risk that forcing a casualty to a broad angle against acurrent may cause her anchor to break out.

• Reposition firefighting ships to windward or more appropriate positions, deplofirefighting personnel to new areas or onto new lines of attack as dictated by windand fire direction.

• Laying out heavy stay or beach gear anchors and tensioning those anchors agacasualty to align onto an optimum heading. Such anchors may be planted by an ing salvage ship or tug, but tensioning can be performed by any medium harbor opportunity. Heading can also be adjusted by tensioning a hawser led from the to the anchor chain.

Where the casualty can be freed from her anchorage, by either recovering or cutting looanchors, beaching that casualty may be a practical option if constant opposing wind and ccreate a difficult firefighting situation. Certain firefighting limitations may apply in beachThese limitations should be reviewed before the final decision to beach a casualty solely ffighting convenience.

In developed ports, military, harbor authority or commercial harbor tugs and fire boats mavailable to assist firefighting efforts. Navy, Coast Guard and Army harbor tugs (YTB, YWYTM, WTGB, ST) are typically equipped with a 500- to 750-gpm fire pump; one or two mtors; and one or two offship, four-valve (2-1/2-inch) manifolds. Some Coast Guard patrol are also equipped with monitors and offship manifolds. Some naval stations maintain fireconverted from large landing craft (LCM) or work boats. Commercial and municipal fire bpump capacities typically range from 5,000 to 17,000 gpm with several monitors. It is impto establish an effective command and control organization to coordinate the efforts of unitseveral organizations. In general, professional firefighters are used to establishing loose aon short order and will readily place themselves, as a unit, under the command of the firefightingunit first on the scene—the “first-in” unit. However, most firefighting officers are reluctanplace their personnel directly under the command of other units, because of differences in t

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5-25

Figure 5-9. Change in Current Adversely Changes Heading of an Anchored Casualty.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

munica-VHF,uen-

it to cir-

nations,ult land-

because

reate

Figure 5-10. Effects of Major Alteration of Current on Fire Front Direction.

and standard procedures and their sense of responsibility for their personnel's safety. Comtion between different firefighting agencies is best conducted via marine bridge-to-bridge as dedicated firefighting circuits among various agencies will most likely use different freqcies. It may be necessary to assign additional radio operators to relay messages from circucuit.

5-4.2 Firefighting on Beached Ships. Experience in World War II and other conflicts has showthat when tank- and heavy-vehicle-carrying ships are beached during amphibious opersome of them sustain fire-causing battle damage. Fires aboard deliberately beached assaing ships present salvors with a number of problems, including:

• Large salvage ships and tugs may not be able to get alongside the beached ship of the available depth of water.

• Long, comparatively high vehicle decks that may be partially open tend to cnatural fire draft tunnels, resulting in intense fire and heat.

5-26

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War II.M(4)scially sup-nitors

y andlthougholing,

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• Wheeled or tracked vehicles, combat-loaded with ammunition and fuel, may prtheir own special hazards and fire loadings when stowed on a damaged vehicle d

• Salvage firefighting pumps, special equipment and firefighters may have tdeployed by and from landing craft or work boats, causing delayed response.

Specialized landing craft salvage groups were part of area salvage groups during World The LCS groups carried firefighting equipment aboard their dedicated salvage version LCand LCIs. During the Vietnam conflict, Harbor Clearance Unit One operated LCM(6)s spemodified as Combat Salvage Boats and outfitted with firefighting equipment. Army logisticsport vessels (LSV) and LCU 2000 Class landing craft are currently equipped with fire moand medium- to high-capacity pumps.

Firefighting on beached amphibious ships initially may be secondary to evacuating ArmMarine infantry or support personnel from the casualty. Salvage ships and ocean tugs, anot necessarily able to get alongside the burning ship properly, may provide valuable cowater barrier and heat deterrent water with their installed monitors during evacuation operPortable salvage fire pump units in LCM/LCU and similar small craft can supply fire controfirefighting services with offship firefighting teams.

The feasibility of refloating the burning ship should always be investigated. When beacspace is limited and the burning ship obstructs or occupies valuable areas, refloating may essary. Refloating in conjunction with increased ship control may be the only reasonable poity of extinguishing fires and saving the ship. Rapid evaluation of firefighting options is esse

5-4.3 Deliberate Beaching of a Battle-damaged Ship. A deliberately beached ship set afire asresult of battle damage is in a different category from a ship beached as part of the salvageBeaching a burning ship always includes plans for effective firefighting services after the beach-ing; accordingly, firefighting considerations are major factors in beaching planning.

When loss of stability, loss of reserve buoyancy or combinations of both threaten a burningalty's survival, salvors usually decide to beach the ship. Potential beaching areas shoassessed for:

• Proximity to casualty’s present position—the closer the better.

• Freedom from rocks, beach obstructions and industrial or military facilities.

• Gently shelving beach with a sand, clay or mud bottom, without longshore curren

• Freedom from heavy surf.

• Shelter from prevailing seasonal weather.

Ships should be beached with their deepest draft end, either bow or stern, to seaward. Bbeaching is preferable but is not always practical if the casualty is heavily damaged forwa

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ficiente casu-bb tide,

tidalr the

long-

to pre-asualtyessivearge-ty to pre-falling

y situa- thoseproperusednt and did

cargo

een

atingeb-

trimmed by the head. Ideally, the casualty's seaward end should touch bottom first. Efbeaching may require the salvage ship or attending ocean tug to push or tow on the hip if thalty is powerless. In planned beachings, the casualty usually is scheduled to beach on an eshortly before low water. This timing allows the ship to settle gently on the seafloor whilerise assists in refloating. However, when firefighting, salvors may not have time to wait fooptimum tidal phase.

Any beaching ground should have sufficient depth for at least one firefighting ship to lie aside the beached casualty.

After beaching, stay or beach gear anchors and cables should be laid out from the casualtyvent broaching and the ship should be ballasted, if possible. Excessive movement of the cis not usually a problem during the immediate post-beaching phase, when weight of excflood and firefighting water tend to keep the casualty very firmly on the bottom. Before any lscale dewatering commences, beach gear should be rigged or tugs secured to the casualvent broaching or uncontrolled refloating. In general, dewatering should commence on a tide if practical. The U.S Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010)describes ship debeaching operations in detail.

5-5 FIREFIGHTING ON MOORED SHIPS

Historically, fires aboard ships moored to piers and wharfs caused difficult and unnecessartions to arise between those responsible for the stability and survivability of ships andattempting to extinguish fires. Problems occur because firefighting tactics have not taken account of deterioration in buoyancy and stability caused by firefighting. Attention has focon firefighting, to the exclusion of measures to reduce or prevent free surface developmestability loss due to flooding from firefighting water. In many instances, incorrect firefightingnot take account of:

• Free surface prevention and reduction of entrapped water.

• Possible flooding from external openings such as side doors, portlights and doors.

• Boundary establishment and fire confinement procedures.

• Suitable methods and timely operation of dewatering systems.

• The possibility that the best firefighting tactic was to let the fire burn itself out betwconfinement boundaries.

A well-known case of moored ship fire that lead to capsizing and sinking and a major reflotask was that of USS LAFAYETTE (ex-NORMANDIE) that sank at Pier 88, New York on Fruary 9, 1942.

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ng sal-

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ld betrongom thea wheren over-knownharf orduringfire dueing theersidef porthters's mayaluation

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Under combat conditions, moored ships that sustain battle damage and catch fire requirivage firefighting assistance are:

• Merchant ships trapped in port.

• Military amphibious support or supply ships unloading supplies and equipment toport operations.

In either case, ship fires usually develop rapidly with the added risk that vital berths coublocked or destroyed if firefighting operations are only partially successful. There is a very scase to be made under these circumstances for immediate removal of the burning ship frpier or wharf. The ship should be towed to a beaching ground or an isolated anchorage aresalvage firefighters can deal with fire control and extinguishment unhampered by concerpossible blockage of berth or harbor entrance channels. There have been several wellcases of merchant and military ships catching fire and causing extensive damage to wentire harbor installations as a result of poor command decisions or complete inaction early stages of ship fire. Where a ship moored in a harbor of strategic importance catches to battle damage or other causes, Navy salvage ships and firefighters may find that gettburning vessel away from the dock or out of harbor is far more important than an all-out pifirefighting operation. Such decisions are made for the safety and overall continuation oactivities and reflect long-term strategic thought. It may go against Navy salvage firefiginstincts and training to drag a burning ship away from a wharf; however, circumstancearise that necessitate Navy salvors themselves suggesting such a course of action after evof the relative importance of a strategic berth and one burning ship that may block that ber

5-29

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shipmy. Manyl ships

pmentust be

assist-

t maxi-ures in

ciples

ment.

aged

iated

portu-

alty.

earlynd tac-

. Flexi-e of

CHAPTER 6

SALVAGE SHIP FIREFIGHTING TACTICS

6-1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, salvage ship describes any U.S. Navy salvage or ocean towing ship with offfirefighting equipment; it applies to ARS-38, ATS-1, ARS-50, ATF-76, T-ATF 166 and ArLT-128 Class ships, as well as commercial salvage ships and tugs with similar capabilitiesof the tactics described also apply to less-capable Navy, Army, Coast Guard or commerciawhen used as platforms of opportunity.

Salvage ships and rescue tugs carry fire monitors and a large offship firefighting equiinventory to assist battle-damaged casualties. The employment of firefighting equipment mcoordinated with ship maneuvering and the weather. A successful refloating requires preparationof equipment, skilled maneuvering and correct deployment of men and materials from the ing salvage ship in a logical series of actions; a successful firefighting operation must involve thesame aspects. Firefighting preparations, equipment deployment and ship maneuvering thamizes safety and optimize firefighting effectiveness should be standard operational procedsalvage ship offship firefighting tactics.

This chapter discusses offship firefighting preparations and some of the maneuvering printhat apply to the offship firefighting missions of salvage ships relative to:

• Preparation and deployment of own-ship and embarked salvage firefighting equip

• Optimum approach and working positions for salvage ships assisting battle-damships.

• Self-protection of salvage ships from fire and drifting burning oil hazards assocwith spilling fires.

• Use of fire monitors and equipment on board salvage ships and platforms of opnity.

• Coordination between salvage ships and firefighters deployed on board the casu

• Transfers of equipment between salvage ships and the casualty.

Offship firefighting requires rapid response and correctly deployed equipment during thephases of the emergency. No two marine firefighting operations are ever exactly the same atics that worked well on one job may be inappropriate or even dangerous on the next onebility of approach, combined with intelligent evaluation of the fire situation and knowledg

6-1

S0300-A6-MAN-030

f sal-essary

pport,efight- high-e con-bles orwhere

pportu-lines.le fire-

water/ stricken

y are, an

s thesing and

quip-alvageup, the

gethat

e casu- most

to ver-

ps.p fire-

one's ship’s limitations are critical to successful offship firefighting. Adequate preparation ovage ships for firefighting is an essential part of protecting them and their crews from unnecexposure to hazards.

Most U.S. Navy ships can also provide some external firefighting assistance, logistic sutowing assistance and berthing services for firefighters. A salvage ship or tug can direct firing water and/or AFFF streams to locations inaccessible by the stricken ship’s force. Thevolume flow of the salvage ship’s monitors can be directed against fires too intense to btrolled by handlines or against external bulkheads to cool hot spots and protect flammaexplosives. Foam blankets can be laid more quickly with monitors than with handlines, fires are directly accessible to monitor streams.

Subject to sea and weather conditions and her maneuvering characteristics, a platform of onity, auxiliary or combatant, may be able to direct water at inaccessible locations with handA salvage team embarked on that platform can increase water flow rates by using portabfighting modules with monitors.

Assisting ships should be positioned with due regard for weather and maneuverability andfoam streams directed as specified by an embarked salvage officer or as requested by theship.

6-2 PREPARATION AND TESTING OF FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT

All equipment required for offship firefighting must be staged and ready for operation before thesalvage ship arrives at the casualty. Because machinery and human nature are what theitem of equipment that functioned perfectly well during its last routine test may not work properlywhen it is deployed against a fire. Discovering a malfunction in vital firefighting equipment asalvage ship makes her final approach to a battle-damaged casualty can be both embarraspotentially very dangerous. All firefighting salvage ships should have a pre-arrival equipment testroutine that mandates preparing, deploying and physically testing all offship firefighting ement during passage to the casualty and as part of their offship firefighting bill. When the sship is in company with the battle-damaged casualty, as in a convoy or amphibious task groequipment tests may have to be completed very quickly.

6-2.1 The Pre-arrival Equipment Test. The pre-arrival equipment test is part of the salvaship's offship firefighting bill and ensures that all equipment is functioning correctly or defects or damage to equipment are known to the commanding officer before arrival at thalty. Salvage ships are small enough for OODs and the commanding officer to observemajor equipment functional tests from the bridge, but a check-off list should be completed ify that all equipment has been exercised or prepared.

Pre-arrival equipment tests should include:

• Test-operating, individually and in groups, all shipboard main firefighting pumPumps should be started one at a time and put on line to a monitor or the offshifighting manifold.

6-2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

pro-ation.

tank checkents. Theon the fire-asu-

hasl

me-ady for

g theirand-. If aparty

boardtingof pre-

ablyLarge,oads

n or on the

and

iscel-

• Test-operating all permanently mounted monitors with both solid stream and fogjection from each water source. Monitors should be checked for rotation and elev

• Briefly test-operating the foam system on one monitor. The bulk foam storageshould be sounded and the exact quantity of bulk foam on board logged on thelist. All five-gallon and 55-gallon drums of foam should be inventoried (and contverified) and a number of ready-use drums brought on deck for immediate servicequantity of foam concentrate available in drummed containers should be entered checklist. Embarked skid or cell tanks loaded with foam concentrate for portablefighting pump units should be fitted with slings for immediate deployment to the calty.

• Breaking out, rigging and testing portable monitors. If it is known that the casualtylost power and requires towing, portable monitors should not be set up on the fantaicaprail.

• Attaching hoses to offship firefighting manifolds and faking them out ready for imdiate operation. Hoses should be connected to designated outlets and made up reinstant use in the ship's side cooling and washdown positions.

• Mustering the rescue and assistance (R&A) party and breaking out and preparinequipment for deployment. Deployment of the R&A party is subject to the comming officer’s evaluation of the firefighting services required on board the casualtySART is embarked on the salvage ship, it is possible that elements of the R&A may deploy to reinforce or assist SART personnel. Changing fire situations on the casualty may require R&A party deployment midway through offship firefighoperations. For these reasons, an R&A party muster is an essential element arrival checks.

• Testing specialized, portable firefighting equipment. As the salvage ship is probsteaming at flank speed, it is neither wise nor practical to deploy suction hoses. diesel, salvage firefighting pump and monitor units may be test-run at very light ltaking suction from offship firefighting or tunneling manifolds.

• Preparing to make a towing connection immediately upon arrival when it is knowsuspected that the casualty has lost power. Equipment that should be availabletowing deck includes:

(1) Main tow wire with appropriate shackles rigged aft close to the caprail,

(2) A suitable long-wire towing pendant made ready in the vicinity of the caprail,

(3) Messenger lines and suitable wire messengers available on the towing deck

(4) Any other equipment, such as pelican hooks, joining shackles, tool kits and mlaneous hardware.

6-3

S0300-A6-MAN-030

yards,ers areualty.

oat’sloaded may.

n or made

fight-

ipment

s and

imeligence basiccasualtyage and

a anding the vari-

tioned in

shoulds from valu-

n intel-efight- good

• Rigging the salvage ship’s fenders inboard with all necessary fender lines and lanetc., connected. Where it is necessary to go alongside the casualty, the fendready for immediate launching as the salvage ship slows or heaves to off the cas

• Readying the workboat for immediate launching on arrival at the casualty. The bcrew should be advised of what personnel, equipment and materials are to be into the boat. In some instances, portable fire pump and fire pump monitor unitshave to be loaded into the workboat after the salvage ship arrives off the casualty

• Connecting slings, nets and other lifting and rigging gear equipment that is knowexpected to be required immediately on the casualty. Equipment transfers may beby helicopter or workboat.

• Checking that personal protection equipment, including breathing apparatus, fireing clothing, boots and radios, is ready for immediate service.

A SART embarked in a salvage ship has its own equipment and personal protection equchecks to make during transit to the casualty or before helicopter embarkation.

The offship firefighting bill should assign sufficient personnel so that the equipment testpreparations should not take longer than one hour to accomplish in reasonable weather.

6-2.2 Strategy Formulation. The period in which pre-arrival checks are made is usually a twhen SITREPs on the casualty’s condition are received. The SITREPs and general intelobtained from radio traffic and other ships enables the commanding officer to formulate acasualty assistance strategy. The strategy will be based upon the prevailing weather at the and the capabilities of the salvage ship and her equipment, balanced against known damthe extent of fire reported by the casualty.

Offship firefighting, like ocean rescue towing, is conducted within the restraints set by sewind conditions and the physical status of the casualty. Although a basic strategy for assistcasualty is decided by the commanding officer, implementing tactics are subject to manyables. Not all of these variables are apparent to those on the casualty and may not be menSITREPs.

