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No guts, no gains! The relation between living group climate and social developmentof juvenile delinquents in detentionHeynen, E.J.E.
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Download date: 12 Jul 2018
No Guts, No Gains!The relation between living group climate and
social development of juvenile delinquents in detention
Evelyn J. E. Heynen
NO GUTS, NO GAINS!
The relation between living group climate and social development of juvenile
delinquents in detention
Evelyn Heynen
© copyright: Evelyn Heynen, Selfkant 2015 Picture: Nadja Perbaums Cover design: Anne Wagemans ISBN 978-3-00-051848-5
This PhD Thesis was financially supported by Hogeschool Leiden, Leiden University of Applied Sciences
NO GUTS, NO GAINS!
The relation between living group climate and social development of juvenile
delinquents in detention
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr. D. C. van den Boom
ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde
commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der Universiteit op vrijdag 29 januari 2016, te 13 uur
door
Evelyn Josefine Elisabeth Heynen
geboren te Sittard
Promotiecommissie
Promotores: Prof. Dr. A.M. Korebrits
Prof. Dr. G.J.J.M. Stams
Co-promotores: Dr. G.H.P. Van Der Helm
Dr. M.J. Cima
Overige leden: Prof. Dr. J. Hendriks
Prof. Dr. L.W.C. Tavecchio
Prof. Dr. A. Popma
Prof. Dr. R. Didden
Dr. A. M. L. Collot D’Escury-Koenigs
Faculteit: Faculteit der Maatschappij en Gedragswetenschappen
GREATEST STRENGTH
Break him, the tough guy said.
He's got to know who's boss.
Tie him up, pull him down, put some sense in his head.
He might get hurt, but that's the risk, it's only the horse's loss.
Is he mean, or simply filled with fear?
Tradition would say it doesn't matter.
Break his will to fight...you hear?
Or your body he will batter.
I've come to learn it isn't so,
This traditional belief.
Communicate, and let him know.
Violence will only get you grief.
Create a path, and watch him learn
To partner with our kind.
Be fair, and his trust you'll earn.
Be gentle, and a friend you'll find.
Training is not a battle that a man
is obliged to win.
Learning should be looked upon
as a way of having fun.
Leave your horse his dignity,
and view him with a grin.
Now your horse will see it through,
'til every job is done.
The greatest strength a man can achieve
Is gentleness-I know.
Cause your horse in you to believe,
And your inner strength will grow.
-Monty Roberts-
(from: From my hands to yours. Lessons from a lifetime of training)
PROLOGUE
Although at first glance it may seem strange, the relation between horses and
their teachers is in many aspects comparable to that of young prison inmates and
their group workers.
“Make it easy for him to do right, and difficult to do wrong”. Do not break his will.
Breaking the will of horses is in many aspects comparable with the situation of
adolescents in juvenile justice institutions where juveniles have to behave like
group workers want them to behave (Harvey, 2005; Van der Helm & Hanrath,
2012; Zimbardo, 2007).
According to the theory of Roberts (2000, p.17), a horse is able to develop in a
positive environment. There is ample evidence that young detainees are able to
develop as well in a positive environment (Souverein, Van der Helm, & Stams,
2013). The worst thing you can do to a horse is to separate it from its herd
(Roberts, 2002). This is also comparable with the situation of young prison
inmates. Only within a positive social environment young juveniles are able to
develop. It is thus important for them to experience a positive living group climate
(Van der Helm, 2011).
“You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make them drink”. “You can lead a
man to knowledge but you can’t make him think” (Roberts, 2002). For horses and
mankind, education is a matter of survival. Treatment is more related to the
knowledge of people how to behave, than to their manpower (Roberts, 2002,
p.24). This can also be compared to the situation of young juveniles – treat them
with respect and it will work. The grass you need for the horses will not grow by
pulling at it (Van der Helm, Beld, & Stams, 2014).
REFERENCES Harvey, J. (2005). Young men in prison. surviving and adapting to life inside. Cullompton UK: Willan. Roberts, M. (2000). Join Up, horse sense for people, Harper Collins Publisher, London. Roberts, M. (2002). Die Sprache der Pferde [From my hands to yours, lessons from a lifetime of training championship horses], Bastei Lübbe, Köln. Van der Helm, G.H.P. (2011). First do no harm: group climate in secure correctional institutions. VU University, PhD thesis. Amsterdam: SWP. Van der Helm, G.H.P. & Hanrath, J. (2012). Wat werkt in de gesloten jeugdzorg [what works in secure residential youthcare], Amsterdam, SWP. Van der Helm, P. Beld, M. Stams, G.J. (2014). De hardnekkige mythe dat straffen helpt bij opvoeding in de gesloten jeugdzorg [the enduring myth that punishment aids upbringing in residential youth care], Orthopedagogiek: Onderzoek en Praktijk. 53, 164-175. . Souverein F., Van der Helm G.H.P., & Stams G.J.J.M, (2013). `Nothing works` in secure residential youth care? Children and Youth Services Review. 35, 1941-1945. DOI:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.010. Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York: Random House.
INDEX
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 11
CHAPTER 2
MEASURING GROUP CLIMATE IN A GERMAN YOUTH PRISON: A GERMAN VALIDATION OF THE PRISON GROUP CLIMATE INSTRUMENT 25
CHAPTER 3
MEASURING EMPATHY IN A GERMAN YOUTH PRISON A VALIDATION OF THE GERMAN VERSION OF THE `BASIC EMPATHY SCALE´ (BES) IN A SAMPLE OF INCARCERATED JUVENILE OFFENDERS 39
CHAPTER 4
I DON’T CARE ABOUT WHAT YOU WANT! THE RELATION BETWEEN JUVENILE DELINQUENTS’ RESPONSES TO SOCIAL PROBLEM SITUATIONS AND EMPATHY IN SECURE JUVENILE INSTITUTIONS 55
CHAPTER 5
THE RELATION BETWEEN LIVING GROUP CLIMATE, AGGRESSION AND CALLOUS UNEMOTIONAL TRAITS IN DELINQUENT BOYS IN DETENTION 75
CHAPTER 6
FEELINGS OF OTHERS DON’T IMPRESS ME MUCH! THE EFFECTS OF LIVING GROUP CLIMATE ON EMPATHIC BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENT MALE OFFENDERS 105
CHAPTER 7
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND EPILOGUE 123
SUMMARY
DANKWOORD
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
ATTENDED CONFERENCES
AFFILIATIONS OF CO-AUTHORS
12
INTRODUCTION
Cesare Lombroso was in 1894 one of the first to conduct research on the
development of criminal behavior. He stated that human beings were predestined
for criminal behavior due to their physical configuration and were born as
criminals. In 1942 Edward Sutherland stated that criminal behavior is learned,
such as other behavior we learn. As there was limited empirical evidence for this
learning theory, during the 60’s and 70’s of the 19th century great attention was
given to studies focusing on prevalence of genetic syndromes and chromosomal
abnormalities associated with aggressive, antisocial and criminal behavior
(Burgess & Akers, 1966; Mednick & Christiansen, 1977). However, prospective and
population-based studies soon dismissed this theory as being the sole cause of
such behavior with more emphasis on developmental processes being
responsible. In the 90’s of the previous century the focus switched again to a
more cognitive psychological and social approach (Blair, 1995; Davis, 1996;
Moffitt, 1993). Today we presume that a bio-psycho-social model is the basis for
the development of aggressive, non-empathic and criminal behavior (Raine,
2013). As we find the influence of the social environment to be in the shadow of
the biological and psychological aspects of modern science the aim of the present
dissertation is to shine more light on this topic and its relation with criminal
behavior, especially in detained youth.
After 7 million years of evolution, today we know, humans are social
beings equipped with a ”social brain” that helped survival in (hunter-gatherer)
groups in the past (Boehm, 2014; Dunbar, 1998). Social selection in evolution has
biased humans to behave pro-social and cooperative (Frith & Frith, 2008, 2009).