Where a SART has been deployed to the casualty, the salvage ship’s commanding officerreceive the salvors’ assessments of likely firefighting and battle damage control operationthe SART leader. SART SITREPs can facilitate commanding officer’s preparations, savingable time and effort on the salvage ship.

6-3 APPROACH AND POSITIONING MANEUVERS

Selecting the best position for a salvage ship to lie alongside a burning casualty requires aligent evaluation of the relative advantages and disadvantages of any proposed offship firing position. Approaching and mooring a salvage ship alongside the casualty calls for

6-4

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ing to an

prox-

o the

ke and

f pro-

ficer from all fire,n and

ide thed final

d

lling of

ssist-er mostewayscted forting in

sultedt theres con-sing herin fire- allow

seamanship and shiphandling. There are several aspects to be evaluated before committoffship firefighting position, including:

• Drift, relative motion and aspect of the casualty to the prevailing wind and sea.

• Maneuvering characteristics of the salvage ship and her ability to maintain closeimity to the casualty.

• General preference of salvage firefighting to take a windward position relative tmain fire front.

• Assessment of and protection from hazards created by radiant heat, flames, smoother products of combustion.

• Course, speed and intentions of a burning casualty that retains effective control opulsion and steering and requires standoff firefighting.

Before committing his ship to a final course of firefighting action, the commanding ofshould, where circumstances permit, steam around the casualty and observe the situationsides. A visual examination of the casualty, while noting drafts, trim, list and extent ofenables a salvage ship’s commanding officer to make a final decision about what positiofirefighting method offers the best chance of success. If the salvage ship is going alongscasualty, this is the time when fenders are launched, self-protection sprays activated anbriefings are given to offship firefighting team and R&A party leaders.

6-3.1 Drift and Relative Movement of the Casualty. The relationship between drift angle anrelative winds across the fire front on a casualty were discussed in Paragraph 5-3; also addressedwas the importance of maintaining casualty heading to ensure that wind assists in controfires rather than spreading or aggravating fires.

Drift angle and relative movement of a drifting casualty is also important in the context of aing salvage ships approaching the casualty to go alongside or to connect towing gear. Undsea and wind conditions, the drift of any ship has two components: the downwind or siddrift and the headway or sternway. Headway or headreaching cannot be accurately predievery type and class of ship, but it should not be ignored when a salvage ship is firefighclose proximity to a casualty.

Paragraph 4-8.2, “Approaching the Drifting Tow,” of the U.S. Navy Towing Manual, SL 740-AA-MAN-010, contains information on salvage and towing ship maneuvers and should be confor a more extensive discussion of this subject. However, it is important to appreciate thaare differences in terms of overall time in close proximity to casualty between salvage shipnecting towing gear and salvage ships engaged in firefighting. The salvage ship that is pastowing gear may be close to the casualty for only a few minutes. A salvage ship engaged fighting may be working very close in to a casualty for many hours; circumstances may notthe salvage ship to moor alongside.

6-5

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ce onhip on

alvage

.

f the

sacteris- to lie. This

ding a

d pro-

n onenwind

t bowrelative

andatch

, lying

gap

t-ter syn-istance

The casualty’s attitude, particularly trim, list and projecting hull damage, have some influendrift direction and rate. It is not good practice for a salvage ship to go alongside a listing sthe low side, unless:

• The casualty’s list is minor and does not appear to present any hazard to the sship.

• The casualty is listing to windward—the more desirable side for a firefighting ship

• Hull damage or other projections make it impractical to moor on the high side ocasualty.

6-3.2 Maneuvering Characteristics of the Salvage Ship. When it is impractical or dangeroufor a salvage ship to go alongside a drifting casualty, the salvage ship’s maneuvering chartics are important in how a fire is fought. Almost all large ocean tug and salvage ships tendwith their sterns either close to or into the wind when drifting in a moderate to strong breezecharacteristic is caused by the unbalanced profile:

• Most of the superstructure and forecastle are located forward of amidships, provicomparatively large sail area forward.

• Salvage ships generally have deeper drafts aft than forward and their rudders anpellers have considerable hydrodynamic drag when stopped.

Lying stern to the wind can be advantageous in some standoff firefighting operations whesalvage ship is attending a drifting casualty. The salvage ship can match the casualty’s dowdrift rate with very easy engine or propeller pitch movements, while keeping herself almoson to the casualty. If the casualty’s drift angle alters or the salvage ship gets too close, the gap between casualty and salvage ship can be opened with an astern bell.

Lying stern to the wind downwind or to leeward of a drifting casualty can be equally validapplicable. Although it would be unusual for a salvage ship’s drift rate and direction to mexactly the particular drift of a casualty, the same basic principles apply. The salvage shipalmost stern to wind, can:

• Use stern bells or reverse pitch to back close to the casualty for firefighting.

• Use ahead bells or pitch to move slightly downwind of the casualty if the desiredcloses too much.

These maneuvers are illustrated in Figure 6-1. When lying in the positions designated by the leters A and B, it may also be possible for the salvage ship to pass up a short, large-diamethetic line from one of her quarter fairleads. The salvage ship can then maintain an exact dfrom the casualty, changing her relative heading with either propellers or her bow thruster.

6-6

S0300-A6-MAN-030

per- make

he sal-ring can

fting

ts.

attle-

Figure 6-1. Salvage Ship Positions When Assisting Drifting Casualty in Rough Weather or Otherwise Unable to Go Alongside.

A salvage ship’s individual drift characteristics are found only by practical experimentsformed in various wind and sea conditions. Knowledge of a salvage ship’s drift patterns canany offship firefighting or open ocean towage connection easier. By taking advantage of tvage ship’s natural tendency to lie stern to the wind, a great deal of unnecessary maneuvebe avoided.

6-3.3 Optimum Firefighting Position Relative to Prevailing Wind. The optimum position foroffship firefighting is usually with the salvage ship lying alongside the windward side of a dricasualty. Providing seas permit, windward positioning enables the salvage ship to:

• Remain upwind and clear of flames, radiant heat, smoke and combustion produc

• Move rapidly away from the casualty if the situation deteriorates on board the bdamaged ship.

6-7

S0300-A6-MAN-030

adiant

g.

small

• Transfer personnel, hoses and other firefighting equipment unhampered by rheat, flames and smoke.

• Use monitors more effectively for self-protection, fire control and fire extinguishin

Figure 6-2 shows a salvage ship moored alongside the windward side of a freely drifting combatant, using both monitors and offship fire hoses for fire control and extinguishing.

rmit, ahould

e casu-oored

Figure 6-2. Salvage Ship Positioned to Windward for Firefighting Operations.

Where the casualty retains even limited propulsion and steering and weather conditions pesalvage ship should moor to windward and upwind of the firefront. The casualty’s speed sbe reduced to give bare steerage way and to maintain optimum wind across the fire. If thalty’s speed is too high, the salvage ship will have some difficulty remaining securely malongside or there may be damage caused by unsynchronized surging of both ships.

6-8

S0300-A6-MAN-030

control, ships

antanks onurrent

In mored injury

e effects

ilian- shipsray fromicals, onehenme

rs or ener-

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into

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onnel

er for-

In cases where a disabled burning casualty has to be taken in tow for fire containment and the same principles of upwind positioning apply. A common method of positioning salvagealongside a burning casualty under tow is shown in Figure 5-8.

6-3.4 Self-Protection of Firefighting Ships. Large, uncontained fires generate intense radiheat, along with smoke and noxious gases. Burning oil on the sea surface, from damaged tbulk oil carriers or large combatants, is a particularly serious hazard. Changes in wind or cdirection can fan flames and hot gases across or sweep burning oil onto, the salvage ship.extreme cases, fires may engulf part or all of the salvage ship, causing severe damage anor death of crew members. Salvage ships and their personnel can be protected from thesby:

• Activating self-defense water curtains and drenching sprays. Standards for civoperated fireboats require a self-protection drenching spray system. Navy salvageand platforms of opportunity are not equipped with firefighting self-protection spsystems. However, they can protect themselves with wide-pattern fog streamshigh-capacity monitors or with deluge spray from chemical-biological-radiolog(CBR) warfare washdown countermeasures (WDCM) systems. On salvage shipmain monitor should be kept available for own-ship cooling and self-defense whigh radiant heat loads are likely. On platforms of opportunity, the high voludemand of the WDCM system may prevent simultaneous operation of monitohoselines from the ships firemain. The WDCM systems on some ships can begized by sections to reduce demand on the firemain.

• Positioning the ship so as to expose minimum surface area to radiant heat from thVery intense fires may dictate a bow or stern to, rather than alongside approach.

• Maintaining a windward position relative to the main fire front and avoiding entry areas of severe radiant heat and combustion gases.

• Not making up to or making up with only one line that can be cast off quickly and ptioning the ship so she can clear the casualty quickly when fires are very intense oincrease rapidly; where explosions, boil over or sudden change in fire directiolikely.

• Minimizing the number of personnel deployed on deck and ensuring that all perswhose duties require them to man exposed stations are:

(1) Wearing suitable protective clothing and headgear.

(2) Have SCBA or OBA available at their workstation.

(3) Rotate to less-exposed firefighting stations on a regularly controlled basis.

• Maintaining the salvage ship in a closed-up condition to keep heat, sparks or otheign material from entering internal spaces.

6-9

S0300-A6-MAN-030

devel-

should

hip to sur- place

tions

ellersg oil

oly situa-fightingce thatmingn assist-red. Atmpany. Theent-at-:

efulm path

both

aste

its areion. Pro- to theay bestems.

• Observing wind speed and changes and evaluating any potential threat before itops into a major hazard for the salvage ship or its personnel.

When burning oil is present on the sea or spilling from the casualty, additional measures be employed:

• Rigging and activating of self-defense spray nozzles along both sides of the sdrive oil away from the sides of the ship, in addition to the spray protecting topsidefaces. Side spray systems can be “jury-rigged” from hoses and nozzles lashed inalong the rail.

• Avoiding deliberately steaming salvage ship into or through burning oil concentraunless absolutely necessary for personnel rescue.

• Maintaining a close watch on drifting, burning patches of oil. In some cases, propand monitors can break up patches of oil, dispersing or deflecting small floatinfires away from salvage ships.

6-3.5 Speed and Maneuvers by the Casualty. A casualty that retains complete or partial controf her propulsion or steering systems with a major fire aboard may create an unsatisfactortion for assisting salvage ships. On some occasions, such a casualty may request fireassistance and also try to fulfill her mission with the battle group. In such cases, assistancan be given by firefighting salvage ships may be limited, particularly if the casualty is steaat speeds in excess of 8 to 10 knots. At that speed, it is dangerous and unseamanlike for aing salvage ship to remain alongside a large vessel even if the casualty is heavily fendebest, a salvage ship might be capable of sustaining a speed of 15 knots, remaining in cowith the casualty to conduct a stand-off firefighting operation with her main monitor systemsrelative position of the salvage ship and the casualty can be maintained by basic replenishmsea (RAS) maneuvers, but the effectiveness of monitor streams are greatly downgraded by

• Difficulties in laying and tracking monitors with any real degree of sustained or usaccuracy. Pitch, roll and heave of the salvage ship are magnified along the streafrom the monitors.

• Ability to spot and correct for continuous deflection of monitor streams caused byactual and relative winds created over casualty’s decks.

• Difficulty in laying down accurate foam blankets at long range and the potential wof foam concentrate resulting from such tactics.

Degradation is not as severe when SARTs and portable, diesel, firefighting monitor unembarked on a relatively high-speed combatant casualty that can maintain speed and statvided adequate suction arrangements could be improvised or provided to supply waterlarge, portable fire pump units, some degree of high-speed platform stand-off firefighting mpossible. It may be possible to provide intake water from installed seawater service syMonitor usage is described in greater detail in Paragraph 6-4.

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alvageare theen toapacityt they are

ected

other

s can

teel-alties

self-

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hting

casu-times

vol-lty. In

ists fire

y from

6-4 USE OF FIRE MONITORS ON SALVAGE SHIPS

The dual-purpose, high-capacity foam and water monitors permanently mounted on board sships and the same type of monitor incorporated in the portable diesel firefighting modules salvage firefighters’ main battery. However, as with all main batteries, thought must be givthe advantages and disadvantages of firing against every target that presents itself. High-cmonitors have advantages and disadvantages that must be weighed on each occasion thabrought into action. Large monitors have a number of advantages:

• High-volume, comparatively high-pressure water or foam streams can be projover greater distances and to greater heights than is possible with handlines.

• Generally, fewer personnel are required for operations, freeing up firefighters for tasks.

• Water streams can be directed with reasonable precision. Straight or fog streamplay over a selected area.

• Large volumes of cooling water can be applied effectively over wide areas of swork. This is particularly valuable when cooling the decks and structures of casuwith burning oil cargoes.

• High-volume fog or spray streams can be shifted very quickly for salvage shipdefense.

• Salvage ships can stand off and project cooling or extinguishing water on verfires.

Large monitors also have significant disadvantages:

• The relative ease with which they are employed may encourage stand-off firefigtactics when those tactics are inappropriate or inefficient.

• Because of their high capacity, monitors may project far more water on board aalty than is required or desirable. Large free surface and flooding problems somecan be directly traced to excessive use of high-volume monitors.

• Indiscriminate use may result from and foster a belief that merely “throwing” largeumes of water in the general direction of a shipboard fire is benefiting the casuamany instances, this is not efficient firefighting.

• Monitor operators cannot always see if their streams are striking an area that asscontrol or extinguishing efforts.

• The reaction force of heavy monitor streams may push the assisting vessel awathe casualty or push shallow-draft casualties away from the assisting vessel.

6-11

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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ofojects targetput isded byams, onezation

Classr fight- give a

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6-4.1 Use of Monitors. High-capacity monitors are a valuable and powerful firefighting toothey are used intelligently and as required by the circumstances. Like any other tool, their tions must be understood and worked within if the firefighting effort is to succeed. The folloparagraphs describe how monitors may be effective, as well as some of the pitfalls to be awhen fighting fires with monitors.

6-4.1.1 Indiscriminate Use. Used indiscriminately, large firefighting monitors, with outputs 2,000 gpm or more, can create threats to ship survivability. At 2,000 gpm, a monitor prapproximately 7.64 tons of water per minute or 458.4 tons of water per hour, onto or into aarea. If three 2,000-gpm monitors are all working at rated output, their combined through1,375.2 tons per hour. In the event that half this quantity of water (687.6 tons) was expen(1) boundary cooling, (2) direct firefighting or (3) wastage in the form of deflected waterstrethere remain 687 tons of water that may be trapped inside the casualty. On a lesser scale, with2,000-gpm monitor at its maximum output of 458 tons per hour and applying the same utilifactor, approximately 226 tons of water may be trapped in the casualty. This amounts to totallyflooding a space equivalent in size to the No. 1 Auxiliary Machinery Room of an FFG-7 frigate. Therefore, some caution is necessary when monitors are the primary appliance foing fires on small combatants. Observing the amount of runoff from the casualty decks cansubjective idea of how much water may be accumulating within the casualty.

Great quantities of firefighting water from monitors are deflected by steel bulkheads and If this deflected water fulfills some useful cooling function, it is not entirely wasted. Howevebe effective, a monitor stream should impact directly on the fire area for extinguishing or adto the fire area for cooling.

Figure 6-3 shows how a large percentage of water stream projected by monitors is wasted steel superstructures and impenetrable barriers on a smaller combatant.

6-12

S0300-A6-MAN-030

d

out foronfire-hin the lower

toe-of-n thectorsquallyonitor

own in results porta-

d fire

Figure 6-3. Ineffectual Use of Monitors on a Major Internal Fire, Majority of Water Being Deflected from Fire by Superstructure that Encloses Fire.

A more effective use of powerful monitors is shown in Figure 6-4, where monitors are employefor deck and boundary cooling against an open, flaring fire on an oil carrying auxiliary.

Hoseline nozzlemen, monitor operators and salvage ship officers should be on the lookdownflooding openings (open doors, scuttles, blast holes, etc.) that allow water entry into ninvolved areas and direct streams away from them where possible. Water accumulation witcasualty will show itself in a larger roll period as increasing displacement and free surfacethe casualty's metacentric height (GM).

6-4.1.2 Effective Direction of Monitors. High-capacity monitors must be directed effectively gain maximum benefit from their water flow. Often, monitor operators do not have direct linsight vision to the fire front and must be given radio instructions by salvage personnel ocasualty. Where firefighting crews are working around the edges of fire fronts, monitor diremust take special care not to allow monitor streams to become a hazard to firefighters. Eimportant, from a safety aspect, is that monitor directors are able to call in and direct mstreams to protect salvage firefighters from spill-overs and sudden flare-ups.

Where it is necessary to project a monitor stream through hull damage comparatively low dthe casualty's hull, large, mast- or housetop-mounted monitors are not very efficient. Betterare obtained by operating a portable monitor nozzle, supplied from an offship manifold or able pump unit, mounted on the towing or forecastle deck of the assisting ship at the same level asthe hull damage. By keeping the “line-of-sight” between monitor nozzle and hull damage an

6-13

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onitorhe hull

r use asoned, equip-

i-s. Ther stern posi-

rable

trictions casu-e rarely

Figure 6-4. Effective Use of Monitors to Contain and Cool a Major “Open” Flaring Fire.

on almost the same horizontal level, monitor operators generally obtain better results. Moperators are usually best left to direct their equipment’s water or foam streams through tdamage with minimum interference or distraction.

6-5 FIREFIGHTING WITH COMMERCIAL VESSELS

There are large numbers of commercial vessels that are either designed for or suitable fofirefighting vessels. It is probable that in a major conflict, these vessels will be requisitichartered or otherwise made available. It is also probable that Navy firefighting teams andment will work from these ships.

6-5.1 Positioning of Portable Equipment. Commercial salvage firefighting experience indcates that offshore supply vessels are excellent platforms for portable firefighting pump unitoptimum position for portable fire pump units on such ships is at or close to the tailgate oroller with the suction hoses led through the stern gate. Deployment of portable units in thistion allows the ship to bring monitors close to fire fronts without exposing the more vulneaccommodations or ship control areas to fire or radiant heat.

The presence of multiple suction hoses hung over the stern of such ships places some reson rapid maneuvers—except in an escape situation. Most firefighting is performed with thealty either drifting or under a slow speed tow, so that rapid maneuvers by assisting ships ar

6-14

S0300-A6-MAN-030

neuver-d with

on for

fightingortablee that

torage

are be able

of theugh

te theirting,

r use.ce the

ardse-s on

re anints as vol-

andith oil

h fires

fficults.

necessary. Most offshore supply vessel personnel are experienced and well-versed in maing techniques to hold station close to a fire front. In some cases, these ships are fittedynamic-positioning systems that allow a supply ship to hold herself continuously on statihours.

These ships have wide and unencumbered deck space that permits large quantities of fireequipment and foam to be loaded aboard in an orderly manner. The layout of drums and pskid-tanks of foam can be planned in conjunction with the firefighting team leader to ensurall required material is readily accessible.

Figure 6-5 shows a common arrangement of portable fire pump units, foam compound stanks and other firefighting equipment on board a chartered offshore supply vessel.

6-5.2 Civilian Crew/Navy Interface. Crew sizes on most tugs, supply boats and fire boatssmall—seldom more than 20 and in some cases as few as 5. Commercial vessels will notto dispatch a firefighting team to the casualty unless a SART or similar team is embarked.

When a SART or other Navy team is embarked, vessel operation remains the responsibilitycrew. It is also likely that the crew will operate any installed firefighting equipment, althoSART members may operate monitors and handle hose lines. SART members will operaown portable equipment. If the civilian master and crew lack experience in marine firefighthe SART leader should offer advice on vessel positioning, self-protection and monitoWhile it is the SART’s responsibility to operate their portable gear, the vessel crew must plateam in a position to do so effectively.

6-5.3 FiFi Standards. The offshore oil industry has accepted output and capacity standknown as Fire Fighting Classifications (FiFi), for both portable and permanently mounted firfighting monitors. FiFi standards were developed for ships fighting large pressure-fed fireoffshore oil drilling rigs and production platforms, where massive quantities of water aappropriate firefighting tool and the rigs or platforms are not subject to the same constrafreely floating, ship-shaped bodies. Successful oil field firefighting generally requires largeumes of water that are projected over a considerable distance at a flaring oil or gas fire.

FiFi standards are based on several facts:

• Fire monitors with a capacity of less than 5,000 gpm suffer from stream velocitydelivery loss in the high wind and moderate sea conditions usually associated wfield fires.

• Great volumes of water, delivered at very high pressures, are essential to reacthat may be 100 feet above sea level.

• The radiant heat generated by flaring oil and gas fires is extreme and it is very difor crews to work portable, manually controlled monitor units under such condition

6-15

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h FiFi

eachight ofut of

Figure 6-5. Common Arrangement of Portable Fire Pump Units on Chartered Oilfield Tug/Supply Ship.

There are no salvage ships or ocean tugs in the U.S. Navy with single monitors that approacstandard categories. The minimum outputs specified for FiFi categories are:

• FiFi-1 category requires 2,400 tons per hour, divided between two monitors, 1,200 tons per hour projected a minimum distance of 70 meters (230 feet) at a he45 meters (148 feet). This capacity is equivalent to two monitors with an outp5,283 gpm each.

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gpm),

r or

• FiFi-2 category requires an approximate output of 7,200 tons per hour (31,700 projected a minimum distance and height of 70 meters (230 feet).

• FiFi-3 category is higher again, with an output of 9,600 tons of water per hou

42,265 gpm, with an independent 600 m3/hr (2,460-gpm) foam system.

FiFi requirements and typical installations are summarized in Figures 6-6 through 6-8.

6-17

Figure 6-6. FiFi-1 Requirements for Firefighting Systems.

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tech-tools

stemsfor that


Massive cooling and drenching is an integral part of oil field firefighting techniques. Theseniques are not totally applicable to battle damage firefighting. When using firefighting developed for the oil field’s specialized applications, caution is necessary.

Even a FiFi-1 ship fighting marine or battle damage fires has extremely powerful monitor sythat must be employed carefully. Paragraph 6-4.1.1 discussed flooding rates and precautions comparatively low monitor outputs of 2,000 gpm against internal fires. The flooding effects

6-19

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erious.g andainings, thisntional loss of

could occur when using a FiFi-1 category, ship-mounted system are proportionately more sIf approximately 50 percent of a FiFi-1 system operating at full output is expended in coolinfirefighting work, with some deflection and overside losses, there is a potential for the rem50 percent or 1,200 tons per hour, to flood the casualty. On large, oil carrying auxiliariequantity of floodwater can be accepted for several hours. On small combatants, an uninteflooding rate of 1,200 tons per hour is not acceptable and could quickly cause a dangerousbuoyancy or stability.

6-20

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h theeployed

equip-inguish

l haz-is chap-

ets are

nt ofportant or air-

portu-

t of theList.

CHAPTER 7

SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING TEAM TACTICS

7-1 INTRODUCTION

Fires must be systematically attacked by firefighters with sufficient equipment to accomplistask. The salvage team, whether a salvage ship rescue and assistance (R&A) team or a dSART, must respond in a timely, professional manner. Teams must be able to deploy theirment and personnel, board the casualty, quickly integrate with the casualty crew and extfires.

Basic firefighting techniques may not be sufficient for combatting large marine fires. Speciaards common aboard battle-damaged ships require special techniques and precautions. Thter provides guidance and techniques as they apply to the salvage firefighter.

7-2 BOARDING THE CASUALTY

Based on preliminary information from the casualty, appropriate or available salvage assdispatched to the scene. These assets may include:

• Dedicated naval or commercial salvage ships.

• Platforms of opportunity with embarked SARTs.

• Air-lifted SARTs.

Chapter 2 of this volume discusses battle damage organization in detail.

7-2.1 Initial Survey of the Casualty. Before boarding the casualty, an accurate assessmethe casualty's condition must be made through a salvor’s eyes. Information collected is imfor making a safe approach and for transferring equipment and personnel, either by shipcraft. Initial surveys may be conducted in several ways:

• A dedicated overflight by a salvage officer, prior to deploying assets.

• By radio communications between casualty and salvage vessel or platform of opnity while enroute.

• By the lead helicopter (with SART embarked), en route to the casualty.

The information required is essentially the same for any deployed asset. The general formainitial survey is contained in Appendix C—Salvage Firefighting Team Approach Checkoff A synopsis of this checkoff list should be included in the STL’s first SITREP to the FSC.

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ding andt addi-

thed sal- R&A

ng largealties.

and task.

thoutladders.

7-2.2 Transportation of Personnel and Equipment. Methods of transporting teams will depenon assets deployed. Each transport vehicle may play additional support roles before, durafter delivering the salvage assistance team to the casualty. Logistics of providing sufficientional supplies to the team may be a large element of firefighting efforts.

7-2.2.1 Use of Ships. A salvage ship or platform of opportunity may be deployed directly tocasualty. Offship firefighting efforts may be conducted by the ship’s R&A teams or embarkevage teams (SARTs) or a combination of both. Table 7-1 identifies the basic shipboardTeam.

Personnel support is made easier by the presence of an assisting ship capable of stagiquantities of supplies, feeding and resting firefighting teams or attending to personnel casu

7-2.2.2 Use of Boats. Small boats may play an important role in transporting personnel equipment. Heavy landing craft (LCM/LCU) and salvage work boats are best suited to thisTransferring larger fire pump units and heavy dewatering equipment may be difficult wihoisting equipment. Personnel transfers may be conducted via accommodation or Jacob’s

Table 7-1. Rescue and Assistance Team Composition.

FUNCTION NUMBER OF PERSONNEL CASUALTY

Officer in Charge 1 All

Scene Leader 1 All

Team Leader 1 Fire

Nozzlemen 2 Fire

Hosemen 2 Fire

P-250 Operator 1 Fire/Flood

P-250 Assist (1) 2 Fire/Flood

Shoring 2 As required

Pipe Repair 2 As required

Communication 1 All

First Aid (2) 1 All

Electrician 1 All

Utilitymen (3) 2 As required

Boat Crew (4) As required As required

Note: (1) P-250 assist personnel may perform firefighting or dewatering duties after pump is rigged.(2) Ships may assign a corpsman as required. All team members must be Firs Aid qualified.(3) Utilitymen may be utilized to handle supplies. It is recommended that one member be a storekeeper

with access to storerooms.(4) When feasible, the boat engineer may operate the P-250 from the boat.

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gtforms

operaterposes.umps;

il hoses

ed on

r casu-

umps

ngside

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FFG-7

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salvors

7-2.2.3 Use of Work Boats as Pumping Tenders. Work boats from salvage ships or landincraft deployed from auxiliaries and amphibious warfare ships may also serve as staging plafor embarked teams. Pump modules, hydraulic power units or P-250 pumps may be left to in the boat while hoses are taken aboard the casualty or monitors directed for cooling puLifeboats or work boats on the casualty can be used to reduce the suction lift for portable ppumps are placed in the boat, suctions over the side and the boat lowered on its falls untare immersed.

Circumstances may occur when large, portable firefighting pump units cannot be positionboard a casualty because:

• The attending salvage ship cannot go alongside the casualty due to sea, swell oalty damage situations.

• No suitable or operational lifting gear is available on the casualty to hoist the paboard and portable hydraulic or pneumatic lifting gear cannot be rigged.

• The casualty is beached in water that is too shallow to permit a salvage ship alo(see also Paragraph 5-4.2).

• No helicopters are available to airlift the pump unit onto the casualty.

• The height from the lowest suitable deck of the casualty on which the pump is pexceeds 15 feet.

NOTE

P-250 and other general-issue centrifugal salvage pumps haveeffective suction lifts of about 20 feet. However, speciallydesigned, high-powered fire pump units only have effective lifts of10 to 15 feet. Pump capacity is reduced as suction lift increases.Salvors— SART STLs in particular—must ensure that casualtypersonnel are made aware of this characteristic of most high-pow-ered portable pump units.

For any one or a combination of the above reasons, it may be necessary to deploy the pfirefighting pump unit from a salvage work boat or LCM-type craft. Figure 7-1 shows a suctionlift height for a large, portable salvage fire pump deployed in a work boat compared to an Class frigate and an AOE-1 Class combat support ship. It will be seen from Figure 7-1 that alarge, portable fire pump unit would be operating at maximum suction lift when positioned omain deck of the FFG-7 and could not pick up a suction from the main deck of the AOEsome cases, the pump unit may be “boosted” by a submersible pump on the suction hose,option is not always readily available.

In cases where a boosted suction is not available and suction lift height appears marginal,should operate the fire pump unit from an LCM or 35-foot salvage work boat. Figure 7-2 shows a

7-3

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d over
typical fire pump placement in a 35-foot salvage work boat where the suction hoses are leathe bow ramp of the work boat.
7-4

Figure 7-2. Typical Deployment of Portable Firefighting Pump Unit on Standard 35-Foot Salvage Work Boat.

Figure 7-1. Relationship of Work Boat to Casualty Vessels and Staging of Portable Pumps.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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STLsmall

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A work boat operating in this configuration cannot load or carry much foam concentrate amainly used as a convenient platform to supply one high-pressure monitor or several handfirefighters working on board the casualty. Fires that are only accessible through hull damagbe easier to attack using a work boat as a mini fire boat. Beached casualties may also be dealt wmore effectively by fire pumps deployed in work boats.

7-2.2.4 Use of Helicopters. Helicopters are the fastest method of transporting salvage firefiing teams to a casualty. Helicopters assist in rapid deployment of a SART and all its equand can make transfers directly aboard the casualty, if circumstances permit.

Ideally, two helicopters should be provided for the SART. The first helicopter transports theand other SART personnel while the second helicopter transports the team’s equipment—equipment carried internally with the team’s portable firefighting module slung underneashown in Figure 7-3. Two helicopters also allow the STL and team to board the casualty firprepare a landing site for equipment. One or both of the helicopters can then shuttle addequipment and consumables to the casualty, as required, and provide support services, su

• Airlifting extra firefighting equipment or supplies, particularly large containers of foconcentrate.

• Passing towlines between vessels.

7-5

Figure 7-3. Helicopter Transport of Portable Equipment.

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vacu-

• Removing exhausted crews and deploying fresh firefighters.

• Rescue and MEDEVAC operations, including smoke dispersal over landing and eation zones.

Table 7-2 describes general characteristics of selected military helicopters.

Table 7-2. Helicopter Characteristics and Payload.

TYPE/NAME CREW

WEIGHT TONS

EMPTY/FULL

DIMEN-SION

FT LOA/ ROTOR

RANGENM

SPEED(KTS)

PAY-LOAD(LBS)

H-46 USN Sea Knight 3 6.5/11.55 84/51 100 1404,200

Internal

CH-47 USA Chinook 3 11.5/27 99/72 30/100 16123,049

External

Commercial Chinook 3 13.5/26 99/72 610 135

20,00028,000

External

CH-46E USMC Sea Knight 3 11.5/25 99/60 30/100 15223,049

External

CH-53D USMC Sea Stallion (1) 3 11.5/21 88/72 540 173

8,000 +4,000

Overload

RH-53D USN Sea Stallion (2) 7 11.5/21 88/72 540 173

8,000 +4,000

Overload

CH-53E USA Super Stallion 3 16-18/37 99/79 1,120 150

30,00036,000

External

CH-53D USMC (Modified) 3 16-18/37 99/79 1,120 150

32,00036,000

External

MH-53E USN Sea Dragon 4 16-18/37 99/79 1,120 150

30,00036,000

External

SH-3/SH-3H USN Sea King (3) 4 6/10 72/62 625 136 Limited

HH-3E USAF Jolly Green Giant (4) 4 6/10 72/62 625 136 Limited

Ch-3C/E USAF Sea Train (5) 4 6/10 72/62 625 136 Limited

HH-3F USCG Pelican (6) 4 6/10 72/62 625 136 Limited

NOTE: (1) Assault; (2) MCM; (3) ASW; (4) Rescue; (5) Cargo; (6) SAR Commercial.

Ref: Jane’s Aircraft and Polmar’s Ships and Aircraft

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rson-nd onluding:

ding

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eniorgener-

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7-2.3 Transfer of Equipment. Once on scene, the salvage team must be able to transfer penel and equipment from their transport to the casualty. The method of transfer will depeoriginal transportation methods used to arrive at the casualty and other considerations, inc

• Condition of the casualty—location of fires, trim and list and accessibility for boarpersonnel.

• Condition of the casualty crew—ability to assist.

• On-scene weather conditions—seas, winds.

• Combat conditions in the area—may require support from a combatant.

• Availability of unimpeded boarding accesses—flight deck, ladders, gangways.

The STL is responsible for safe and efficient transfer of the team and its equipment. Decisithe optimum method of transfer should be made during initial survey of the casualty.

7-2.4 Integrating with Casualty Crew. Salvage teams that board a stricken ship must be quiintegrated into overall damage control efforts. How this is to be done will be decided by theand the casualty’s commanding officer in accordance with the guidelines presented in Paragraph2-2.4

Foremost in a smooth transition will be the STL’s interface with the casualty’s DCA or srepair party officer and his ability to rapidly assess the situation. The FSC should be kept ally advised of the casualty's status through SITREPs, updated as circumstances permit.

7-3 PERSONNEL PROTECTION

Salvage firefighting personnel may face serious hazards and working conditions may be ing. Salvors must be prepared to fight a fire for long periods without reinforcement. The uning effects of uncertainty—risk of follow-up attack, boil-overs, explosions—create additiproblems that further tax the firefighter. Physical and psychological demands may be high.