From early infancy, children learn to imitate social and moral behavior of their
caregivers (Bandura, 1973; Heipertz & Young, 2014; Killen & Rizzo, 2013). Children
as young as 6 months old prefer agents who help others over agents who hinder
others (Hamlin, Wynn & Bloom, 2007; Killen & Rizzo, 2013), and they have a
special ability to recognize, receive and learn from each other (Baldwin, Markman,
Bill, Desjardins, Irwin, & Tidball, 1996). But without persistent care, support and
good examples of caregivers, a child won’t be able to learn and develop, resulting
13
in the expansion of serious behavioral problems (Fanti & Henrich, 2010; Shaffer,
1996).
Although caregivers normally bring up their children in a social way, not
all children are able to behave socially ('the human factor', Kitcher, 2004). Stress
and substance use by parents during pregnancy can result in behavioral problems
of the infant (Knudsen et al., 2014). These infants are prone to more crying and
are less easily soothed, causing problems in already over-burdened families (Barr,
2012; Raine, 2013). Negligence or mistreatment by caregivers and a negative
environment will result in decreased sensitivity for ‘trust’ hormones (serotonin
and oxytocin) and more sensitivity for dopamine and testosterone, enhancing
competitiveness and search for rewards, often without respecting others (Den
Ouden et al., 2013). Stress, as a result of maltreatment or neglect of caregivers,
can result in deficits of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal-Axis (HPA-Axis, Popma
& Raine, 2006) functioning, resulting in a lower fear conditioning and more callous
and unemotional traits (Raine, 2013). Hereditary deficits in emotional processing,
changes in the structure of the brain and related neuro-hormones (cortisol,
dopamine) can impact on antisocial behavior (Fairchild et al, 2013).
Recent research has shown that a combination of genetic and
environmental factors can result in aggression and anti-social behavior (Caspi, et
al., 2002; Raine, 2013). The structural and functional brain development continues
into late adolescence. A relative immaturity in the frontal cortical neural
circuitries, often caused by enduring environmental stress, can be a predictor of
risk-taking and criminal behavior, such as substance use (Crone & Dahl, 2012;
Raine, 2013). Research has shown that within a safe environment and with
persistent care and responsivity of caregivers, also neglected children are able to
develop positively (Somerville, Jones, & Casey, 2010; Van der Helm, 2011). As we
know that environmental stress can predict the development of antisocial
behavior, the question is whether a positive and stable environment with positive
care, treatment and rehabilitation efforts can diminish antisocial behavior. Since
research has demonstrated that criminal behavior is not solely inborn, there could
be possibilities to change that behavior. Brain dysfunction as one of the main
causes of persistent anti-social, criminal and delinquent behavior is not
14
irreversible as modern science has shown (Raine, 2013). Especially in young
children and adolescents, the brain is very malleable and has the capacity to grow,
develop and make repairs (Arden & Linford, 2009; Lenroot & Giedd, 2006; Shore,
1997). For these repairs a stable social environment without too much stress is
needed (Raine, 2013), as the main stress hormone, cortisol, is neurotoxic (Uno et
al., 1994). But living in secure residential youth care often means living in a social
group and confrontation with complex social problem situations and challenges in
dealing with these situations (Liebling & Maruna, 2005; Van der Helm & Stams,
2012). When entering the prison system, juveniles bring several complex
behavioral problems they experienced before (‘import hypothesis’) leading to
failures of reintegration (Liebling & Maruna, 2005) and problems of coping with
their social environment (Van der Helm, Beunk, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2014).
During detention, juveniles often experience a repressive environment with stress
and coercion, a lack of positive stimulants to advance positive development and a
lack of support by peers and group workers (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). The
presence of antisocial youth with different behavioral problems and group
workers who want to be ‘marshal’ and ‘patron’ can lead to feelings of loneliness,
deprivation, disadvantage and competition (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012; White,
Shi, Hirschfield, Mun, & Loeber, 2009).
As Schubert et al. (2012) recently demonstrated, juvenile prisoners can
change their behavior if they gain more positive perceptions within and across the
juvenile setting they live in. Research in the field of social neuroscience has shown
that a stimulating environment can result in better executive functioning of the
brain, more advanced social cognition and social learning (Gazzola, Aziz Zadeh, &
Keysers, 2006; Iacoboni & Dapretto, 2006; De Vignemont & Singer, 2006) and can
even result in decreased levels of impulsivity and fear (Wykes et al., 2002). Van
der Helm et al. (2012) showed a positive living group climate to be associated with
higher levels of cognitive empathy in a group of delinquent boys. Recent research
has also shown that a positive and stable environment, with a main focus on
positive interpersonal contact, can support the personal development of detained
youth (Lipsey, 2009; Soeverein, van der Helm, & Stams, 2013). This can foster
trust, which supports positive development of the social brain. Positive
15
interpersonal contact can decrease fear, depression, anger and aggression, can
stimulate empathy, moral reasoning, and can regulate impulsive and oppositional
behavior (Keysers, 2015; Norman, Lawrence, Iles, Benattayallah, & Karl, 2014; Van
der Helm et al., 2012). It is thus not the principle of punishment or a “hard time”
that works in juvenile justice, but a combination of flexibility, control and care to
create a safe environment (De Valk, Van der Helm, Beld, Schaftenaar, Kuiper, &
Stams, 2015; Van der Helm et al. 2014).
The present dissertation will add more content to research focusing on
the stimulation of (social) development within a positive environment during
detention. One of the main goals of imprisonment, not solely in the Netherlands
and Germany, is treatment and rehabilitation into the social world (Bruning et al.,
2011; Gatti, Tremblay, & Vitaro, 2009; Harvey, 2005; Liebling & Maruna, 2005;
Wolthuis & Vandenbroeke, 2009). To succeed in this reintegration process
juveniles have to ‘unlearn’ their social, emotional and behavioral failures. Before
entering the prison system, juvenile delinquents are often unable to respond
appropriately to their social environment due to aversive childhood experiences
(Asscher, Van der Put, & Stams, 2015; Hoeve et al., 2009, 2012) and/or
neurobiological deficits (Raine, 2013), which might hamper the development of,
for example, empathy, one of the main basic elements to behave pro-socially.
Recent research has shown that a therapeutic approach has more effect
on reduction of aggression and antisocial behavior of juveniles than a more
punishment-oriented approach, and supports social development and successful
rehabilitation (De Valk, et al., 2015; Lipsey, 2009; Parhar, Wormith, Derkzen, &
Beauregard, 2008; Ros, Van der Helm, Wissink, Stams & Schaftenaar, 2013).
Accordingly, in delinquent youth, a therapeutic climate has shown to be essential
for recovery, growth and rehabilitation (Evans-Chase & Zhou, 2014: Schubert et.
al., 2012: for an oversight see: Souverein, Van der Helm, & Stams, 2013). The
present dissertation aims to add more knowledge to the field of behavioral
research in the context of a positive prison environment. This dissertation will
investigate if a positive living group climate is associated with increased empathic
behavior, adequate responding to social problem situations, and decrease of CU-
traits and aggression in juvenile offenders.
16
Living Group Climate in Secure Residential Youth Care
Already in 1953, the World Health Organization stated that “climate is the single
most important factor in the efficacy of treatment” (p. 17) administered to
psychiatric patients. Today’s living group climate research is based on the
following definitions of social climate: “the material, social, and emotional
conditions of a given unit and the interaction between such factors” (Moos, 1989).
And “a set of properties or conditions relating to the internal environment of an
organization, as they are perceived by its members” (Ajdukovic, 1990, p. 422). The
social climate is thus defined as a multifactorial construct based on different
mechanisms that describe how social relations in a group are experienced by the
persons living and working in this group.
Recognition of the importance of the social climate among prison inmates
formed the early basis of living group climate research in residential youth care
and consequently the development of the Prison Group Climate Instrument (PGCI,
Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2011; for a discussion see also Tonkin,
2015). The PGCI questionnaire is central for the investigation of living group
climate research in the present dissertation. Four factors characterize living group
climate: support, growth, repression and atmosphere (Van der Helm et al., 2011).