7-3.1 Psychological Reactions to Disaster. In fighting large marine fires, the casualty’s crew subjected to stresses beyond those generally encountered. Add a combat scenario and tions of personnel may be quite different from their usual behavior. Damage control traininpares for the severity of these reactions, but “real life” situations cannot always be simuShock, confusion and fatigue affect individuals differently and may have an impact on the operformance of the casualty crew.

Generally speaking, when a disaster occurs, there will be several distinct periods.

• Warning.

• Impact.

7-7

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ont by

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or the

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ut dis-e.

leirefight-ers isments

• Immediate reaction.

• Delayed reaction.

These periods govern how individuals handle themselves in a crisis. Many persons funcincredibly high levels of effectiveness, while others become almost or completely useless.

In combat or during salvage firefighting operations, however, there is usually no warning pThe period immediately following the disaster is crucial. Some individuals may be momenunable to think, move or be concerned about others. Some may panic. Training and a strociplined reaction reduce this period of uncontrolled activity and restore control to the situati

7-3.2 Physical Restrictions. Fighting marine fires and repairing battle damage is an extremphysical job. Drill exercises and actual cases reinforce the value of having a firefighting forcis in top physical condition. Tools, equipment and hoselines must be carried to the fire frfully outfitted firefighters equipped with SCBAs—a demanding task.

Heat and smoke from the fire itself strain physical stamina. Spending long periods of time ifighting outfits under extreme heat conditions dehydrates the body rapidly. The duration SCBA cylinder—usually 30 to 45 minutes—is only one of several factors governing the amof time a firefighter may remain on scene. The amount of time a person can actually work wa breathing apparatus and firefighting outfit is often controlled by heat and humidity farather than by the duration of the air supply.

Methods for reducing physical strains on firefighters include:

• Leaving firefighting suits loosely attached while waiting for call-up or during relief.

• Drinking plenty of fluids—preferably water.

• Donning breathing apparatus before entering spaces and allow sufficient time fbody to adjust.

• Shuffling—not walking—when working in smoke or in confined spaces. By keephis weight on the rear foot, the firefighter can feel for obstructions by sliding the ofoot forward.

• When heat becomes extreme, stopping and cooling the surrounding area (withorupting the natural heat layering) until temperature-comfortable enough to continu

7-3.3 Breathing Apparatus Control. In addition to providing team members with reliabbreathing devices and adequate training, it is necessary to provide a system to safeguard fers during operations. Knowing the location, function and air supply duration of all membvital to personal safety. To accomplish this task, many commercial and military fire departhave developed breathing apparatus (BA) control systems.

7-8

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f a BAvices.

A status board is maintained to track the safety of each member of the team. An example ocontrol board is shown in Figure 7-4. The system shown utilizes key-controlled alarm deFor SCBAs not so equipped, a written status board will suffice.

7-9

Figure 7-4. Example of Breathing Apparatus Control Board.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

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A person is designated as BA controller by the STL to check each team member prior to ning operations. He will take names, destinations and times—after setting the alarm/timerecord them on the control board. The BA controller is then responsible for updating the bonecessary, keeping the STL informed of crew rotation times and checking members upon a space or ending a shift. The controller must also be aware of members overdue to retnotify the STL to begin emergency procedures. One controller should not be responsible fothan 12 men.

7-3.3.1 Changing Air Cylinders. Air supply durations for a SCBA are usually 30 to 45 minutSmaller and larger cylinders exist, but are generally used for special locations, such as emescapes. Cylinders, when full, indicate approximately 1,200 psi (30 minutes) on the prgage. When the alarm bell/horn sounds, a four- to five-minute supply (about 500 psi) remaimost SCBAs, the alarm is sounded by a pressure sensor, rather than a timer.

Although cylinders of pressure-demand SCBAs can be changed while in a smoke-filled coment, this should be regarded and trained for as an emergency procedure, NOT a standard evolu-tion. Safety practices require that the firefighter exits to an uncontaminated area to changeWhen his alarm sounds, the firefighter should immediately leave the area. After reporting BA controller, the firefighter changes cylinders as outlined by the manufacturer and team p

7-3.3.2 Recharging Air Cylinders. Fully charged, spare cylinders are part of the SART's equment list. In fires of long duration, cylinders may need to be recharged either on the causing high-pressure diver's air compressors or high-pressure cylinder banks or, if availasalvage ship compressed air systems. Figure 7-5 shows typical SCBA cylinder recharging systems.

7-3.4 Attack Team Relief. Fighting marine fires quickly takes its toll on firefighters. Even shperiods—30 to 45 minutes—of carrying and operating equipment, stretching hoselines, allusing breathing apparatus in hot and humid conditions, can rapidly exhaust even very fit pe

Heat stress is a major factor in relief scheduling for firefighters. This is more noticeable wearing a standard shipboard firefighting ensemble than with the multi-layered, lightweighfits worn by salvage firefighters. The added external protection provided by the standard eble reduces the body’s ability to dissipate internal heat. Regardless of the type of outfit empfirefighters must be relieved and replaced at regular intervals.

NSTM 077 states that the frequency of rotating personnel “...should be based on OBA canisstation time (30 minutes).” This air supply time is the same as for the standard SCBA cy

CAUTION

The operating times for air cylinders are based on the normalbreathing rate of an average person. Air may be used morequickly due to exertion, extreme heat or the psychological effectof wearing a breathing apparatus.

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ing onct fire-

minjuredteam.

Figure 7-5. Breathing Apparatus Cylinder Recharging Systems.

worn by salvage firefighters and provides an equivalent margin of safety. However, dependthe magnitude of the fire and physical effort required, 30 minutes may be too long to expefighters to remain at the fire front of an enclosed shipboard fire.

NOTE

Firefighter’s on-scene rotation time should be governed by the par-ticular situation and NOT by the amount of air in the breathingapparatus. STLs may limit time to between 15 and 45 minutes asthe situation dictates.

7-3.5 Rescue and MEDEVAC. Injuries are often an unfortunate result of firefighting. Teamembers may need to rescue fallen victims from various parts of the ship. The removal of personnel up narrow, dimly lit stairwells or ladders can be a formidable task for the rescue

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Generalure 7-6assignedof fire-. Ins.

Injured personnel must be moved to a safe location. Stretcher teams are assigned for Quarters on all ships and are trained and equipped to transport injured personnel. Figshows some standard rescue equipment. Firefighters should leave personnel transport to bearers. In emergencies, firefighters may be called on to move injured personnel to out involved areas to safe locations. Figure 7-7 shows some simple, one-man rescue methodssome cases, two men are required to move a victim Figure 7-8 demonstrates various techniqueOnce in a safe location, ship or SART medical personnel may begin medical assistance.

7-12

Figure 7-6. Some Standard Rescue and Patient Transportation Devices.

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7-13

Figure 7-7. One Man Moving a Casualty.

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EDE-VAC

Figure 7-8. Two-Man Carries.

Major injuries that require a doctor’s skill generally must be evacuated from the casualty. MVAC may be accomplished by any of the following methods, using applicable Navy MEDEpractices:

• Small boat,

• High-line between ships or

• Helicopters.

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Figure 7-9 demonstrates techniques for preparing victims for MEDEVAC transport.

In gen-salvageel beds unpre-

tionscific

andnd take

Figure 7-9. Preparing a Victim for Helicopter Evacuation.

7-4 FIREFIGHTING TEAM TACTICS

Special hazards common to marine fires have been identified in Chapter 3 of this volume.Special-hazard fires require special techniques and strategies to contain and extinguish. eral, the basic rules of shipboard firefighting remain the same. Experience has shown the community that battle damage fires do not always behave as those in training courses. Fusuch as oils, missile propellent and ammunition create battle damage fires that are oftendictable and always dangerous.

This section will build on techniques learned from basic firefighting training and publicasuch as NSTM 555 and NWP 62-1. Policies and tactics contained herein address situations speto offship battle damage firefighting.

7-4.1 Preliminary Actions. Attacking a large, battle damage fire requires skill, coordination a fair amount of courage. STLs must make a rapid assessment of the casualty’s condition adetermined action to bring fires under control.

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plished how- base fire by on-sed onalty.

ithrea fromstics:

to:

nt dur-cuation

Whether one team or multiple teams attack a fire, the steps are the same:

a. Size up the fire(s).

b. Isolate equipment/systems/spaces.

c. Protect exposures.

d. Set fire and smoke boundaries.

e. Confine and control the fire.

f. Attack and extinguish the main fire(s) in a systematic manner.

Preliminary steps of isolating, protecting and setting boundaries should already be accomby the casualty repair parties by the time salvage firefighting teams arrive. During battle,ever, this may not be the case. Personnel casualties, secondary strikes or expansion of theto include special-hazard material may overwhelm or negate any actions previously takenboard fire parties. The STL must reevaluate the situation at the time his team arrives, bainformation received from the casualty DCA and his own assessment of threats to the casu

7-4.1.1 Staging for the Attack. Salvage firefighting teams arrive on board the casualty wlarge pieces of special equipment. It is important that the team have an adequate staging awhich to conduct their operations. The staging area should include the following characteri

• Communications capability with repair lockers and team support units.

• A smoke-free safe haven for firefighters.

• Adequate room for firefighters and their equipment.

The location of the staging area will depend on numerous factors including, but not limited

• Location and size of the fire(s)—forward, aft, midships.

• Stability—list and trim—of the casualty.

• Accessibility for team support units.

• On-going combat operations.

The STL must determine the most advantageous location during his preliminary assessmeing overflight or approach. The area chosen/available should also provide for the safe evaof the team should the loss of the ship become imminent.

7-16

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iresore

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7-4.1.2 Evaluating the Fire. The location of the fire(s) should be determined. For large finvolving significant smoke spread, often only a general location can be initially identified. Mprecise definitions of small, internally seated fires will require investigators with thermal ima

Salvors must determine what is burning and what other combustibles are at risk of ignitingtiple-source fires, where more than one class of fire contributes to the fuel bed, may requicial actions or several agents to control. The STL must determine a logical approach, decappropriate agents and set fire boundaries at reasonably controllable points.

For large internal fires, the contain, control and extinguish sequence may include a lengthy cotrol/cool phase. After containing large, well-established internal fires, venting the space anding the surrounding area to keep the fire from spreading may be preferable to mounting aattack on the fire. This tactic is often used and basically allows the fire to burn itself out. Whfuel bed is eliminated, the fire must go out. In the meantime, teams can concentrate on sextinguishable fires that threaten to spread.

7-4.1.3 Setting Fire and Smoke Boundaries. Internal fires in ships may travel in any of sidirections:

• Vertically—up or down from the base fire.

• Horizontally—outward on all four sides.

Primary fire boundaries should be set using fire zone or watertight bulkheads and decks imately surrounding the area. Secondary boundaries, if required, should be set at the next bdeck or overhead outside the primary boundaries. As fires tend to spread faster in a veupward direction, boundaries above the fire should be set first. Cooling water may then be ato all sides of the compartment prior to entry. Decks are easier to cool than bulkheads andtinuous thin film of water running over the deck is one useful technique. Water depth shouexceed one inch, as no additional cooling is provided and stability may be jeopardized by water.

Smoke boundaries are generally set along with fire boundaries. Smoke curtains should beat doors and hatches used for firefighting access or where damaged doors are no longer emergencies, welding curtains, fire-resistent blankets, wool blankets or canvas may be uattaching them to door frames or hatch combings with spring clamps, C-clamps, vise gmagnets. Once curtains are installed, desmoking on the non-fire side will improve visibilitlower the temperature.

Venting of burning compartments, either naturally or with mechanical assistance, will help heat, smoke and gases away from firefighters and potential ignition sources. Figure 7-10 showsseveral ventilation schemes.

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Figure 7-10. Fire Ventilation.

CAUTION

Ventilation of burning compartments may serve to intensify thefire by introducing oxygen. Venting should only be used duringdirect attacks. During indirect attacks, the area must be made asairtight as possible to keep oxygen out and the extinguishingagent confined.

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of A sin-rew instance aug-nancey andmaking

7-4.1.4 Manpower and Equipment Requirements. The number of personnel and types equipment deployed to a casualty will depend on the size of the fire(s) and type of casualty.gle SART with its standard equipment inventory may be sufficient to assist the casualty's ccombatting fires. Large ships or casualties with major, out-of-control fires may require assifrom more than one SART or backup from a salvage ship R&A team. SARTs should bemented by an EOD team, if not already attached, when it is likely that unexploded ordremains in fire-involved areas. STLs must determine the size of the firefighting force earlrequest necessary assistance. Figure 7-11 illustrates the fire analysis and decision-progress.

stem, R&Atreater R&At hand if the

Figure 7-11. Analysis of the Fire Situation.

Portable firefighting equipment deployed with the SART is designed as a self-sufficient sycapable of augmenting the casualty’s firefighting systems or to stand alone. Shipboardteams carry a less-extensive equipment inventory. Table 7-3 is a standard R&A team equipmenlist. This standard equipment inventory can and should be modified to suit the situation. Gquantities of some items may be required (firehose and OBA canisters, for example). If theparty boards from a ship that remains alongside, equipment not required for the problem acan be left behind. For example, there is no point in wasting time transferring patching kits

7-19

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he sal-ot waitefore

ntorye pumpom the must

oone fire- time

casualty's problem is fire, not flooding. Items not immediately required can be staged on tvage ship near the boarding point, ready for immediate deployment. The R&A team need nuntil all ancillary equipment—test equipment, extra OBA canisters, etc.—is boarded battacking the fire.

If the R&A team’s parent ship does not remain alongside, the complete equipment inveshould be transferred to give the team greater independence and depth. A self-contained firshould always be transferred to a powerless casualty, even if hoselines are charged frassisting ship, so that fire teams will not be left without a source of water if the assist shipbreak away suddenly.

7-4.2 Attack and Control of Fires. Under normal circumstances, the attack should begin as sas possible, to gain immediate control and to prevent or minimize the spread of fire. Salvagfighters generally find that casualty fires are either well established or out of control by theteams arrive.

Table 7-3. Rescue and Assistance Team Required Equipment.

Helmet, Fireman’s (20) Portable Extinguishers First Aid Kit (1)

Lifejacket (20) CO2 15 lb. (2)PKP, 18 lb (2)Halon 1211 (1) (if available)

Blanket (2)Stretcher (1)

P-250 Pump with accessories

Aural Protection (20)International Shore Conn. (2)*Fuel Tank with Fuel (1)Hose, RubberExhaust, 20’ X 2" (1)Suction, 10’ X 3" (2)Gaskets, 2"(5); 3" (10)Foot Valve *Tri-Gate (1), Reducer 2 1/2"F x 1 1/2" M (1)*Y-Gate (1)*Spanner Wrench (2)

Communication Equipment

AFFF Portable Radio (1)Very Pistol (1)Signal Flags (1 Set)5-gallon container (2)

Kits, Damage Control

Desmoking (1)Emergency Comms (1)Investigator/Tender (2)Electrical Repair (1)Pipe Patching (1)Plugging (1)Shoring (2)

Protective Clothing

Anti-flash Gloves and Hood (20)Fire-retardant Coveralls (20)Firefighter’s Ensemble (Req to outfit fire teams)

Hoses OBAs (6)

Firefighting, 50’x1 1/2" (4)Firefighting, 50’x1 1/2" (1)Dewatering, 50’ x 4" (1)Gaskets, 1 1/2" (10), 2 1/2" (10) 4" (5)Vari-nozzles, 1/2" 95 gpm (2)

Spare canisters (3 boxes, 18)Tending Lines (2)*

Emergency Lighting

Wet Cell Flood Lamp (2)Portable Battle Lanterns (2)*Yellow Chem-lights, 30 min (1 box)*

Eductors

Portable Eductor "S" type (1)In-line Foam Eductor (1)*Eductor Reducer 4" x 3" (1)*

Atmospheric Test Equipment

O2 Analyzer (1)Explosimeter (1)Draeger Kit (1)

NOTE: ( ) The number in parentheses indicates the quantity required* Items to be maintained in the Rescue and Assistance chest

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gies

d be

ems in

from

defin-

part-ace.

eating

ng theelines

is

hterskes thees after

ent sur-

ity foganner.

Chapter 5 of NSTM 555 gives Navy policy on basic firefighting tactics. These general strateapply to the salvage firefighter as well, under most circumstances. As reinforcement of NSTM 555doctrine, the following list of cautions learned in the real world of marine firefighting shoulstressed.

• Never open a hatch, door or other access until charged lines of hose or fixed systthat space are ready for action.

• Close all openings in the ship’s sides at an early stage to prevent additional airreaching the fire.

• Check the temperature of smoke coming from ventilators or openings to assist in ing the severity and location of the fire.

• Unaccompanied firefighters should always attach a safety line when entering comments to ensure relocating an exit. The line should be tended from outside the sp

• Keep watch on the temperature of bulkheads in all adjacent compartments. If hoccurs, cool the area with low-velocity fog nozzles.

• In spaces containing workable fixed systems, preference should be given to usifixed system prior to opening the space unless it is obvious that an attack with hoswill be successful.