The scale for support assesses the support prisoners perceive from staff.
The growth scale measures juvenile’s developmental possibilities and hope for the
future. The repression scale evaluates the perceived repression, strictness of rules
and control, lack of fairness and flexibility in the living group. Finally, the group
atmosphere scale assesses the degree to which the physical and social
environment can foster feelings of safety and trust among the inmates (Van der
Helm et al., 2011). An open living group climate is defined by high levels of
support, ample opportunities for growth, minimal repression and a clean, safe
and structured environment, with clear rules and a daily routine in which inmates
and workers trust and respect each other (Van der Helm et al., 2011).
17
Aims and outlines of this dissertation
Today, there is abundant knowledge on the effects of individual treatment of
juvenile offenders (Garrido & Morales, 2007; Lipsey, 2009), but in particular the
influences of the ‘social-together’ on the development and behavior of inmates
need further examination (Marshall & Burton, 2010). Young prison inmates are
not able to escape from the compulsory environment they have to share with
others, but if the environment is positive they may also develop in a pro-social
way (Schubert et al., 2012). As outlined above, a positive living group climate in
residential youth care can be the foundation of successful treatment and
rehabilitation and is also the basis for research conducted in the present PhD
project. The general aim of this thesis was to investigate whether there is a
relation between a therapeutic living group climate and juveniles’ social
development (including deficits) in terms of empathy, aggression, CU-traits and
dealing with complex social situations.
The findings of the present dissertation are based on research conducted
in German and Dutch juvenile justice institutions. As the investigation of living
group climate with the PGCI is the main concept of the present dissertation and
there was no German validation of this scale, Chapter 2 examines the validity and
reliability of the PGCI questionnaire in German residential youth care.
There was also no instrument to investigate another main concept of this
dissertation. Therefore, Chapter 3 investigates the validation of the German
version of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES) in a sample of incarcerated adolescent
male offenders. As previous research has mainly focused on the usage of the BES
in a general adolescent population or mixed samples, this chapter adds more
knowledge to the field of empathy research in adolescents within a youth
correctional facility.
In Chapter 4 inadequate responses to social problem situations in youth
correctional facilities and their relation with cognitive and affective empathy will
be discussed. This chapter focuses on problems with competition, giving or
accepting help and problems with accepting authority. All of them are common
daily problems young prison inmates have to deal with, and which in this chapter
are expected to be related to cognitive and affective empathy. More specifically,
18
we hypothesize inappropriate responses to social problem situations in terms of
competition, social disadvantage, receiving/providing help and accepting
authority to be related to lower levels of empathy.
Chapter 5 investigates if living group climate could influence behavior of
delinquent youth in youth prison. High levels of CU-traits in combination with
reactive and proactive aggressive behavior have shown to be a major problem in
youth correctional facilities. We examine whether a positive and open living group
climate is associated with aggressive behavior and callous unemotional traits. It is
hypothesized that a positive and open living group climate is associated with less
reactive and proactive aggression and less CU-traits in detained juvenile
offenders.
Chapter 6 describes a longitudinal replication of a previous cross-sectional
study to investigate the influences of positive living group climate on the
development of empathy. It is hypothesized that an open living group climate
with positive support, possibilities for growth and atmosphere and low repression
rates will be associated with more empathy during detention.
The final chapter 7 provides an overall discussion of the results of the five
studies in this dissertation. Future directions for living group climate research in
residential youth care will be provided.
19
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association between child maltreatment and adolescent offending. Journal of
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25
MEASURING GROUP CLIMATE IN A
GERMAN YOUTH PRISON: A GERMAN VALIDATION OF THE PRISON GROUP CLIMATE INSTRUMENT
Evelyn Heynen, Peer van der Helm, Geert-Jan Stams & Andries Korebrits
Measuring group climate in a German youth prison: A German validation of the prison group climate instrument, (2014) Journal of Forensic
Psychology Practice. 14. 45-54.
26
ABSTRACT
Recently Van der Helm, Stams and Van der Laan (2011) developed the Prison
Group Climate Instrument (PGCI) to investigate group climate quality in forensic
psychiatric institutions and secure residential treatment facilities for delinquent
juveniles and young adults. The Dutch version contains 36 items and four scales,
measuring support from group workers, growth, atmosphere and repression. The
present study examined construct validity, convergent validity and reliability of
the German version of the PGCI in a sample of 218 delinquent late adolescents
and young adults in a German prison. A confirmatory factor analysis with four first
order factors – “support”, “growth”, “group atmosphere”, and “repression” – and
“overall group climate” as a second order factor showed a good fit to the data and
indicated construct validity of the German version of the PGCI. Preliminary
support was found for convergent validity. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients
were sufficient for all scales. In future studies, the PGCI can be used to assess the
climate in judicial and forensic psychiatric care in Germany in order to improve
safety, treatment outcomes, and rehabilitation in a forensic setting.
27
INTRODUCTION
Secure treatment and imprisonment of young juveniles is often an “ultima ratio.”
The impact of incarceration and resulting consequences on personal development
and recidivism, however, are largely unknown (Marshall & Burton, 2010;
Schubert, Mulvey, Loughran, & Loysa, 2012; Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan,
2011). During the year 2011, 60.067 “criminals” in Germany were incarcerated.
Nearly 10% (6,099) were between the ages of 14 and 24 (Deutsches Bundesamt
für Statistik, 2012). Actual numbers show that there are 5,603 young prison
inmates in Germany and 1,466 of them in Nordrhein-Westfalen (Anzahl der
Gefangenen im Jugendstrafvollzug in Deutschland nach Bundesländern, 2012).
A main goal of the juvenile justice system is to prevent recidivism and to
promote rehabilitation. Imprisonment, however, can negatively affect juvenile
delinquents (Liebling & Maruna, 2005). Youth detention can destabilize
personality and can have negative influences on work and social relationships,
personal status, self-control, and self-esteem (Köhler, 2004). Stress, anxiety, and
lack of social support are associated with detention and can result in aggressive
behavior in a secure setting (Ros, Van der Helm, Wissink, Stams, & Schaftenaar, in
press; Van der Helm, Klapwijk, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2009). In prisoners with a
preexisting mental disorder, problems can aggravate during detention (Van der
Helm & Stams, 2012; Vreugdenhil, Doreleijers, Vermeiren, Wouters, & Van den
Brink, 2004; White, Shi, Hirschfield, Mun, & Loeber, 2009).
The actual prevalence of psychological disturbances in young German
prison inmates is largely unknown. A study performed in the north of Germany
(Schleswig-Holstein) showed 81% of imprisoned youths to have conduct problems
and 77% to have personality disorders (Köhler, 2004). Violence and drug
dependence are key problems before, during and after time of arrest
(Walkenhorst, 2012). Especially in western Germany, ethnic diversity, language
problems, and different religions and rituals often result in problems among
prisoners and employees.
28
A prison population with a high prevalence of psychiatric disorders and behavioral
problems, resulting in frequent incidents and criminal conduct inside the prison
system, is considered to be a constant threat to the prison climate for inmates as
well as workers. Recent research (Souverein, Van der Helm, & Stams, 2013)
showed that a negative prison climate decreases chances for successful
rehabilitation and increases risks for recidivism. To achieve positive results, no
matter how difficult, climate research in prison seems necessary to improve
conditions inside. Van der Helm et al. (2011) developed the Prison Group Climate
Instrument (PGCI) to assess living group climate quality. Items from the PGCI were
derived from existing instruments measuring prison climate and were adapted for
specific use at the living-group level.
The PGCI consists of four scales: support, growth, repression, and
atmosphere. Support is designated as professional behavior and in particular the
responsivity of group workers toward specific needs of the inmates. Paying
attention to inmates, taking complaints seriously, respect, and trust are important
characteristics of support. Growth pertains to learning opportunities, hope for the
future, and giving meaning to prison stay. Repression deals with perceptions of
strictness and control, unfair and haphazard rules, and lack of flexibility at the
living group. The group atmosphere scale pertains to the way inmates treat and
trust one another, feelings of safety, being able to get some peace of mind, and
having enough daylight and fresh air.
A differentiation can be made between an “open” and a “closed” prison
climate. An open climate is characterized by support, clear opportunities for
growth, safety, structure, and flexibility (atmosphere) and can lead to greater
treatment motivation and internal locus of control (Van der Helmet al., 2009),
fewer criminal cognitions (Groeneweg, Van der Helm, Stams, & Asscher, 2013),
and more empathy (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). An open group climate has
been found to facilitate cognitive behavioral treatment and multifocal programs
for serious and violent adolescent prisoners (Garrido & Morales, 2007; Parhar,
Wormith, Derkezen, & Beauregard, 2008). An open climate, feelings of safety, and
a positive group climate can reduce competition among prison inmates and may
subsequently foster more safety at the living group. Research has shown that a
29
more positive group climate is associated with significantly fewer behavioral
problems outside prison and a decreased risk for recidivism (Schubert et al.,
2012). A climate is defined as closed if there are few opportunities for growth, if
support by prison staff is almost absent, and if group atmosphere is negative
(Liebling & Maruna, 2005; Ross, Diamond, Liebling, & Saylor, 2008; Ross, Liebling
& Tait, 2011; Van der Helm et al., 2011). The Dutch PGCI is widely used in the
Netherlands and abroad to assess living group quality and to stimulate
organizational development and quality awareness. By using the PGCI, inmates
can express their voice.
The present study examined validity and reliability of the German PGCI in
218 young delinquents in Germany. Construct validity was investigated by means
of confirmatory factor analysis. Convergent validity was investigated by examining
the associations between the four PGCI scales and German school mark ratings of
support, growth, atmosphere, and repression. Reliabilities were examined by
calculating Cronbach’s alpha and Goodman’s Lambda2.
METHOD
Participants
A sample of 218 male, adolescent, and young adult prisoners in Germany
completed the translated version of the PGCI. The response rate was 98%.
Participants were randomly selected from a German prison by the researchers in
the last quarter of 2012. All participants were ages between 17 and 25 (M = 20.41,
SD = 1.70). For 62.2%, the reason for detention was assault/bodily harm, for
44.9% it was theft, and for 45.5% it was robbery/extortion. A total of 73.1% of the
participants were German, and 12.8% were Turkish. A total of 33.6% of the
participating prisoners had not finished school, 45.4% had finished German
Hauptschule (lower secondary school), 5.9% had finished special education, and
15.2% had finished higher education.
30
Instruments
PRISON GROUP CLIMATE INSTRUMENT
The original Dutch version of the PGCI (Van der Helm et al., 2011) was translated
into German by the first author of this article, who is a native Dutch and German
speaker. This translation was checked by two other native bilingual German and
Dutch speakers. The PGCI consists of 36 questions ranging on a 5-point Likert scale
from 1= don´t agree to 5= fully agree. Each question belongs to only one of the
four aspects of group climate. The scale for support (Unterstützung) covers 11
Items and assesses the professional behavior of group workers and the support
prisoners receive by them. An example of an item from the support scale is
“Group workers treat me with respect.” The growth (Wachstum) scale consists of
seven items. This scale assesses developmental possibilities, hope for future, and
the feelings and thoughts about the prison stay. An example of a growth scale
item is “I learn the right things here.” The repression (Repression) scale consists of
six Items. This scale assesses the repression, strictness of rules and control,
fairness, rules, and the lack of flexibility in the living group that prisoners
experience during their prison stay (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). An example of
a repression item is “You have to ask permission for everything.” The group
atmosphere (Atmosphäre) scale includes seven items and assesses group
atmosphere. Atmosphere is related to the degree to which the physical and social
environment can foster feelings of safety and trust among the inmates (Van der
Helm et al., 2011). An example of an atmosphere item is “We trust each other
here.” An open group climate is defined by high levels of support, ample
opportunities for growth, minimal repression, and a clean, safe, and structured
environment, with clear rules and a daily routine in which inmates and workers
trust and respect each other (Van der Helm et al., 2010).
RATINGS OF LIVING GROUP QUALITY BY MEANS OF GERMAN SCHOOL MARKS
We asked participants to evaluate the quality of the living group climate with a
“school mark” (Preston & Colman, 2000), ranging from 1 (is very good) to 6 (is
very bad), related to the common used school marks in Germany. For the ease of
31
interpretation, we reverse-keyed the school marks in that a high score represents
a positive evaluation of the construct that is measured. School marks were
reversed into 1 (is very bad) to 6 (is very good). Participants rated support from
group workers, the extent to which they were learning something in the
institution, and the atmosphere, and the honesty in interpersonal contacts at the
living group related to fairness of rules and regulations.
Statistical Analysis
Construct validity and internal consistency of the German translation were
examined by means of confirmatory factor analysis in AMOS 18 and reliability
analysis in SPSS 20 (both Cronbach’s alpha and Goodman’s Lambda2).
A multifactor model was specified in which each item loaded on only one factor.
For a good-fitting model, cut-off values of CFI > 0.90, TLI > 0.90, and RMSEA < 0.05
are required (Kline, 2005). Convergent validity was assessed by computing
Pearson’s correlations between the four PGCI scales and corresponding school
marks for support, growth, atmosphere, and repression.
RESULTS
A confirmatory factor analysis of the 36 items was performed using AMOS 18. The
model that best fitted the data consisted of four factors: Unterstützung
(support/12 items), Wachstum (grow/8 items), Repression (repression/9 items),
and Atmosphäre (atmosphere/7 items) and a second-order factor of overall group
climate (36 items). This model showed a satisfactory fit to the data: RMSEA = .044,
CFI =.931, TLI = .904, χ2( 358) = 507.2, p > .00. The RMSEA was lower < 0.05, and
CFI and TLI were > 0.90. Cronbach’s Alpha and Goodman’s Lambda2 were good
for Unterstützung α =.855/Lambda2 = .876 and Wachstum α =.855/Lambda2 =
.864, and sufficient for Repression α = .668/Lambda2 = .672 and Atmosphäre α
=.665/Lambda2 = .697; Table 1).