7-4.2.1 Hand-Held Hoseline Procedures. The best approach to attack a fire with handlinesdictated by three main factors:

• The fact that hot air, heated gases and combustion products rise.

• Position of the fire(s).

• Layout of the ship.

Water used for firefighting is doing its best work only when being turned to steam. Firefigare often subjected to a sudden visibility loss and blast of moist heat as the stream striburning material and creates large quantities of steam and smoke. The initial surge passabout one minute and conditions tend to improve.

The hose stream must be kept moving over the whole fire area to reduce temperature, prevrounding material from igniting and to protect personnel, as shown in Figure 7-12. With the doorpartially open as a shield and the hose party keeping as low as possible, the high-velocstream is swept back and forth across the space, with the nozzle rotating in a clockwise mThe clockwise rotation serves to:

7-21

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enome- smokerea orpossi-

e fireaching of the

at andassagend to a

ies used

Figure 7-12. Application of Hose Stream.

• Drive flames, heated gases and smoke away from the nozzleman.

• Generate steam in a more violent rolling action.

• Increase fire knockdown and water efficiency.

Counter-clockwise rotation draws smoke and flames to the nozzle. The reasons for this phnon are not well understood, but are thought to be related to the electrical charges on theparticles. Hoseline attacks may be direct—through open doors into the immediate fire aindirect—through small openings in-line with or above the space where direct access is imble. For indirect attacks, fog nozzles or applicators may be used as sprinklers (Figure 7-13) toextinguish a fire or cool it to the point where a direct attack can be made.

Ship construction usually forces firefighters to attack horizontally on the same level as thand/or to come down through rising smoke and heat to reach the fire level. When approhorizontally, firefighters should keep as close to the deck as possible to reduce the effectsheat zone that starts 18 to 24 inches above the deck.

Being below the level of the fire is more desirable, but often more strenuous. Avoiding hesmoke is compensated by difficulties in opening hatches for access or locating a suitable pfrom below. When horizontal approach is not feasible, hose teams should attempt to descelevel below the fire, pass under the space and ascend toward the fire similar to the strateg

7-22

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lower

passedexperi-es fit- escape

withishingusdrawnvely.ing or com-

ni-veness

Figure 7-13. Indirect Hose Attack Using Low-Velocity Applicator as a Sprinkler.

in fighting large building fires. Where a machinery space is accessible from a shaft alley oradjacent space, a bottom approach will usually be successful.

An approach from above subjects the firefighter to a smoke/heat layer that must be through to reach the source of the fire. This challenges all but the most determined and enced firefighter. This method is often used following an indirect attack. In machinery spacted with enclosed escape trunks, it may be possible to access the lower level through thetrunk and attack the fire on the same level or from below. Figures 7-14, 7-15, 7-16A and 7-16Bdemonstrate attack approach techniques.

7-4.3 Application of Agents. The decision of what agents to use and in what quantities reststhe STL and considers the type and size of the fire(s) and availability of agents. Extinguagents and their uses are detailed in Chapter 3. Firefighters should attempt to locate an obviovortex in the flames near the base of the fire, which indicates the point where air is being into the fire. Agents applied at this point will be drawn into the fire and function more effectiAgents applied against other faces of the fire, particularly those where smoke is billowflames are whipping violently, may be dispersed or beaten back from the fire by escapingbustion gases.

7-4.3.1 Application of Water. Since water extinguishes a fire by cooling the fuel below the igtion point and displacing oxygen by generating steam, water achieves maximum effectionly when it is being turned into steam by direct contact with the seat of the fire.

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streamsoiling.ructed.dangers

water

atcooled narrow, pro-ter wille the

Figure 7-14. Preferred Method-Enter Space and Attack Fire Directly.

Water streams should be directed to strike the seat of the fire or heated surfaces. If water are reaching the seat of the fire or highly heated surfaces, any runoff will be hot, near bCool runoff is a sign that water streams are misdirected or that the seat of the fire is obstWhen the seat of the fire cannot be found or reached and great heat is generated that enother fuel sources, it will be necessary to cool surrounding areas with large quantities ofspray.

Unless needed to protect firefighters or exposures from accompanying heat, water directed smoke accomplishes nothing. Often, cooling smoke only complicates matters, as the smoke and gases hang in the area, instead of rising out of the area. Short bursts with acone of high-velocity fog, rotated in a clockwise direction, can clear smoke from an areavided there is an escape route for the smoke. When the nozzle is shut down, the firefighhave three to five seconds of relatively good visibility in which to orient himself and locatfire before proceeding.

7-24

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7-25

Figure 7-15. Fire Attack if High Temperature Denies Access.

7-26

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Figure 7-16A. Fire-Fighting From Above through a Vertical Trunk.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

re far several, giv-

is shutn, thehe fire.

Figure 7-16B. Fire-Fighting From Above.

Water directed at the flame only has little extinguishing effect, especially when flames afrom the fuel source, as is often the case. Flames may travel along the overhead throughspaces between firefighters and the fire. Water applied to the flames will knock them downing the impression that the fire is out, but the flames will re-appear when the hose streamdown or is moved. If a fire is not extinguished after about three minutes of water applicatiowater is not reaching the seat of the fire or the flow rate is not great enough to extinguish t

7-27

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ects (if down

oners,t effec-be con-

it, ishen at largeFFF/toovio-

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the

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uponard the

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Firefighters should apply water in short bursts and shut down the nozzle to observe the effheat permits) to avoid being cut off by fires they have passed while flames were knockedbut the fire remained unextinguished.

Water hydraulics make the choice of delivery devices critical. Pumps, nozzles, proportihoses and monitors should be properly sized and positioned to deliver the needed flows ative ranges. Pressure drops due to friction in and elevation of hoselines and monitors must sidered to keep adequate water supplies to firefighters.

7-4.3.2 Application of Foam. Knowledge of how to use foam and where and when to apply of great importance. It may not always be easy or timely to get another supply of foam wsea under battle conditions. Fighting major ship fires, especially on tankers, can requirequantities of water—10,000 to 20,000 gpm and the application of 3,000 to 6,000 gpm of AATC foam. Applied in insufficient quantities, the foam will not cover completely; applied early, before sufficient cooling of surrounding structural steel, foam will burn off and allow lent reflashes to occur.

7-4.3.3 Application of Other Agents. Use of steam, CO2, dry chemicals, inertion or any otheextinguishing agent will be governed by the types and locations of the fires. Chapter 4 outlinestypes of other agents, their uses and compatibilities.

7-4.4 Precautions and Tactics for Specific Locations. Certain areas of a casualty presegreater risks than others. The salvage firefighter may arrive on an unknown ship with little kedge of the damage situation and be expected to fight large fires under adverse conditions.hazards make the job that much more difficult.

7-4.4.1 Accommodation Spaces. Fires in accommodation spaces must be tackled with utmost speed. In accommodation fires, speed of attack is vital to prevent the flashover that occurswhen flammable vapors, exuded from combustible materials in a compartment, are heatedflash points and burst into flame—frequently with explosive violence.

Although an average accommodation fire will usually have burned out the accommodation the salvor arrives, the following points should be remembered if the salvor is very close casualty when the outbreak is reported:

• Ventilation systems must be shut down and isolation dampers closed immediatelyarrival. Heat from fires can travel through ventilation ducting and radiate downwfrom overhead vents to ignite furniture and fittings in compartments remote frominitial fire.

• All fire-resisting or smoke-stop doors in the vicinity must be closed and fire conment boundaries established.

• Firefighting equipment must be laid out, with hoselines charged, before the doocompartment or cabin is opened.

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opends the

o cool

read-

stemat-

, etc.,inated

pan-

onreakny one

nitionndingishing-

h-

-

ded, to

• If there is a serious fire burning on the other side of a joiner door, it is better not tothe door but to smash a bottom door panel and to direct a cooling stream towaroverhead in an indirect attack.

• On entry, the lead hoseman should initially direct his hose towards the overhead tthe atmosphere and to prevent the fire bursting out of the compartment.

• It is essential to surround or boundary-off a compartment to prevent fire from sping. Attacking from one side may only chase the fire out of one area into another.

• Once a fire is surrounded, then and only then, should hose teams close in and syically beat out the flames.

• In no circumstances should the indiscriminate smashing of ports, windows, doorsbe permitted; such openings should be made only to save life or as part of a coordventilation and/or direct attack.

• After a serious fire that has involved lined or panelled compartments, all affectedelling should be removed to ensure that the fire is not still smoldering beneath.

7-4.4.2 Cargo Holds and Containers. Salvage firefighters may be faced with battle damageauxiliary ships of the fleet. Generally, cargo ships—commercial or Navy—will be of the bbulk (assorted packaged cargos) or container type. A variety of cargoes may be carried in ahold or container. Firefighters may have to combat more than a single, identifiable igsource. With containers, individual units may not be accessible without removing the surrouvans. Cargo holds and container cells on most modern ships are fitted with a fixed extingusystem—CO2 or Halon. Indirect attack using extra CO2 or Halon may be the best firefighting technique in these circumstances. Figure 7-17 shows a typical cargo hold fitted with a fire extinguising/flooding system.

The hold is first sealed off. The seal must be maintained until adequate personnel and equipment are available to enter the hold and extinguish any remaining fires, usually when thevessel reaches port. The following actions should be taken:

• Check all hatch covers to ensure that they are securely dogged down.

• Run out on deck and charge one or more hoselines. Lines will be used, as neecool hot spots on deck and the exterior of the hull.

• Secure ventilators and close dampers.

WARNING

Fires involving nitrates, chlorates or other materials that pro-duce oxygen when heated, should NEVER be battened down.Serious explosion may result.

7-29

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f cyl- avail-

e par-directturally

ratesnnot be

Figure 7-17. Cargo Hold Layout of a Typical Break Bulk Ship.

• Study instructions for the ship’s fixed systems to ensure that the proper number oinders are discharged to the affected hold and that there are sufficient cylindersable for follow-up applications.

• Discharge agent into the hold and carefully monitor temperatures.

• Continue cooling of surrounding areas as long as necessary.

Upon arrival of an appropriately equipped and manned firefighting team, the hold may btially opened and investigators sent in to check the fire's condition. If fires are still burning, methods may be employed to complete the job. Otherwise, the compartment may be naventilated and overhauled.

Fire involving oxidizing materials, such as nitrates and nitrites (fertilizers, explosives), chloand chlorites (gunpowder, pyrotechnics), bleaches, peroxides, permanganates, etc., ca

CAUTION

Check all hatch covers and vent dampers to ensure no agent leaksfrom the hold or air leaks in. Check for smoke or heat beingpushed from openings and seal with sealant or tape.

7-30

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xygen, spacee. Theater,

ed by

and to thewhen

tanks.ling theargenot berenheitm be

et ofhes ofurce isidly.

ns aiting

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extinguished by smothering or battening down. Heat causes oxidizing agents to evolve osupporting continued combustion. Expanding combustion products may overpressurize theor blow off hatch covers. Combustion in a confined space may cause the fuel bed to explodonly sound method to extinguish oxidizing fuels is to apply large quantities of cooling wflooding the hold or scuttling the ship, if necessary. Oxidizing materials should be indicatplacards or labels and on cargo manifests. Table 7-4 lists common oxidizing agents.

7-4.4.3 Fuel and Cargo Oil Tanks. Fuel and other oil tanks are an integral part of any ship the major component of a tanker. In battle, these tanks may be hit directly or be exposedheat of fire from surrounding areas. Different oil products behave somewhat differently exposed to heat, but all can create problems for salvage firefighters.

Tactics are essentially the same for fighting large oil tank fires in either bunker or cargo Cooling the area around the fire and protecting adjacent tanks is the primary concern. Cootanks is vital to preparing for the application of foam and to prevent boil over or spill over. Lamounts of cooling water must be directed by hoselines and monitors. Foam attacks will successful until the steelwork surrounding the fire area is cooled below 212 degrees Fahbecause foam will be burned off. Only after sufficient cooling can large amounts of foaapplied with any chance of successfully smothering the fire.

Small fuel or oil fires may be attacked directly with foam. In all cases, an unbroken blankfoam must be maintained over the fuel until all sources of ignition are eliminated. Open patcburning fuel may heat and break down the blanket, causing a reflash. Containing the fuel soimportant to maintaining the blanket. A flowing oil fire breaks down the foam blanket rapFigure 7-18 shows one method of attacking a small oil fire with foam.

7-4.4.4 Magazines and Weapons Hazards. When the salvage firefighter encounters weapothat are damaged and/or threatened by fire, rapid but cautious response is necessary. Theprimaryconsideration is controlling the fire while concurrently cooling affected weapons and awqualified EOD personnel.

Weapons can be cooled in several ways:

In their normal stowage condition, manual activation of installed protection is the first defenis important to note that most systems typically serving weapons/munitions have automatvation capability. In magazine sprinkling systems, heat sensing devices (HSD) will automaenergize sprinklers when the temperature of the space reaches approximately 160 degreesheit or as a result of a sudden rapid rise in temperature. In booster suppression systems, tmissile stowage, the sudden shock from heat-induced rocket motor ignition causes the relarge amounts of water on the affected missile. CO2 flooding systems are also installed, capablemanual or automatic activation, for the purpose of extinguishing Class A or C materials iaround the missile(s).

NOTE

The commanding officer’s permission is required prior to activat-ing any magazine or weapons stowage flooding system.

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Table 7-4. Common Oxidizing Materials.

OXIDIZING CLASS (LISTED IN APPROXIMATE DESCENDING ORDER OF

STRENGTH)

EXAMPLES(NOT ALL-INCLUSIVE)

COMMENTS

Fluorine Attacks virtually any material and supports hot “combustion” even in the absence of oxygen.

Ozone May be generated by electrical arcs or as the decomposition product of pollutant gases.

Peroxide Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2Sodium Peroxide Na2O2(Metallic Peroxide)Benzoyl Peroxide(Organic Peroxide)

Hydrogen peroxide is an industrial bleaching agent and raw mate-rial, shipped and used as solution in water. Common commercial strengths are 5%, 27.5%, 30%, 50%, although concentrations up to 99% have special application. Medical hydrogen peroxide is 3% solution. Metallic peroxides can initiate metal fires in the presence of water or acid. Organic peroxides are not strong oxidizers, but are intrinsically unstable and may decomposed explosively, liberating free oxygen or hydrogen peroxide in the process. Both metallic and organic peroxides are water-reactive, liberating heat and oxygen when exposed to water.

Oxychlorinated acids Hypochlorous Acid HCIOChlorous Acid HCIO2Chloric Acid HCIO3Perichloric Acid HCIO4

Industrial acids; formed on the solution of bleaches or other oxy-chiorinated metal salts in water.

Oxychlorinated metal salts Sodium Hypochlorite NaCIOSodium Chlorite NaCIO2Sodium Chlorate NaCIO3Sodium Perchlorate NaCIO4Calcium Hypochlorite Ca(OCI)2Ammonium Chlorate 2NH4CIO3Ammonium Perchlorate 2NH4CIO4

Commercial, domestic and industrial bleaches, water treatment chemicals, industrial chemicals. Chlorates are frequent components of gunpowders and pyrotechnics.

Lead dioxide

Metallic permanganates Potassium Permanganate KMnO4 Used in industrial air pollution control systems, magnesium fabrica-tion and as treatment for dermatitis (dilute solutions).

Metallic dichromates Potassium Dichromat K2CrO7 Industrial chemicals, some used in electroplating processes.

Nitric acid (concentrated) Important industrial acid.

Nitrates and Nitrites Ammonium Nitrate NH4NO4 Used in military and commercial explosives and fertilizer. Other nitrates and nitrites have important industrial uses. Nitrites generally less active than nitrates.

Chlorine Important industrial gas; may be liberated by the reaction of battery acid with seawater, of ammonia or acid with chlorine bleaches or other reactions.

Sulfuric acid (concentrated) Important industrial acid.

Oxygen Commonly found as compressed gas. Large ships may have liquid oxygen plants.

Metallic iodates

Bromine

Ferric Salts

Iodine

Sulfur

Stannic salts

Note: Oxidizing agents should be labeled with the NFPA 704M and/or the UN/DOT hazard symbols, as shown in Appendix C of the U.S. Navy Salvage Safety Manual, S0400-AA-SAF-010

S0300-A6-MAN-030

areas iss arein thist used, of the

ill expe- affectssure, ensurepart-ill auto-

board-picallye wet

Figure 7-18. Attacking Small Oil Fire on Deck With Foam.

The most convenient and effective means to cool weapons outside their normal stowage application of water via hoselines. Typically, two 2-1/2-inch hoses or four 1-1/2-inch hoseutilized with the goal of applying 400-500 gpm of drenching spray. AFFF may also be used effort as the cooling qualities of finished foam are comparable to water. Protein foam is noas its insulating qualities will prevent, rather than assist, cooling of the weapon. Regardlessmeans used to keep weapons cool, stability of the ship must be considered. As conditions permit,efforts should be made to jettison damaged weapon(s).