32
Table 1. Standardized Regression Weights Group number 1 - Default model
Item No. Scale/ Item Scale/ Item German
Standardized Estimates
Growth Wachstum
13 I work at my future here Ich arbeite hier an meiner Zukunft .830
14 What I'm learning here is preparing me for my life outside
Die Zeit die ich hier drinnen verbringe, bereitet mich auf mein Leben draußen vor .655
16 What I'm learning here is helping me outside
Ich lerne hier drinnen, wie ich draußen mein Leben gestalten kann .680
20 Group workers allow me some space Ich kann mich hier frei entfalten .700
24 What I'm learning here is helping me Was ich hier lerne ist sinnvoll .773
25 I know what I'm working at Ich weiß woran ich hier arbeite .721
27 I learn the right things here Ich lerne hier sinnvolle Dinge .824
Support Unterstützung
2 When I have a problem, there is always somebody I can turn to
Ich kann immer mit jemandem über meine persönlichen Probleme sprechen .303
5 Taking initiative is welcomed by group workers Ich darf eigene Ideen einbringen .364
6 Group workers treat me with respect Die Justizvollzugsbeamten behandeln mich mit Respekt .839
7 I trust the group workers Ich vertraue den Justizvollzugsbeamten .805
8 Group workers treat all group members equivalent and honest
Die Justizvollzugsbeamten behandelnd die Gruppenmitglieder gleichwertig und ehrlich .691
9 Group workers’ pay attention to me and respect my feelings
Die Justizvollzugsbeamten respektieren meine eigene Meinung und meine Gefühle .719
21 Group workers stimulate me Die Justizvollzugsbeamten motivieren mich, neue Dinge auszuprobieren .661
22 When I complain about something, Group workers take it seriously
Beschwerden werden hier immer ernst genommen .608
28 There are always enough people to help me
Es gibt immer genügend Justizvollzugsbeamte die mir helfen können .672
31 Group workers treat me with respect, even if I'm angry
Auch wenn ich ausflippe, werde ich mit Respekt behandelt .362
32 We regularly discuss things with the group workers
Wir tauschen uns oft mit den Justizvollzugsbeamten über unser Leben hier drinnen aus
.527
33
Item No. Scale/ Item Scale/ Item German
Standardized Estimates
Repression Repression
3 You have to ask permission for everything Ich muss immer für alles einen Antrag stellen .351
23 I waste my time here Ich verschwende hier meine Zeit .561
26 Sometimes I'm bored Ich langweile mich hier oft .702
29 They don't understand me here Man versteht mich hier oft falsch .488
33 We have nothing to do here Hier gibt es wenig zu tun .572
34 Sometimes it is dirty and smelly Manchmal ist es hier schmutzig und es stinkt .888
Atmosphere Atmosphäre
1 The atmosphere is good at the group Die Atmosphäre in der Wohngruppe ist angenehm .722
4 I feel fine here Ich fühle mich wohl in meiner Wohngruppe .674
10 I get some peace of mind at the group Ich komme in meiner Wohngruppe ausreichend zur Ruhe .588
11 We trust each other here In der Wohngruppe vertrauen wir uns untereinander .582
17 I always feel safe at the group Ich fühle mich hier immer sicher .461
19 You can trust everybody here Man kann hier jedem vertrauen .552
36 We have enough fresh air and daylight Es gibt in unserer Wohngruppe genügend frische Luft und Tageslicht .330
Table 2 shows that correlations between the PGCI scales (support, growth,
atmosphere, and repression) and the corresponding school marks were all
significant and in the expected direction. Support was positively related to the
question “The support you get from the group workers” (r = .614, p < 0.01);
growth was positively related to the question
“What you learn (here)” (r = 503, p < 0. 01); atmosphere was positively related to
the question “The atmosphere at your living group” (r = .543, p < 0.01); and
repression was positively related to the question “The rules you have to comply
with” (r = .290, p < 0.01).
34
Table 2. Mean, standard deviation and school marks
M SD N
school mark 1
School mark 2
school mark 3
School mark 5
support growth atmosphere repression
support 32,34 8,84 189 ,614(**) ,393(**) ,217(**) -,487(**)
growth 24,54 6,21 200 ,378(**) ,503(**) ,146(*) -.286 (**)
atmosphere 21,71 4,52 208 ,300(**) ,222(**) ,543(**) -,186 (**)
repression 20,06 4,66 204 -,303(**) -,383(**) -,183(**) ,290(**)
** p<0.01, *p<0.05
DISCUSSION
This study was performed to examine validity and reliability of the German
translation of the PGCI in a group of late adolescents and young adults in a
German youth prison. A confirmatory factor analysis supported construct validity,
while some preliminary evidence was found for convergent validity. Internal
consistency reliabilities were acceptable. Support and growth showed the highest
internal consistency and loaded highest on the “overall group climate” scale. This
is in line with the findings by Van der Helm et al. (2011) in their validation study of
the Dutch version of the PGCI, showing that support and growth are the most
prominent indicators of group climate in prison.
Support by group workers and their responsivity to the personal needs of
the inmates can facilitate a successful rehabilitation during detention. Growth is
related to learning skills and reflects learning to give life a sense (Van der Helm et
al., 2011). The reliabilities of atmosphere and repression were lower than the
reliabilities of support and growth. This can be explained by the fact that these
scales contain fewer items and may also be related to the fact that there is more
heterogeneity among the items of the atmosphere and repression scales in order
to adequately capture the multi-faceted nature of these constructs (Van der Helm
et al., 2011).
35
Limitations of this study were related to characteristics of the sample,
which only consisted of male prisoners. A further limitation is the inclusion of only
one prison, which hampers the generalizability of the study findings. Furthermore,
there was no other validated group climate instrument available to assess
convergent validity, and it was not possible to conduct behavioral observations of
the group climate. Convergent validity was, therefore, examined by means of
single-item school marks assessing support, growth, atmosphere, and repression.
For this reason, conclusions about convergent validity of the PGCI should be
considered preliminary.
Positive support by group workers can lead to a therapeutic alliance,
treatment motivation, and possibilities for change (Andrews, Bonta, & Wormith,
2006; Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). Growth is connected to developmental
possibilities and hope for a better future. Prisoners should have positive feelings
about what they can learn during their stay and should learn meaningful skills
(Goldberg, 2009; Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). An “open group climate” can
reduce competition and aggression among inmates and workers (Van der Helm &
Stams, 2012). The four dimensions of the PGCI also reflect the daily tasks and
problems of group workers in forensic youth care (Van der Helm & Stams, 2012).
In Germany the PGCI can be used as an assessment tool for living group climate in
order to improve safety for inmates and group workers and eventually
rehabilitation of the juvenile delinquents.
36
REFERENCES Andrews, D. A., Bonta J., & Wormith J. S. (2006). The recent past and near future of risk and/or need assessment. Crime & Delinquency, 52. 7–27. Anzahl der Gefangenen im Jugendstrafvollzug in Deutschland nach Bundesländern [Amount of Detainees in Youth Prison] (2012, March 31). Retrieved from: http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/37477/umfrage/gefan geneimjugendstrafvollzug-in-deutschland/ (stand 18-12-2012). Deutsches Bundesamt für Statistik [German Office for Statistics]. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/ Rechtspflege/Justizvollzug/Tabellen/Strafgefangene.html. Garrido, V., & Morales L. A. (2007). Serious (violent or chronic) juvenile offenders: A systematic review of treatment effectiveness in secure corrections. Campbell Collaboration 7. 1–46. DOI:10.4073/csr.2007.7 Goldberg, E. (2009). The new executive brain: Frontal lobes in complex a world. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Groeneweg, M. J., Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Asscher J. J. (2013). Incarcerated adolescents in a delayed-return society: When I don’t get what I want, I take it because it’s mine. I-D compensation and incarcerated adolescents in a delayed-return society: an application of Martin’s theory. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20. 735–748. DOI:10.1080/13218719.2012.730902, Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford. Köhler, D. (2004). Psychische Störungen bei jungen Straftätern. [psychological disorders in young juveniles]. Hamburg, Germany: J. Kovac. Liebling, A., & Maruna, S. (2005). Introduction: The effects of imprisonment revisited. In A. Liebling & S. Maruna (Eds.), The effect of imprisonment (pp. 1–32). Collumpton, UK: Willan. Marshall, W. L., & Burton, D. L. (2010). The importance of group processes in offender treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15. 141–149. Parhar, K. P., Wormith, S. W., Derkezen, D. M., & Beauregard A. M., (2008). Offender coercion in treatment: A meta-analysis of effectiveness. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35. 1109–1135. Preston, C. C., & Colman, A. M. (2000). Optimal number of response categories in rating scales: Reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences. Acta Psychologica, 104. 1–15. Ros, N., Van der Helm, G. H. P., Wissink, I., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Schaftenaar, P. (in press). Institutional climate and aggression in a secure psychiatric setting.
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The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. DOI: org/10.1080/14789949.2013.848460. Ross, M. W., Diamond, P. M., Liebling, A., & Saylor, W. G. (2008). Measurement of prison climate: A comparison of an Inmate measure in England and the USA. Punishment & Society, 10. 447–474. Ross, M. W., Liebling A., & Tait S. (2011). The relationships of prison climate to health service in correctional environments: Inmate health care measurement, satisfaction and access in prisons. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 50. 262–274. Schubert, C.A., Mulvey E. P., Loughran T. A., & Loysa, S. H. (2012). Perceptions of institutional experience and community outcomes for serious adolescent offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39. 71–93. Souverein, F., Van der Helm G. H. P., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). ‘Nothing works’ in secure residential youth care? Children and Youth Services Review, 35. 1941–1945. Van der Helm, P., Klapwijk M., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Van der Laan, P. H. (2009). “What works” for juvenile prisoners: The role of group climate in a youth prison. Journal of Children’s Services, 4. 36–48. Van der Helm, G. H. P., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2012). Conflict and coping by clients and group workers in secure residential facilities. In K. Oei & M. Groenhuizen (Eds.), Progression in forensic psychiatry: About boundaries (pp. 553–564). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Kluwer. Van der Helm, P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Van der Laan, P. H. (2011). Measuring group climate in prison. The Prison Journal, 91. 158–176. Vreugdenhil, C., Doreleijers, T., Vermeiren, R., Wouters, L., & Van den Brink, W. (2004). Psychiatric disorders in a representative sample of incarcerated boys in the Netherlands. American Medical Association, 43. 97–104. Walkenhorst, P. (2012). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Jugendstrafvollzug [Federal Agency for Political Formation]. Retrieved from http://www.bpb.de/ apuz/32971/jugendstrafvollzug. White, H. R., Shi, J., Hirshfield, P., Mun, E. I., & Loeber, E. R. (2009). Effects of institutional confinement for delinquency on levels of anxiety and depression among male adolescents. Research in Crime and Delinquency, 22. 257–277.
39
MEASURING EMPATHY IN A GERMAN
YOUTH PRISON – A VALIDATION OF THE GERMAN VERSION OF THE `BASIC EMPATHY SCALE´ (BES) IN A SAMPLE OF INCARCERATED JUVENILE OFFENDERS
Evelyn Heynen, Peer van der Helm, Geert-Jan Stams & Andries Korebrits
Submitted
40
ABSTRACT
Lack of empathy is related to aggression, delinquency and criminal offense
recidivism. The present study examined construct validity and reliability of the
German version of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES) in a sample of 94 detained
German male juvenile offenders (aged 14-26). A confirmatory factor analysis with
a two-factor-model of affective and cognitive empathy showed a good fit to the
data. The factor structure of the original 20 item scale, however, could not be fully
replicated in the German juvenile prison sample. Therefore, the scale was reduced
to 12 items. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients were good for both affective
and cognitive empathy. Concurrent validity of the BES was demonstrated only for
cognitive empathy, which was significantly associated with callous-unemotional
traits. Although results are promising, a replication study is needed to test
concurrent, convergent, divergent and predictive validity of the German version
of the BES as well as test-retest reliability.
41
INTRODUCTION
While there is a decrease in the number of incarcerated adolescents, the severity
of their offenses remains a challenge for present-day society (Blumstein, 2002;
CDC, 2013; European Commission, 2014; Stelly & Thomas, 2013). Young
delinquents (especially the group showing severe offenses) often do not feel
emotions of shame and guilt about their delinquent behavior (Raine, 2013;
Schalkwijk, Stams, Stegge, Dekker, & Peen, in press), and have been shown to lack
empathy (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; Van Langen, Wissink, Van Vugt, Van der
Stouwe, & Stams, 2014).
Empathy, “the ability to understand and share another's emotional state
and context” (Cohen & Strayer, 1996), is an important social competency (Davis,
1994; De Waal, 2009). For instance, Eisenberg and Strayer (1987), even as Jolliffe
and Farrington (2006), showed that empathy was positively associated with
prosocial behavior. Higher levels of empathy have been shown to be related to
less aggression and disruptive behavior and lower incidence of conduct disorder
(Cohen & Strayer, 1996; De Wied, Goudena, & Matthys, 2005; Miller & Eisenberg,
1988).
Deficits in empathy have shown to be related to aggression, low fear
conditioning (Popma & Raine, 2007), low impulse control, selfishness (for an
overview, see Hosser & Beckurts, 2005), and callous-unemotional (CU) traits
(Hare, 2013; Munoz et al, 2011; Raine, 2013; Skeem, Polaschek, Patrick, &
Lilienfeld, 2011). Individuals characterized by CU-traits are cold, callous, and lack
moral emotions, such as regret, shame, remorse and empathy (Frick, 1995; Van
der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen, & Van der Laan, 2012) and engage in
more severe offenses (Frick, Ray, Thornton, & Kahn, 2013). Previous research has
shown that youth high on CU-traits are able to understand (cognitive empathy),
but cannot experience (affective empathy) the feelings of others (Dadds et al.,
2009). A vast body of research has demonstrated that lack of empathy is related
to (re)offending (see the meta-analysis by Van Langen et al., 2014). Therefore,
empathy in delinquent youth is an important factor to consider in forensic youth
care (Van der Helm et al., 2012).
42
Based on the theory of Cohen and Strayer (1996), empathy is defined as a
bi-dimensional construct and consists of ‘affective traits’ (the capacity to
experience the emotions of another; Bryant 1982) and ‘cognitive abilities’ (the
capacity to comprehend the emotions of another; Hogan, 1969). This bi-
dimensional model of cognitive and affective empathy was supported by
distinctive relations between cognitive and affective empathy and criminal
offenses in a meta-analysis by Jolliffe and Farrington (2004) and Van Langen et al.
(2014). In their quantitative reviews, cognitive empathy was stronger related to
criminal offenses compared to affective empathy. In line with their meta-analytic
findings, Jolliffe and Farrington (2006) developed an assessment tool to examine
both affective and cognitive empathy in adolescents: the Basic Empathy Scale
(BES).
Development of the Basic Empathy Scale
To date, several self-report measures have been developed to investigate
empathy (Davis, 1980; Hogan, 1969; Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972, Zhou, Valiente,
& Eisenberg, 2003). Jolliffe and Farrington developed the Basic Empathy Scale to
overcome several psychometric shortcomings of the existing measures. In the
development of the original English BES, 40 items measuring empathy were
administered to 363 adolescent high school students. Explorative factor analysis
yielded a two-factor solution (20 items remaining) with cognitive and affective
empathy, which was replicated in a confirmatory factor analysis (Jolliffe &
Farrington, 2006).
Validity of the original BES was supported by significant relations between
empathy and prosocial behavior, intelligence (for females only), extraversion
(cognitive empathy only), neuroticism (affective empathy only), agreeableness,
conscientiousness (for males only), parental supervision, socioeconomic status
and age (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006). In the Dutch version, a relation was found
between cognitive and affective empathy and prosocial behavior (Van Langen,
Stams, Van Vugt, Wissink, & Asscher, 2014). Finally, divergent validity of the
original BES was demonstrated in the non-relation with socially desirable
responding (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006).
43
Cross-cultural measurement of Empathy
Although the BES has been shown to be a valid and reliable instrument in
different countries, such as the Netherlands (Van Langen et al., 2015), Spain
(Salas-Wright, Olate, & Vaughn, 2012), China (Geng, Xia, & Qin, 2012), Italy
(Albiero, Matricardi, Speltri, & Toso, 2009) and France (Ambrosio, Olivier, Didon,
& Besche, 2009), there is no valid and reliable instrument to investigate cognitive
and affective empathy in delinquent youth in Germany. While cross-cultural
studies support the validity and reliability of the BES, only few studies have
validated the BES among juvenile offenders. Salas-Wright et al. (2013) validated
the Spanish BES in a sample of high-risk youths involved in gangs in the area of
San Salvador, which resulted in an adapted 7-item BES scale, assessing both
cognitive and affective empathy. Pechorro, Ray, Salas-Wright, Maroco and
Gonalves (2015) validated the adapted 7 item BES in a sample of incarcerated
juveniles in Portugal. Van Langen et al. (2015) validated the Dutch version of the
BES in a mixed sample of juvenile offenders and non-delinquent adolescents,
resulting in a 19-item BES, although 7 items showed rather low factor loadings in
the delinquent sample. It should be noted that the Dutch language bares much
resemblance to the German.
Current study
We conducted a validation study of the BES to examine validity and reliability of
the translated German BES in 94 young incarcerated delinquents in a German
youth prison. Construct validity was investigated by using a confirmatory factor
analysis and reliability was examined by calculating Cronbach’s alpha. Given that
low empathy is a core component of CU-traits, a negative correlation between
empathy (BES) and callous and unemotional traits (ICU, Frick, 2003) was
considered indicative of concurrent validity (Kimonis et al., 2008).