When sprinkling systems or booster suppression systems have been activated, the ship wrience reduction in available firemain pressure. This degradation in firemain pressure mayongoing firefighting efforts. Appropriate action should be taken to counter the loss in presuch as boosting the casualty’s firemain pressure with salvage fire pumps, if necessary, tosufficient supplies are available for other firefighting activities. Many weapons stowage comments and magazines are equipped with installed eductor systems. In some cases, these wmatically commence water removal upon system activation.

The salvor should have a basic knowledge of installed protection systems typically found acombatants and/or logistic support ships. Figures 7-19 and 7-20 describe two of the most common magazine sprinkling systems found on board U.S. Navy ships. The dry system is tyinstalled on magazines for 5-inch and smaller fixed and semi-fixed ammunition, while thsystem is typically installed on bagged powder and missile magazines.

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Figure 7-19. Dry Magazine Sprinkling System.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

ryexceedave tem-xhausts,

largemethod

O

distinctough

Figure 7-20. Wet Magazine Sprinkling System.

7-4.4.5 Engine Rooms and Machinery Spaces. Oil presents a grave hazard in any machinespace. Most oils will spontaneously ignite when contacting surfaces whose temperatures about 550 degrees Fahrenheit. Numerous areas in engine rooms and machinery spaces hperatures well in excess of 550 degrees Fahrenheit—superheated steam lines, diesel eboiler casings or overheated bearings. The ignition of oil gives rise to a very hot fire withvolumes of dense smoke. In all cases, the attack must be immediate, regardless of the used.

Attacks on machinery spaces may be direct or indirect. For indirect attacks, the ship’s C2 orHalon system is activated. The salvor must understand that a critical time for introduction of thegas exists. Experiments have shown that if a machinery space fire is to be extinguished, asfrom holding it in check, the gas must be applied within 15 minutes of the outbreak. Alth

7-35

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k willontane- the

h pro-stion.n con-

e igni-ed andf fuel,d andan be

moni-ull orrior to

ead toned to

roughve the

bove fuel

por-nger

Halon can prevent the ignition of diesel fuel impinging on extremely hot surfaces, the attacbe most effective if the gas is introduced before surrounding metal is heated above the spous ignition point of the oil. CO2 is not effective if surrounding metal has been heated abovefuel's spontaneous ignition point.

Halon is an extremely effective extinguishing agent, but does not cool hot surfaces. Reflastection is provided only if the halon concentration remains high enough to prevent combuReflash of a Halon-extinguished fire is prevented by keeping the space closed so the Halocentration is not diluted until the fuel bed and surrounding structure have cooled below thtion temperatures. The length of time required depends on the amount of heat in the fuel bstructure and the rate at which it can be dissipated. If the fire was fed by large pools oinvolved a large area or burned for a long time, a long cooling period is required. Fuel bestructure cooling can be accelerated by boundary cooling. Additional reflash protection cprovided by operating AFFF bilge sprinklers, if fitted.

When the fire is beyond the effective use of fixed systems, direct attack with handlines andtors is the course of action. Monitors should be positioned to cool exterior portions of the hbulkheads adjacent to the space. It is important to establish effective boundary cooling pcommencing the attack. The hoseline attack may then be mounted as follows:

• With all horizontal accesses from the machinery space secured to prevent spradjacent compartments, a ventilating hatch at the overhead of the space is opecreate a flue for heat and flames.

• Firefighters enter with at least two charged hoses at a low point in the space—than enclosed escape trunk or from a shaft alley or adjacent boiler room—and driflames back and out the flue until reduced and extinguished.

• An alternative application is a combination of water and foam. Water is used as ato drive the fire “into a corner;” foam may then be applied to the trapped, burningsource using standard foam procedures.

• A reflash watch must be maintained following either method. A charged hose andtable foam unit should remain in the space to cool or repair the blanket until no lorequired.

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CHAPTER 8

SECURING THE SHIP

8-1 INTRODUCTION

Operations described in this manual concentrate on firefighting tasks that require rapinstinctive reaction from salvors. In most marine firefighting, the events are almost alwaysmoving and operations are carried out under considerable physical and mental pressure. firefighting does not allow salvors the luxury of time to evaluate and test several options, thurgency and danger throughout the task. Only after fires are extinguished and the immediails of fire and flooding are removed do salvors have time to consider the next phase of theirOperations move from firefighting and damage control to a period of securing the ship when thecasualty is stabilized and prepared for return to service or for withdrawal to a ship repair ac

To salvors, securing the ship means the work necessary to render the casualty safely afloat ato steam under her own power or to be taken under tow. Being safely afloat depends upon thenature and extent of damage and the ability of salvage personnel to deliver a manageable can be kept afloat by her organic resources. A ship that is safely afloat may not be able to pits mission and may be fit only to proceed to a repair facility. Work involved in securing themay be relatively straightforward or it may be a complex series of operations involving:

• Making the ship as watertight as possible.

• Transferring fuel, ammunition and stores to other ships.

• Preparing the ship for tow to a repair facility.

The work during the securing the ship phase depends on the nature of damage sustainecasualty. It includes some or all of the following tasks:

• Surveying the casualty in detail to determine services that are required from or sbe provided by salvors. This work is usually performed in association with dewatering and stabilizing of the casualty.

• Upgrading and reinforcing temporary damage control repairs, including changinsoft patching and plugging with more durable and suitable steel patches.

• Assisting the casualty crew to restore basic domestic, berthing and electrical sewhere necessary and practical.

• Removing cargo, munitions or stores that may be urgently required or that are usother ships.

8-1

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gen-

pmentand the

sualty

ed andn of aonditionination

ored oroughs

of

asure-

aft, as

nt and

ith thecile allted in

ly withon of

• Preparing the casualty for ocean tow, including rigging, securing for sea and theeral work associated with the ocean tow of damaged ships.

• Cleaning, overhauling and making ready for use salvage and repair locker equiand replenishment of damage control supplies on board both the salvage ship(s) casualty.

Delivery of the casualty to its commanding officer or to those responsible for taking the cato a repair activity usually takes place after this work is completed.

8-2 SURVEYING THE CASUALTY

Salvors usually begin a general survey of the casualty when major fires are extinguishmopping-up operations are progressing satisfactorily. While the planned refloating conditiostranded ship usually is known with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the post-salvage cof a combat casualty cannot be predicted closely. By a post-firefighting survey and determof the immediate post-salvage condition, salvors develop a plan to secure the ship.

The survey detects any latent or potentially threatening situations that have been either ignbypassed during firefighting operations. Surveys combine physical inspections and walk-thrwith a theoretical analysis based on normal salvage calculations. Paragraph 8-2.6 of the U.S.Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010, contains detailed descriptions applicable salvage survey procedures.

The first stage of the survey is a careful draft survey to establish:

• Forward, aft and port and starboard midships drafts, together with freeboard mements when draft marks are submerged or obliterated.

• Extent of hull deflections—hog, sag and racking—for strength calculations.

After completion of draft surveys, salvors should calculate a mean-of-quarter-means drdescribed in Paragraph 8-2.6.3 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010. From the observed and calculated drafts, salvors establish the displacemehydrostatic condition of the casualty.

Salvors can then compare the casualty’s theoretical displacement, from DC, plates, etc., wactual or observed displacement. An important part of the survey procedure is to reconknown solid and liquid weights in the predamaged condition with weights found or estimathe casualty’s post-salvage condition.

Usually, at this stage of post-firefighting surveys, some anomalies are detected, particularrespect to flooding that was unnoticed during firefighting operations. A physical examinatiall accessible compartments is imperative during the survey to enable salvors to:

8-2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

.

sureightingge sus-

water

y to a

ctural

neering

m-urveyve beenate his-

ued orhen the

after ae over-

am-force inasis on

and theon.

• Carry out detailed gas and toxic substance testing procedures as discussed inPara-graph 8-2.2.

• Verify that all temporary patching and plugging are holding well.

• Ensure that all estimates of floodwater in compartments are reasonably accurate

• Logically plan further temporary repairs and dewatering.

8-2.1 Underwater Survey. A survey by salvage divers is important to determine and meathe extent of underwater damage. Underwater surveys usually are carried out after all firefoperations are completed. These surveys define the physical extent of underwater damatained by the casualty and serve as a basis for evaluating:

• Extent of temporary underwater patching and sealing or plugging necessary to deflooded compartments that are open to the sea.

• Requirements for underwater repairs before the casualty can be moved safelmajor repair facility.

• Practicality and time required for making major underwater repairs and the strueffectiveness of temporary repairs.

Often, when major underwater repairs are technically feasible, there are tactical and engireasons for taking the casualty to a repair facility in an unrepaired condition.

8-2.2 Toxic and Explosive Gases. Salvors must be particularly vigilant in making detailed exainations of actual or potential sources of toxic or explosive gas hazards. During the initial sand securing ship activities, tests must be made in all spaces and compartments that haclosed up, unmanned or flooded by damage. Combat salvage operations have an unfortuntory of producing human casualties after the major threats of fire and flooding are subdremoved. Many salvage crew fatalities have occurred because salvors’ vigilance lapsed wmajor life-threatening risks of fire and flooding were controlled.

Chapters 6 and 7 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual, S0400-AA-SAF-010, containdetailed guidance on safety precautions and testing procedures to be followed during andmarine casualty. The importance of constant vigilance and safety consciousness cannot bemphasized during the final stages of combat salvage operations.

8-2.3 Battle Damage Assessment. During the early stages of securing a casualty, a Battle Dage Assessment Team (BDAT) inspects the damaged ship. The BDAT assists the ship’s determining the extent of damage and repairs required. Reports by the BDAT are the bwhich decisions are made to:

• Redeploy the casualty as a serviceable unit upon completion of salvage services temporary repairs necessary to enable the ship to perform all or some of its missi

8-3

S0300-A6-MAN-030

. The

erson-d by the

f shipslworkese ared man-

ws. This job ofdics in

do not battle

atter ofe thanavail-y only

wice.

volved

rs areand the

hasdiately.

• Remove the casualty to a repair facility upon completion of salvage servicesremoval voyage may be made:

(1) Under own power, with or without a salvage-capable escort ship.

(2) Under tow by an ocean tug.

(3) As float-on/float-off cargo on board a submersible transport ship or barge.

Ideally, salvors should have completed post-salvage surveys of the casualty before BDAT pnel arrive, but this may not always be possible because of the extent of damage sustainecasualty and the ongoing nature of patch and pump operations as part of salvage work.

8-3 ASSISTANCE WITH DAMAGE REPAIRS

Salvors are not ship repairers; their mission in the broadest terms is to prevent the loss ofrom combat or marine accident. During salvage operations, salvors perform minor steerepairs, such as welding on patches or making a ship watertight by a variety of means. Thtemporary, not permanent repairs. Navy salvors have neither the resources nor the skillepower to be efficient ship repair crews.

There is a tendency to believe that salvors can be pressed into service as mobile repair crebelief is created partly because salvors are often willing to assist with repair work that is theother better-equipped organizations. Salvors are similar to ambulance crews and paramethat they provide emergency or “first aid” services. However, just as ambulance personnelperform major surgical operations, salvage crews should not try to perform large-scaledamage repairs.

On the other hand, the difference between temporary and permanent steelwork is often a mhow neatly the work is done. Neat work that follows standard procedures takes more tim“good enough” work—time that is not available in a damage control situation. Time may be able, however, while making the ship safely afloat. Salvage repairs are often temporarbecause of ignorance of correct procedures or the misguided belief that they must be temporary.Coordination with the BDAT can help to ensure that repairs are not needlessly performed t

The tactical situation has considerable influence on the extent to which salvors should be inin major battle-damage repairs. In a high-threat environment, salvors should not be committed torepair projects that restrict their ability to respond immediately to calls for assistance. Salvonormally relieved when they have made the casualty as safely afloat as circumstances ship's condition permit.

8-3.1 Immediate Temporary Repairs. The physical survey and inspections of a ship that been damaged by fire usually reveal a need for temporary repairs that must be made immeThese repairs can be grouped as:

8-4

S0300-A6-MAN-030

buthere

be rel-e hull fire orult forases, itr) and

tiffen-sualty;

hes.

lose toularlypatibler fire-maged

ough to

casu-ust beer thePost-

led in

mediate-term.ir sys-

• Dewatering of wholly or partially flooded spaces known to be structurally intact,flooded by firefighting runoff. Usually, these spaces are given first priority, as twill be little or no further leakage into them.

• Test-pumping of spaces where external damage has occurred but is suspected toatively minor. In many such compartments, leakage and flooding occurs becausfittings, such as valves or machinery connections, have been damaged by blast,contact damage from displaced objects. These leakages can be relatively difficdivers to locate unless a positive suction is taken on the compartment. In some cis faster to dewater the compartment before making a combined external (diveinternal repair.

• Measuring major underwater damage for large temporary patches or additional sing. Under some circumstances, large underwater patches must be fitted to the cathis is not always the case when a casualty is to be withdrawn to a repair facility. Chap-ter 4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2, S0300-A6-MAN-020, containsdetailed guidance for design and construction of large and small underwater patc

• Plugging or sealing above-water holes or blast and shrapnel punctures that are cthe waterline and may allow leakage if the weather changes. This patching, particwhere small holes are to be sealed, can utilize any convenient steel that is comwith the damaged area. Sections of plate removed from above-water blast odamaged areas can be cut to shape and beat to fit before welding onto smaller daareas. These small patches do not have to be works of art, but must be strong enresist wave or water pressure.

• Damage control repairs and temporary patching or shoring installed by either thealty crew or salvage personnel during early phases of the salvage operation mexamined carefully. These repairs and stiffenings usually have been made undimmediate threat of fire and flooding. They are rarely more than temporary fixes. salvage repair work usually involves systematically checking and changing out:

(1) Temporary wooden shores, bracing and collision mats.

(2) Wooden plugs and other temporary leak-stoppers.

(3) Piping patches, jumper lines and other temporary water supply systems.

• Temporary compressed air dewatering systems should be modified or re-instalaccordance with conventional salvage practice. Figure 8-1 shows a typical, temporarycompressed air dewatering system for emergencies. These systems serve an imneed during the stabilization of a damaged ship, but are not suitable for the longSalvors should systematically change-out any of these temporary compressed atems for fittings described in Section 5-3, “Compressed Air Dewatering,” of the U.S.Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 S0300-A6-MAN-020.

8-5

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rgeed per-stability protec-

t be ae pro-

Figure 8-1. Emergency Compressed Air Fittings.

8-3.2 Water Damage Protection. There may be very good technical reasons for leaving lamachinery spaces flooded until enough water damage protection chemicals and specializsonnel and equipment are on site. In some situations, restoration of adequate margins of and reserve buoyancy takes precedence over machinery preservation and water damagetion. On other occasions, machinery preservation in conjunction with dewatering may nopractical option and dewatering proceeds without water-damage protection. Water-damag

8-6

S0300-A6-MAN-030

rs andafely tootected options

alty

and

ash-

to the

nd to

y be aoverallo from

ersed in

, muni-res hasaged orprovise to per-n their

ind. InIn othercultiesstores,

iffer-stores

tection and machinery preservation work priorities must be resolved between the salvothose representing BDATs and repair facilities. On many occasions, ships can be towed sa repair facility with a flooded machinery space and the machinery can be preserved and prin the repair yard. Each casualty presents different water-damage protection problems andand each must be evaluated on its particular circumstances.

8-3.3 Ancillary Services. Salvors may be required to provide ancillary services to a casuwhile they are securing the ship. These services can include:

• Supplying temporary distribution systems for electrical power for basic berthingdomestic services on the casualty.

• Supplying saltwater under pressure for the casualty’s circulating systems or for wing down and cleaning out damaged or fire-affected spaces.

• Supplying fresh water for domestic purposes on board the casualty, subject amount of water that the salvage ship can make available.

• Assisting the casualty crew to overhaul the casualty’s repair locker equipment arepair damaged equipment.

8-4 REMOVAL OF CARGO, MUNITIONS, STORES AND EQUIPMENT

When a casualty is unable to perform its mission and must go to a repair facility, there marequirement for salvors to remove stores, fuel, munitions and other equipment. Sustaining mission requirements of the combat group may create urgent demands for removal of cargreplenishment ships that become casualties. By training and experience, salvors are well vcargo handling under the adverse circumstances that exist on damaged ships.

Combatant ships and combat support auxiliary ships load and carry a wide range of storestions and break-bulk cargoes. Each particular type and category of munitions cargo or stoits own special requirements and handling methods. When purpose-built systems are damdestroyed, salvors, as trained riggers and heavy weight handlers, are often expected to imworkable handling systems. Salvors may have to adapt various equipment and machineryform dry cargo and munitions offloading and then instruct and supervise other personnel ioperation.

Each cargo, stores or munitions offloading project should be approached with an open msome circumstances, salvors see an immediate solution to the cargo handling problem. cases, an improvised system requires a break-in and modification period to eliminate diffior to optimize the system. Key elements in planning and making transfers or discharge of munitions and cargo are:

• Versatility – An improvised or adapted system should be able to handle as many dent types of dry cargo or stores as possible. Major re-rigging each time different or cargo are handled should be avoided.