44
METHOD
Participants
A sample of 94 male adolescent and young adult prisoners, randomly selected
from the prison population of a German youth prison, completed the German
version of the BES. The response rate was 84%. Non-response was due to lack of
trust in anonymity of research outcomes and compulsory court attendance during
research. Juveniles in a detention awaiting trial were not able to take part due to
safety regulations. All participants were aged between 14 and 26 years (M =
20.33; SD =2.07) and detained for severe crimes (burglary, armed street-robbery,
assault, extreme violence, murder). Mean detention time at this prison was nine
months.
After ethical approval had been obtained from the institutional review
board of the University of Applied Sciences Leiden, all adolescents voluntarily
agreed to participate in this study, signed an informed consent declaration, and
were told that their answers would be treated confidentially and anonymously
and would be accessed only by the researchers.
Instruments
BASIC EMPATHY SCALE (BES)
The BES was originally developed by Jolliffe and Farrington (2006), and assesses
two components of empathy, cognitive and affective empathy. The original BES
consists of 20 items, based on the four human basic emotions: anger, fear,
sadness and joy (Eckman, 2004), with answering categories ranging on a 5-point-
likert scale from 1= I don´t agree to 5=I fully agree. In the present study, the
validated English version (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006) of the BES was translated
into German. The adapted German version was then back-translated into English
by two separate researchers (Table 1).
45
INVENTORY OF CALLOUS UNEMOTIONAL TRAITS (ICU)
The ICU was developed by Frick (2003), and is a 24-item valid and reliable self-
report inventory using a 4–point Likert-scale, ranging from 0=not at all true to
3=definitely true, to investigate callous and unemotional traits in adolescent
offenders. The content of the ICU was based on the Antisocial Process Screening
Device (APSD; Frick & Hare, 2001), which has been shown to designate a distinct
and important group of antisocial youth, who show a number of characteristics
associated with the construct of psychopathy. In the present study the German
version (Essau, Sasagawa, & Frick, 2006) of the self-report questionnaire was used
for the group of young delinquent participants to investigate concurrent validity
of the Basic Empathy Scale. The scale is divided into three subscales: callousness
(e.g., “the feelings of others are unimportant to me”; α = .70), unemotional (e.g.,
“I hide my feelings from others”; α = .64) and uncaring (e.g., ”I try not to hurt
others’ feelings”; α = .73) (Kimonis et al., 2008). These sub-scales form a higher
order callous-unemotional dimension (α = 0.77). In the present study the higher
order ICU-factor was used, showing good reliability (α = .81).
Statistical Analysis
Construct validity of the German translation was examined by means of
confirmatory factor analysis in Mplus (version 6.11). A bi-dimensional model
(affective and cognitive empathy) was specified in which each item loaded on only
one factor. For a valid model cut-off values of CFI >0.90, TLI >0.90 and RMSEA
<0.05 were required (Kline, 2005). Calculations of Cronbach’s alpha and
correlational analyses were conducted in SPSS 21. Concurrent validity was
investigated by examining correlations between both concepts of empathy and
the presence of CU-traits. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics and correlations
of the BES and the ICU.
46
RESULTS
Construct Validity of the BES
A confirmatory factor analysis of the translated 20 items was performed. The
initial model did not show a good fit to the data: RMSEA = .101; CFI = .753; TLI =
.619. The model that best fitted the data consisted of two dimensions: ´affective
empathy´ (6 items), and ´cognitive empathy´ (6 items), and a significant
association between cognitive and affective empathy. This model showed a good
fit to the data: RMSEA = .038; CFI = .977; TLI = .969. Cronbach´s Alpha was
acceptable for both dimensions: ´affective empathy´ (α = .71); and ´cognitive
empathy´(α = .78). The correlation between the two BES subscales was significant
(r = .534, p = .000).
Table 1. Standardized Regression Weights (Group number 1 - Default model)
Item
No. Scale/ Item Scale/ Item German
Standardize
d Estimates
Cognitive empathy Kognitieve Empathie
3
I can understand my friend’s happiness
when she/he does well at something
Ich verstehe, dass meine Freunde sich
freuen, wenn sie etwas gut gemacht
haben. 0.649
9
When someone is feeling ‘down’ I can
usually understand how they feel
Wenn jemand sich schlecht/”down“ fühlt,
verstehe ich wie er/sie sich fühlt. 0.743
10
I can usually work out when my friends are
scared
Ich kann sehen, wann meine Freunde
Angst haben. 0.459
12
I can often understand how people are
feeling even before they tell me
Ich verstehe oft schon wie Menschen sich
fühlen, bevor sie mir etwas darüber erzählt
haben. 0.510
14
I can usually work out when people are
cheerful
Ich kann meistens sehen/ ich merke gut,
wann andere Menschen glücklich sind. 0.542
47
Item
No. Scale/ Item Scale/ Item German
Standardize
d Estimates
Cognitive empathy Kognitieve Empathie
16
I can usually realize quickly when a friend
is angry
Ich merke schnell, wenn ein Freund/eine
Freundin böse ist. 0.613
Affective empathy Affektive Empathie
2 After being with a friend who is sad about something, I usually feel sad
Wenn ich einen Freund besucht habe, der traurig ist, fühle ich mich meistens anschließend selber auch traurig. 0.505
5
I get caught up in other people’s feelings easily
Ich lasse mich leicht durch die Gefühle anderer beeinflussen.
0.329
8 Other people’s feelings don’t bother me at all
Die Gefühle anderer Menschen berühren/interessieren mich überhaupt nicht. 0.386
11 I often become sad when watching sad things on TV or in films
Ich werde traurig, wenn ich erbärmliche/schreckliche Dinge im TV oder in einem Film sehe. 0.418
17 I often get swept up in my friend’s feelings Ich kann mich in die Gefühle meiner Freunde versetzen 0.874
18 My friend’s unhappiness doesn’t make me feel anything.
Wenn meine Freunde unglücklich sind, interessiert mich das nicht. 0.400
Intercepts: (Group number 1 - Default model)
Concurrent validity
To investigate concurrent validity we conducted a correlation analysis between
the two dimensions of the BES and the ICU. Only the correlation between
cognitive empathy and CU- traits was significant (r = -.263, p = .034; see Table 2).
48
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (M & SD) and correlations between ICU and BES
M SD
cognitive empathy
affective empathy
cognitive empathy 3.47 .77
affective empathy 3.13 .73 .534**
ICU 1.39 .32 .263* .050
* p<.05; **p<.01
DISCUSSION
This study was performed to test the validity and reliability of the translated
German version of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES), a measurement instrument that
can be used to assess empathy, also in incarcerated juvenile offenders. A
confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis were performed, which yielded
a valid and reliable 12-item bi-dimensional (cognitive and affective) German
version of the BES. Furthermore, concurrent validity was demonstrated in a
significant and negative correlation between cognitive empathy and callous-
unemotional traits, which is in line with the meta-analysis by Stams et al. (2006),
who demonstrated that juvenile delinquents with psychopathic traits showed a
lack of moral cognition. In line with previous research (Dadds et.al., 2009;
Pechorro et al., 2015; Munoz, Qualter, & Padget, 2011) a significant correlation
between affective empathy and CU-traits was also expected, but could not be
confirmed in the present study, possibly because juvenile delinquents tend to
hide their emotions for fear of being considered as weak by their peers (Van der
Helm et al., 2012). We found partial evidence for concurrent validity of the
German version of the BES, that is, only for cognitive empathy.
It is important to notice that the present validation study was conducted
in a sample of male incarcerated juvenile offenders with different levels of
education, various ethical backgrounds and diverse types of offending. To date,
most validation studies of the BES have been conducted in more homogeneous
samples of non-delinquent youth. Salas-Wright et al. (2013) and Pechorro et al.
(2015) examined validity of the BES in samples of Spanish and Portuguese juvenile
49
delinquents. Interestingly, the items of the Spanish and Portuguese 7-item
adapted version of the BES were preserved in the German version.