8-7

S0300-A6-MAN-030

sible

actical,

takelvors

es and

mbat- andM sys-

ts cargoccom-

to mul-m oils entire

-sulted

ly alter- casu-

severaling the

le in a

t and

gressivean towworthy

• Efficiency – The proposed system should perform the task as efficiently as posunder the circumstances without being unnecessarily complex.

• Safety – The cargo, stores and munitions handling system must be as safe as prwith a reasonable margin for error built into the arrangement.

• Imagination – Most transfers of cargo stores and munitions from damaged shipsplace in comparatively sheltered waters or at intermediate ports of refuge. Sashould take careful note of available facilities such as barges, large crawler cranconstruction-type equipment that may expedite the task.

Navy salvors have developed specialized equipment to offload cargo and fuel oils from coant or bulk oil-carrying ships under emergency conditions. A variety of portable electrichydraulic submersible salvage pumps are on the inventories of salvage ships and the ESStem. When an oil-carrying replenishment or transport tanker sustains damage that makes itransfer systems inoperable, Navy salvors should be actively involved in planning and aplishing cargo transfer operations.

The circumstances under which a casualty’s POL cargo can be discharged in small parcelstiple receiving ships are very limited. The most efficient emergency POL transhipments frocarriers are best made to only one or two large receiving ships that can carry the casualty’cargo.

The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 5, S0300-A6-MAN-050, contains detailed information on all aspects of emergency offloading of POL and fuel oil cargo and should be confor further information on that subject.

8-5 PREPARING FOR TOW

In many cases, a casualty cannot remain in the forward area. An ocean tow may be the onnative for removing a casualty to a repair facility when hull or machinery damage prevents aalty from steaming under its own power. Ocean tows of damaged ships usually present problems that must be examined carefully by those responsible for planning and executtow. A damaged ship requires special tow preparation that considers:

• Draft, trim and list of the casualty after temporary repairs and securing for sea.

• Residual strength and reserve buoyancy that may be lower than those acceptabpeacetime planned tow.

• Necessity of providing adequate portable pumps, damage control equipmentrained riding crews.

There are many cases where damaged ships under tow were lost to preventable, proflooding. The damaged ship that is not prepared adequately and manned properly for oceruns a grave risk of developing serious difficulties. In some cases, a ship may not be a sea

8-8

S0300-A6-MAN-030

everelysigned”pon an

onons ofip control How-d fire- be an opera- theeir besthtingn evalu-

ge-in-

- for an

cases,a sea-

ccept-trong

an towTypical

ition

ow.

repare

.

tow as her watertight integrity, structural soundness and reserve buoyancy may be sdegraded in comparison with her intact characteristics. The difference between the “as-deand “the best achievable” towing condition of a properly secured casualty usually rests uadequate riding crew.

The U.S. Navy Towing Manual, SL740-AA-MAN-010, contains general and detailed guidanceocean tow principles and practice that apply to all U.S. Navy open ocean tows. In situatiextreme urgency, as described in paragraphs 6-3.2 and 6-3.3, some ocean rescue and shtow operations begin when the casualty is not, by any definition, in a seaworthy condition.ever, conditions and considerations that apply to ocean towing during damage control anfighting operations are not applicable to the planned tow of a secured casualty. What mayacceptable tow risk in the immediate aftermath of damage is not acceptable after salvagetions are completed. There is no contradiction in terms or doctrine in these circumstances. Infirst instance, salvors have no choice and even less time to do anything other than use thendeavors to make towing connection to a disabled burning ship prior to commencing firefigand damage control operations. In the second case, the damaged ship’s condition has beeated. If a ship is worth repairing, it is worth proper preparation and manning for the voyatow.

Sections 4-1 and 4-2 and Appendix H of the U.S. Navy Towing Manual contain general and specific guidance on tow preparation that serves as the basis for preparing a damaged shipocean tow. The Towing Manual does not address towing ships with:

• Unusual trims and lists that cannot be corrected during tow preparation.

• Severe hull damage caused by collision, weapons strike or explosion. In most this damage may create additional drag or influence the casualty's behavior in way.

• A major flooded compartment that is open to the sea. In practice, such tows are aable risks provided the boundary bulkheads of the flooded compartment are senough for the voyage.

Salvage personnel securing a ship after a casualty frequently become involved with ocepreparations; in some cases, they may be almost entirely responsible for the preparation. work required includes:

• Ballasting, trimming and bringing the ship into the best possible trim and list condfor the tow.

• Bringing the rudder(s) amidship before securing the rudder(s) and propellers for t

• Rigging main and emergency towing bridles and assisting the casualty crew to pthe emergency towing pendants.

• Securing all spaces and compartments that should be made watertight for the tow

8-9

S0300-A6-MAN-030

out-

uits

le tow

vising

ing

alty in

nd their

hen therepared

• Providing diving services to cut away or trim off damaged steelwork that projectsside the casualty’s hull lines.

• Installing and wiring up flooding alarms, suitable temporary lighting, power circand navigation lights.

• Providing minor steelwork and general services usually associated with large-scapreparations and pre-tow securing.

• Rigging of salvage pumps for those spaces or compartments most at risk and desimple and effective pumping plans for the casualty.

• Improving berthing conditions of the ship for the riding crew and briefing or trainembarked personnel where the riding crew is not mainly salvage personnel.

• Preparing stability, strength and hydrostatic characteristic estimates of the casuboth as-delivered and worst case scenarios of the towing voyage.

8-6 COMPLETION OF SALVAGE SERVICES

Salvage services are complete when the casualty is safely afloat and salvage personnel aequipment are no longer required on board. A precise definition of safely afloat depends largelyupon circumstances on board the casualty. Safely afloat can be defined as occurring wship, with assistance from salvage personnel, has regained control of the situation and is pto move on to the next step.

8-10

S0300-A6-MAN-030

A-1

APPENDIX A

DOCUMENTATION MATRIX

A-1 PURPOSE

The purpose of this matrix is to provide the user of this manual with a listing of additional refer-ence documentation. This is given by reference manual and topic area.

A-2 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

The following manuals/publications are referenced on the matrix (Table A-1):

• SAFETY MANUAL – U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Safety Manual (S0400-AA-SAF-010)

• SALVAGE MANUAL – U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual

Volume 1 Strandings (S0300-A6-MAN-010)Volume 2 Harbor Clearance (S0300-A6-MAN-020)Volume 3 Firefighting and Damage Control (S0300-A6-MAN-030)Volume 4 Deep Ocean (S0300-A6-MAN-040)Volume 5 POL Offloading (S0300-A6-MAN-050)Volume 6 POL Spill Response (S0300-A6-MAN-060)

• SALVOR’S HANDBOOK – U.S. Navy Salvor’s Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010)

• UNDERWATER CUT & WELD – U.S. Navy Underwater Cutting and Welding Man-ual (S0300-BB-MAN-010)

• ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK – U.S. Navy Salvage Engineer’s Handbook

Volume 1 (S0300-A8-HBK-010)Volume 2 (S0300-A8-HBK-020)

• TOWING MANUAL – U.S. Navy Towing Manual (SL740-AA-MAN-010)

• ESSM MANUAL – Emergency Ship Salvage Material Catalog (NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-3010)

• EXPLOSIVES MANUAL – Technical Manual for Use of Explosives in UnderwaterSalvage (NAVSEA SW061-AA-MMA-010)

A-2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table A-1.

S0300-A6-MAN-030

hters.

APPENDIX B

CONVERSION TABLES

The following tables include the conversion factors most commonly used by marine firefigSee Appendix B of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) formore extensive conversion tables.

Table B-1. Metric System.

LENGTH

1 meter (m)

10 meters100 meters1,000 meters

= 10 decimeter (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm)= 1,000 millimeters (mm)= 1 decameter (dam)= 1 hectometer= 1 kilometer (km)

AREA

1 square meter (m2) = 1,000,000 square millimeters (mm2)= 10,000 square centimeters (cm2)

= 100 square decimeters (dm2)

VOLUME

1 liter (l)

1 kiloliter (kl)

1 milliliter (ml)

= 1,000 milliliters (ml)

= 1 cubic decimeter (dm3)= 1,000 liters

= 1 cubic meter (m3)= 1 cubic centimeter (cc)

MASS

1 kilogram (kg)1,000 kilograms

= 1,000 grams (g)= 1 metric ton (tonne)

FORCE

1 kilogram force (kgf)1 newton (N)1 kilonewton (kN)

1 meganewton (MN)

= 9,807 newtons (N)= 0.102 kgf= 1,000 newtons= 102 kgf= 1,000,000 newtons= 102,000 kgf= 102 tonnes force (tonnef)

B-1

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-2. Basic Metric /English Equivalents.

MEASURES OF LENGTH

1 meter1 meter1 centimeter1 millimeteR

= 39.37 inches= 3.281 feet= 0.3937 inches= 0.03937

1 inch1 foot1 inch1 inch

= 0.0254 meter= 0.3048 meter= 2.54 centimeters= 25.4 millimeters

MEASURES OF AREA

1 square meter (m2)1 square meter (m2)1 square centimeter

= 10.76 square feet= 1.196 square yards= 0.155 square inches

1 square foot1 square yard1 square inch

= 0.0929 square meter= 0.836 square meter= 6.452 square centimeters

MEASURES OF VOLUME

1 cubic meter (m3)

1 cubic meter (m3)1 liter1 liter1 liter (1)1 cubic meter

= 35.3 cubic feet= 1.31 cubic yards= 61.023 cubic inches= 0.0353 cubic foot= 0.264 U.S. gallons= 264.17 gallons

1 cubic foot (ft3)

1 cubic yard (yd3)

1 cubic foot (ft3)

1 cubic inch (in3)1 U.S. gallon (gal)1 U.S. gallon

= 0.0283 cubic meter= 0.764 cubic meter= 28.32 liters= 0.016339 liters= 3.79 liters= 0.0038 cubic meter

MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND MASS

1 kilogram (kg)1 tonne

1 newton1 meganewton

= 2.205 pounds force= 1.1023 short tons= 2205 pounds= 0.9842 long tons= 0.225 pounds force= 100.4 long tons= 112.4 short tons= 224,799 pounds

1 pound mass (lbm)1 short ton

1 long ton1 pound force (lbf)1 long ton1 short ton

= 0.454 kilograms= 0.9072 tonne= 907.2 kilograms= 1.016 tonne= 4.448 newtons= 0.009964 MN= 0.008897 MN

B-2

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-3. Common Flow Rate Conversions.

MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN

Liters per seconds (lps) 15.83 = 162.12

gallons per minute (gpm)cubic feet per minute (cfm)

Liters per minute (lpm) 0.26 = 0.250.0353

gpmcfm

Long tons seawater per hour 261.8 = 2624.36 = 4.40.5830.2760.995 = 1.0

gal/hourgpmcfmlps

cubic meters per hour (m3/hour)

Tonnes seawater per hour 4.295 = 4.30.5740.2710.976

gpmcfmlpsm3/hour

Long tons fresh water per hour 4.475 = 4.50.5980.2821.016 = 1.0

gpmcfmlps

m3/hour

M3/hour 4.40.5880.2781.01 = 1.00.98 = 1.01.025 = 1.0

gpmcfmlpstons seawater/hourtons fresh water/hourtonnes seawater/hour

M3/second 15850.22118

gpmcfm

Ft3/min (cfm) 7.48 = 7.50.472 = 0.528.321.7141.6711.7410.00047 = 0.0005

gpmlpslpmtons seawater/hourtons fresh water/hourtonnes seawater/hour

m3/second

U.S, GPM 0.1340.0633.790.229 = 0.230.2230.2330.000060.228 = 0.23

cfmlpslpmtons seawater/hourtons fresh water/hourtonnes seawater/hour

m3/sec

m3/hour, tonnes freshwater/hour

B-3

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-4. Water Equivalencies.


ForSeawater

ForFresh Water

Long Ton (2,240 lbs) 35261.82= 2622180.991 = 1.0

6.23

35.89 = 36268.5223.51.016 = 1.0

6.39

Cubic feet (ft3)U.S. gallonsImperial gallonsCubic meters (m3), kiloliters (kl)Barrels (bbl)

Tonnes 34.45257.73 = 258214.60.9766.14

35.33264.26220.04 = 2201.06.29

Cubic feetU.S. gallonsImperial gallonsCubic meters, (kl)bbl

U.S. Gallons 8.563.88

8.343.78

pounds (lbs)kg

Imperial Gallons 10.284.66

10.024.54

lbkg

Cubic Feet 6429.025

62.428.3

lbskg

Cubic Meters (kiloliters) 1.0251,0251.0092,260

1.01,0000.9842,205

tonneskglong tonlbs

Barrels 359.31162.96 = 163

350.37158.9

lbskg

B-4

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-5. Common Pressure Conversions.


Feet of seawaterFeet of fresh waterInches of fresh waterPsiPsiInches of mercuryPsiPsiAtmospheresAtmospheresBar

0.445 = 0.450.434 = 0.430.0362.252.310.49 = 0.52.04 = 2.00.0714.7 = 1510.08 = 10.014.51.02 = 1.0

psipsipsifeet of seawaterfeet of fresh waterpsiinches of mercuryatmospherespsimeters of seawaterpsi

kg/cm2

Table B-6. Common Density Conversion.


Lb/ft3

Kg/m3

m3/tonne

ft3/lton

16.020.062435.870.0279

kg/m3

lb/ft3

ft3/lton

m3/tonne

Table B-7. General Conversion Factors.


Atmospheres 33.9 = 3433.1 = 3329.92 = 3014.7

feet of fresh water (ffw)feet of seawater (fsw)inches of mercury (in Hg)

lb/in2 (psi)

Bars 0.98714.510,200

atmospherespsikg/m2

Barrels 5.615420.159159

cubic feet (ft3)U.S. gallons (gal)

kiloliters, m3

liters

Cubic centimeters 0.00026420.0338

gallons (U.S.)ounces

B-5

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-7 (Continued). General Conversion Factors.


Cubic feet 7.48 = 7.528.320.1781,7280.02832

gallonslitersbbl

in3

m3

Cubic meters 35.31264.26.291,0001

ft3

gallonsbblliterskiloliters

Cubic meters/hour 4.40.589 = 0.6

gallons/minute

ft3/min

Feet of fresh water 0.2950.8820.0305304.7762.40.434

atmospheresinches of mercury (in Hg)

kg/cm2

kg/m2

lb/ft2

psi

Feet of seawater 0.03030.90480.03124312.4664.00.445

atmospheresin Hg

kg/cm2

kg/m2

lb/ft2

psi

Foot pounds (ft-lb) 1.355 newton-meters

Gallons (U.S.) 0.13370.0037853.7850.8332310.0238

ft3

m3

litersImperial gallons

in3

bbl

Gallons (Imperial) 1.201 gallons (U.S.)

Gallons per minute 0.228 cubic meters/hour

B-6

S0300-A6-MAN-030

Table B-7 (Continued). General Conversion Factors.


Kilograms/m2 0.00142 lb/in2 (psi)

Kilograms/m3 0.0624 lb/in3

Kilogram-meter 7.233 ft-lbs

Kilometers/hour 54.680.53960.6214

feet/minuteknotsmph

Kiloliters 16.29264.2220.135.311.308

cubic metersbblU.S. galImperial galcubic ftcubic yds

Knots 1.85321.1516

kilometers/hourstatute miles/hour

Millimeters of mercury 0.001320.04350.044613.62.7850.0193

atmospheresfeet of seawaterfeet of fresh water

kg/m2

lb/ft2

psi

Newtons 0.225 pounds (lb)

Pounds 0.454 kilograms

Pounds/foot 1.488 kilograms/meter

Pounds/ft2 0.0069444.882

psi

kg/m2

Pounds/ft3 16.02 kilograms/m3

Pounds/inch2 2.252.31703.1144

fswffwkilogram/m2

pounds/ft2

Tons (short) 907.22,0000.89290.9072

kglbslong tonstonnes

Tonne 0.9841.10232,2051,000

long tonsshort tonslbskg

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Table B-8. Power Conversion.


Horsepower 0.746 kilowatts

Kilowatts 1.3404 horsepower

Btu 778.3 foot-pounds

Foot-pounds 0.001285 Btu

Btu 0.0003927 horsepower hours

Horsepower hours 2,554.1 Btu

Btu 0.0002928 Kilowatt hours

Kilowatt hours 3,412.75 Btu

Table B-9. Temperature Conversion.

Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) = (9/5 x degrees Celsius ) + 32

Degrees Celsius (°C) = 5/9 x (degrees Fahrenheit - 32)

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

Rankine (R) = Degrees Fahrenheit + 460

Kelvin (K) = Degrees Celsius + 273

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asualty.

APPENDIX C

SALVAGE FIREFIGHTING TEAM APPROACH CHECKOFF LIST

To be completed as accurately as possible by STL prior to approaching and boarding the cMaintain communications with casualty crew at all times during approach.

A. SHIP INFORMATION

1. Name/Hull Number/Type

2. Position—in Lat/Long and grid, if available

3. Availability of ship’s power/Maneuverability

4. Status of command structure on casualty

5. Damage control organization and repair party personnel status

B. FIRE/DAMAGE SITUATION

1. Fires:

a. Number/Type/Size/Location

b. Status of fires (OOC, UC, OUT)

c. Special hazards:

(1) Boil Over

(2) Flowing

(3) BLEVE

(4) Tanks

(5) Magazines

(6) Weapons Systems

(7) Unexploded Ordnance

(8) CBR Hazards

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2. Hull:

a. Hull penetrations, if known

(1) Size/Location

(2) Flooding rate

(3) Risks of progressive flooding

b. Structural Integrity

(1) Type of damage sustained

(2) Special towing considerations, by bow or stern

(3) Requirements for immediate temporary patching or plugging

c. Stability

(1) Drafts—Fwd/Aft/midships P&S

(2) List/Freeboard/Trim

(3) Approximate GM/GZ and range of stability

3. Actions Taken

a. Firefighting

(1) Agents used and stock remaining on board

(2) Cooling and boundary controls established

(3) Magazines flooded or spraying in progress

b. Damage Control

(1) Dewatering

(2) Stability and trim control, actions taken or necessary

4. Condition of on board systems

a. Fire pumps/Fire main

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m. Pro-

b. Fixed extinguishing systems

c. Foam availability and back-up supplies required

d. Requirements to resupply casualty DC locker

C. BOARDING INFORMATION

1. Helicopter

a. Flight deck/Landing site condition and accessibility

b. Crew available to assist offloading salvage gear

2. Ship/Boat Approach

a. Best approach/Wind/Seas/Drift aspect

b. Lifting gear/fenders available

c. Boarding access from boats/ships

(1) Ladder

(2) Cargo net

(3) Gangway

D. ASSISTING VESSELS ON SCENE

1. Actions taken

E. CASUALTY DCA ASSISTANCE

Casualty DCA or assistant to meet team OIC upon arrival to brief and assist embarked teavide General Arrangement Plan or Damage Control plot to team OIC.

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n unitith oneanifolde haverations

in the

rated

with axible

tank,chargeriven

APPENDIX D

GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR COMMERCIAL PORTABLE FIREFIGHTING PUMPS

D-1 INTRODUCTION

The setting-up and operating procedures described in this appendix apply to 2,000- to 2,90(US) portable firefighting pump units deployed by commercial salvors. Paragraph 4-4.4 pro-vides general details of these units; Figure 4-22 illustrates a typical unit.

D-2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The portable firefighting pump described in this appendix is a self-contained, diesel-drivedesigned for easy transportation and rapid deployment. These pump units may be built wor two manually controlled monitors. Some pumps have an additional discharge hose mfor operating remote, portable monitor units or hoses. Most portable pump units of this typan automatic foam proportioner unit that can be adjusted for three- or six-percent concentof protein and synthetic foams and the standard AFFF compound.

A typical 2,900-gpm portable firefighting pump unit consists of the components described following paragraphs.

D-2.1 Engine. The engine is a turbocharged, intercooled, direct-injection diesel especially for fire pump duty. The engine develops about 500 bhp at 2,100 rpm and incorporates:

• Water-cooled exhaust manifold and turbocharger. The exhaust is water-injected special manifold flange that has a quick connector and 20 feet (six meters) of fleexhaust hose with a Camlock coupling.

• Hydraulic starting system with starter motor, baseframe-mounted hydraulic oil pressure gage, foot-operated start valve, accumulator and manually operated repump. This system allows quick and efficient hand starting. There is an engine-dhydraulic recharge pump on some units.

• Heat exchanger with header tank.

• Water-injected exhaust.

• Gear-driven positive-displacement raw water cooling pump.

• Heavy-duty air, fuel and lubrication oil filters.

• Duplex primary fuel filters of the water separator type.

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ion

• Lightweight materials for major components.

• Shut down safety systems.

D-2.2 Pump. The pump is a single-stage centrifugal pump with an end suction that has a low netpositive suction head (NPSH) requirement. It is flange-mounted to the engine flywheel housinvia an adaptor housing incorporating a pump shaft bearing and a water- or grease-lubricatedgland. The pump shaft is driven directly from the engine flywheel through a torsionally flexiblecoupling unit.

The usual static suction lift is 10 feet (3.05 meters). A lightweight, multibranch suction manifolis provided. Suction hoses are attached to the pump suction manifold by up to five four-inch (100mm) or four six-i nch (150 mm) Camlock or Storz couplings. Multiple suction hoses facilitathose handling and reduce the possibility of complete suction blockage. Figure 4-22 depicts a ptable firefighting pump fitted with a five-suction manifold for 4-inch suction hoses. Suction man-ifold configurations vary with models and manufacturers. Two sets of suction hoses, usually 18 feet long, are provided. One set of hoses has an integral foot valve and strainer. The other set ofhoses are deck or suction extension hoses. The pumps can be operated by:

• Taking direct suction from the main decks of salvage ships, rescue tugs, tug/supplyvessels or other ships or barges of opportunity with freeboards less than 10 feet.

• Being supplied by suction booster pumps at freeboards greater than 10 feet.

Special adapter fittings may be required to couple hydraulic suction booster pumps for suctlifts in excess of 10 feet.

A hand-operated diaphragm pump is provided for filling the suction lines before startup. This sys-tem is simple, efficient and maintenance-free. Alternatively, the suction lines may be primed froman external water supply.

The pump assembly features:

• Stainless steel shaft.

• Bronze impeller.

• Marine-grade aluminum alloy casing.

• Soft-packed gland with water or grease lubrication.

Discharge from the pump is through a high-pressure, flexible pipe coupling that isolates theengine-pump assembly from the discharge pipework and monitor units. The pump discharge isfitted with a connection and shut-off valve for the injection of foam. Hoses can be attached to aspecial hose mounted below the monitor units.

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eengine

l

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lly

D-2.3 Mounting. The engine-pump monobloc assembly is mounted on the base frame on threheavy-duty, bonded rubber, antivibration mounts. There are two mounts at the front of the and a single mount supporting a yoke on the pump suction flange. This system eliminates anybending by excessive handling or suction hose loads.

D-2.4 Base and Frame. The base and frame are constructed from marine-grade aluminum alloysheet, folded and welded to provide a rigid, lightweight assembly. The base contains an integralfuel tank (five-hour capacity) with contents gage and a hydraulic oil tank for the starting system.The base frame incorporates hardwood skids and forklift truck sockets for handling.

The detachable protection frame is supported from six points with a top protective canopy fittedwith a single point lift and hold-down shackles. Tool and equipment compartments are fitted.

D-2.5 Instrumentation. The instrumentation panel is mounted within the protection frame in awater-resistant box. All instrumentation is operated mechanically and includes:

• Tachometer and hourmeter.

• Oil pressure gage.

• Water temperature gage.

• Pump pressure gage (liquid-filled).

• Pump suction gage (liquid-fill ed).

• Exhaust gas temperature gage.

• Engine speed control.

D-2.6 Monitor(s) and Discharge Manifold. One (or two) hand-controlled monitors with fulazimuth and elevation capability are mounted on top of the protective frame. The monitors havespade-pattern, gate-type control valves to enable one or both of them to be isolated from thecharge manifold. A discharge manifold with connections for up to six 2-1/2-inch diameter hosesis located on top of the pump casing, inside the protective framework.

D-2.7 Safety Features. The following safety features are included for operations in potentiahazardous atmospheres. All the systems are mechanical and include:

• Low oil pressure shutdown.

• High cooling water temperature shutdown.

• Overspeed shutdown by mechanical fuel shutoff and by aspiration air shutoff.

• Low cooling water pressure shutdown.

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or

in the

• Inlet flame trap.

• Water-injected exhaust.

• Water-cooled manifold/turbocharger.

• Antistatic v-belts.

• Bronze (nonsparking) starter pinion.

• Nonsparking hardwood skids on base.

• Flametrap on engine crankcase vent.

Most commercially operated, portable, firefighting pump units comply with national and interna-tional flameproofing regulations. Systems are constructed in compliance with Lloyd’s Register oShipping’s specifications for operation in Zone 2 Hazardous Areas. These specifications permitoperation of certain types of approved diesel-engine-driven machinery on board tankers.

Not all diesel engines comply with the requirements for Zone 2 Hazardous Area operations.

D-2.8 Foam Injection. The unit has foam injection by either pressure injection through a con-nection on the pump discharge or induction through a connection on the pump suction manifold.

D-3 PUMP SETUP INSTRUCTIONS

The following setup instructions are based on pump units delivered to a platform of opportunitysuch as a hired tug/supply ship and set up as shown in Figure 6-7.

D-3.1 Pre-operation Setup. The following procedures are for setting up the units:

a. Place the pump as low as possible for minimum suction lift. The rated suction lift of thepump units is 10 feet (3.05 meters).

b. Secure the pump to the ship’s deck using a positive tiedown system that can resist bothrust from monitors and ship’s motions at sea. Suggested securing methods are:

(1) Metal plate dogs inserted into the forklift handling sockets of the pump frame andwelded to the ship’s deck. Do not weld brackets to the pump frame.

(2) Combinations of oil field cargo loadbinders or turnbuckles secured to padeyeslugs welded on the ship’s deck and bulwarks.

c. Drain preservation oil from the pump casing. Remove the blank flange and its associ-ated nuts and bolts from the suction flange. Store the flange and securing devicespare parts box.

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'sater.

ehe

n

d. Fit the suction manifold to the pump suction flange and connect the foam eductor andengine saltwater cooling lines to appropriate points.

e. If monitor(s) have been dissembled, remount them on top of the 6-inch plate valveon top of the framework.

f. Connect the exhaust hose to the exhaust manifold. Keep the free end of the exhlow as possible to permit easy water flow (drainage).

g. Rig the suction hoses and strainer/footvalves. Connect a length of rope to each foot-valve release lever and connect another line to the lower end of the hose for lifting.Keep the lines separate—the footvalve lever line must never be too tight. Tie off allcam levers on Camlock couplings with small stuff.

h. Connect the suction hoses to the pump suction manifold making sure the rubber sealingrings are in position in the Camlock couplings. Close the cams on the coupling andsecure it with small stuff.

i. Lower the suction strainers into the water making sure the strainers are well clear ofpropellers and rudders. Tie off all lines making sure the footvalve lever lines are slack.

j. Connect the fire main adapter to the foam suction branch and connect it to the shipfire main or another water source. Flood the suction hoses and pump casing with wMake sure that the diesel engine cooling water pump suction pipe is flooded to thpump impeller. Make sure the water level is maintained in hoses and casing. If twater level drops, check the footvalves for correct seating and the lever lines for slack-ness.

k Check following valve positions:

(1) Main six-i nch discharge gate valves to monitors: OPEN

(2) Foam valve from eductor to suction manifold: CLOSED

(3) Foam suction connection (on completion of flooding): OPEN

l. Position the monitor(s) so that the water stream will not strike and damage objects ithe area.

D-3.2 Prestarting Procedures

a. The following engine checks should be made before starting up and after preparing thepump:

(1) Check the coolant level (fresh water cooling).

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ine.

ms:

(2) Check the crankcase lubricating oil level.

(3) Check the fuel level in the main fuel tank.

(4) Check the hydraulic oil level in the start system oil tank.

(5) Check that fuel pump stop lever is in full forward position.

b. Pump up the hydrostart system to between 150 and 200 bar (2,250 to 3,000 psi).

c. With the hand-pressure pump on the side of the fuel pump, bleed all air from the fueinjection system at the high point on the fuel filters and at the pressure equalizer Bosch fuel pump. When all air is expelled, pressurize the fuel system with the samhand pump (5 to 10 strokes) to give the maximum starting ability.

d. Preset the Amot control valve under the frame canopy at the after end of the engLift the small lever through 90 degrees and rotate the linkage downward until the pawlengages. The Amot control shuts the engine down for any of the following proble

(1) Loss of lubricating oil pressure.

(2) High fresh water cooling temperature.

(3) Loss of seawater cooling pressure.

(4) Engine overspeed.

(5) High exhaust gas temperature.

All shutdowns stop the engine by closing off the air inlet manifold.

e. Recheck that the six-inch gate valves below the monitor(s) are fully open and that thewaterway to the monitor(s) is clear.

D-3.3 Starting. To start the engine:

a. Set the throttle lever to the middle position.

b. Press down the pedal valve on the hydrostart system—release it immediately when theengine fires.

c. Pull the throttle lever towards the slow running position (800 to 1,000 rpm).

d. Check that the main pump and saltwater cooling pump have both picked up suction andare pumping water.

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d

e

to idle

ne

e. Check that the Amot control valve has taken over the safety system and that the mnuallatch has released.

f. Check all gages on the control board.

g. After about five minutes warmup, open the throttle for the required revolutions anoutput.

D-3.4 Running Procedures. Running procedures are:

a. Check all gages on the control board for steady readings of temperature and pressure.

b. Check the cooling water system for leaks.

c. Check the lubricating oil system for leaks.

d. Check the fuel system for leaks.

e. Check the pump gland for heat and a very small leak off.

f. Check the fuel level and refill at regular (at least four-hour) intervals.

g. Never leave the pump running unattended. Normally, two pump units are operating.One person may be assigned to watch both pumps.

h. When changing over from monitor(s) to hose manifold operation:

(1) Point the monitor(s) outboard in a safe direction.

(2) Open up the hose delivery valves slowly and charge the remote delivery lines care-fully.

(3) Shut down monitor(s) slowly and allow a gradual buildup of pressure in the remotdelivery lines.

D-3.5 Stopping. To stop the unit:

• Routine Stopping

(1) Point the monitors in a safe direction.

(2) Reduce the engine speed to approximately 1,000 rpm and allow the engine for about 10 minutes.

(3) Pull the stop lever at the back of the fuel pump towards the pump end of the engiuntil the latch engages.

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therect.f vent

(4) Once the engine has stopped return the stop lever to the fully forward position tofacilitate restart.

• Emergency Stop. For emergency use only there is a stop lever connected to the maAmot safety control valve that is in turn connected to a butterfly valve in the air inlet ofthe engine. When the lever is pushed, it trips the Amot control and stops the engclosing the air inlet.

D-3.6 Miscellaneous Operating Notes. These notes should always be read in conjunction withthe appropriate instruction manual for the engine and pump unit on the specific firefighting sys-tem being operated.

D-3.6.1 Engine Will Not Start. If the engine will not start:

a. Check the fuel level.

b. Check the fuel system for air locks.

c. Check that the Amot valve is set correctly.

d. Check that the fuel pump stop handle is in fuel “ON” position.

e. Check that the air intake valve is not stuck in the closed position.

D-3.6.2 Engine Stops While Idling. The engine stopping while idling can be caused by too ga static suction head on main pump, which gives too low cooling seawater pressure. The remis to lower the pump to reduce the suction head or to run the pump at slightly higher revolutions.

D-3.6.3 Engine Stops Running Under Load. If the engine stops running under load:

a. Carry out all “Before Starting” procedures and all “Engine Will Not Start” checks.

b. Check that the main pump and the seawater cooling pump have retained their prime.Check that all footvalves are closed and that lines attached to footvalve levers are slack.Reprime the suction system from deck salt water service line.

c. Check for broken V-belts and a defective fresh water pump.

d. After restart, check safety controls as follows:

(1) Seawater cooling: Crack open the air vent on the pump discharge or connecpressure gage to find out if the pump is functioning. If water flows, close the vent.

(2) Lube oil safety: Slowly slacken the nut retaining the pipe to the cock at start of lube oil safety line. If oil comes out and engine stops, oil pressure is corRetighten the nut and restart engine and slacken the nut at the return end o

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.

ed by a air

.

open.

.

e

line. If oil flows, one of the safety devices is bypassing oil because of not resettingCheck all safety transmitters individually until the faulty unit is located. Correctthe fault.

D-3.6.4 Overspeed. Excessive revolutions (overspeed) can be caused by loss of load causbroken pump shaft, loose impeller, loss of counter pressure or ingestion of oil vapors throughinlet. If vapor ingestion is suspected, check the atmosphere adjacent to the engine air inlet

D-3.6.5 The Pump Fails to Deliver after Filling and Starting. If the pump fails to deliver afterfilling and starting:

a. Check the six-inch gate valves just below the monitor(s). These valves should be

b. Fill up the suction system and check the hoses and couplings for leaks. If there areleaks, tighten the securing bands or renew the coupling gaskets.

c. Check that the static suction height does not exceed 11.5 to 13 feet (3.5 to 4.0 meters)

d. If filling of the pump proceeds without overflowing, check the footvalves to be surthey are closed and the trigger lines are slack.

e. If the vacuum manometer gives a high suction reading, check strainers and footvalvesfor blockage by plastic, seaweed, etc.

f. If the strainer and footvalve are blocked badly, the pump impeller must be checked forpresence of plastic or garbage that may have drifted away from the casualty.

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usnavy fire fighting salvage manual vol3

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