The Dutch validation study was conducted in a mixed sample of
incarcerated juvenile offenders and adolescents from the general population, and
resulted in 19 items, with 7 items showing rather low factor loadings in the
delinquent participants (five < .30, two < .15). Item 6, “I find it hard to know when
my friends are frightened”, was removed. This item was also removed from the
German version and refers to strong and negative emotions, such as sadness,
fright and anxiety (see also removed items 4 “I get frightened when I watch
characters in a really scary movie”; items 13 ‘Seeing a person who has been
angered has no effect on my feelings’ and 15 “I tend to feel scared when I am with
friends who are afraid”, showing as well low factor loadings in the Dutch sample).
Delinquent youth may have learned to mask their real attitudes when dealing
with strong and negative emotions (Geng, Xia & Qin, 2012; Van der Helm, 2012).
Three negatively phrased items (item 1” My friend’s emotions don’t affect
me much.”, item 7 “I don’t become sad when I see other people crying”, and item
19 ‘ I am not usually aware of my friend’s feelings’) were also removed from the
German version. This is in line with results from the Spanish and Portuguese
validation studies (Pechorro et al, 2015; Salas-Wright et al., 2012). In the Dutch
validation study, the negatively phrased items also proved to have relatively low
factor loadings, but were not removed (Van Langen et al., 2015). Possibly those
negatively phrased items tend to be misunderstood by the participants. It has
been shown that misinterpretation of negatively phrased items may occur in
individuals with low educational levels (Benson & Wilcox, 1981, Carlsson, Merlo,
Lindström, Östergen, & Lithman, 2006) and individuals with intellectual disabilities
(Cordery & Sevastos, 1993, Wehmeyer & Garner, 2003). One item (number 4, “I
get frightened when I watch characters in a really scary movie”), designed to
measure affective empathy in response to viewing scary movies, was also
removed. This item may be perceived as unrealistic compared to the real world’s
violence juveniles were exposed to in their life (Salas-Wright et al., 2012). In the
Dutch juvenile sample the factor loading of item 4 was also low. Despite losing 7
50
items in the German version of the BES, the remaining 12 items still represent the
four human basic emotions: anger, fear, sadness and joy (Eckman, 2004).
Limitations of this study were related to characteristics of the sample, and
limited sample size (N=94). The sample consisted of adolescent male prisoners
and was conducted in only one institution, which could hamper the
generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, no other validated empathy
instrument was used to assess convergent validity. No divergent validity was
tested, for instance by examining associations between empathy and social
desirability, or predictive validity, by investigating associations between empathy
and criminal offense recidivism. Finally, we did not establish test-retest reliability.
Results of this study should therefore be considered as preliminary.
The present study is the first to investigate the psychometric properties of
the BES in a sample of incarcerated German juvenile offenders. Although only 12
items of the original 20 item version were retained, the adapted BES is still
considered to be a promising instrument to investigate two dimensions of
empathy (affective and cognitive) in the specific population of young detained
German offenders. However, more research is needed to establish validity and
reliability of the BES in a larger delinquent sample and adolescents with a mild
intellectual disability, who make up a sizeable portion in (youth) prisons (Kaal,
Negenman, Roeleveld, & Embregts, 2011). Moreover, divergent, convergent and
predictive validity should be tested as well as test-retest reliability. We conclude
that the German version of the BES could be a useful instrument for researchers
and clinicians. It can be used to monitor individual treatment outcomes or
evaluate the effectiveness of treatment programs targeting empathy during
detention in Germany.
51
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55
I DON’T CARE ABOUT WHAT YOU
WANT! THE RELATION BETWEEN JUVENILE DELINQUENTS’ RESPONSES TO SOCIAL PROBLEM SITUATIONS AND EMPATHY IN SECURE JUVENILE INSTITUTIONS
Evelyn Heynen, Peer van der Helm, Inge Wissink,
Geert-Jan Stams & Xavier Moonen I don’t care about what you want. The relation between juvenile
delinquents’ responses to social problem situations and empathy in
secure juvenile institutions (2015)
Journal of Interpersonal Violence.12.1-15
56
ABSTRACT
The present study examined the relation between juvenile delinquents’ responses
to social problem situations and empathy in secure juvenile institutions. The
sample consisted of 79 delinquent boys (62%) and 49 delinquent girls (38%),
aged 12 to 19 years. Results showed problems with accepting authority to be
negatively related to both affective and cognitive empathy. Inadequate coping
with competition was negatively related to cognitive empathy, whereas
problems with receiving or giving help were negatively related to affective
empathy. The central role of authority problems suggests that group workers
could influence adolescents’ empathy development by helping them to learn to
cope with social problem situations.
57
INTRODUCTION
Empathy is the tendency to understand and share the emotions of others (Cohen
& Strayer, 1996). It is an indispensable capacity to connect with others (Davis,
1983) and has therefore an important function in social contact (Baron-Cohen,
2011; De Waal, 2010; Pinker, 2012). Research has shown that juvenile delinquents
function on lower levels of empathy compared to their non-delinquent peers
(Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; Van Langen, Wissink, Van Vugt, Van der Stouwe, &
Stams, 2014), but it is not yet clear which factors are responsible for lower levels
of empathy in juvenile delinquents. One of the explanations is that juvenile
delinquents have not learned to respond appropriately to their social
environment due to aversive childhood experiences (Asscher, Van der Put, &
Stams, 2015; Hoeve et al., 2009, 2012) and/or neurobiological deficits (Raine,
2013), which might hamper the development of empathy.
The present study examines whether inappropriate responses to social
problem situations are negatively associated with empathy in incarcerated
juvenile delinquents. If so, empathy of incarcerated juvenile delinquents may be
enhanced by targeting their aversive reactions to social problem situations in
secure residential youth care. Notably, Eltink, Van der Helm, Wissink and Stams
(2015) found a more structured, safe and therapeutic residential environment,
designated as an open living group climate, to be associated with less
inappropriate responses to social problem situations in incarcerated juvenile
delinquents. Van der Helm et al. (2011c) identified four inappropriate responses
to social problem situations in juvenile delinquents that may negatively affect the
development of empathy: inadequate coping with competition, and problems
with social disadvantage, receiving/giving help and accepting authority.
Regarding the first inappropriate response, inadequate coping with
competition, it is well-documented that the perception of competition is
associated with lower levels of empathy (Cikarel & Van Bavel, 2014; De Wied,
Gispen-De Wied, & Van Boxtel, 2010; Gilin, Maddux, Carpenter, & Galinsky, 2013)
or may even trigger counter-empathic reactions (Lanzetta & Englis, 1989). Most
research on this topic, however, has been conducted in experimental laboratory
58
settings, which might hamper the generalizability of the research findings to
natural settings. It has also been shown that adequate coping with competition
requires well-developed social perspective taking abilities (Galinsky, Maddux,
Gilin, & White, 2008; Gilin et al, 2013), which have been found to be
underdeveloped in juvenile delinquents (Matthys, Cuperus, & Van Engeland,
1999; Van der Helm et al., 2011c), hampering their moral affective and cognitive
understanding (Larden, Melin, Holst, & Langstrom, 2006; Stams et al., 2006; Van
Langen et al., 2014). The present study is the first to examine the relation
between inadequate reactions to perceived competition and empathy among
juvenile delinquents in youth prison.
It is plausible to suggest that the inability to cope with competition could
enhance feelings of social disadvantage. Regarding the second inappropriate
response, problems with social disadvantage, it can be derived from social
comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) that not being able to cope with perceived
social disadvantage can result in either negative self-focused emotions, such as
shame and embarrassment, or negative other-focused emotions, such as
resentment and envy (Smith, 2000). In particular, the other-focused negative
emotions seem incompatible with feelings of empathy. Because experiences of
social disadvantage may result in both self- and other-focused negative emotions
in incarcerated juvenile delinquents, the relation between perceived social
disadvantage and empathy is equivocal. The present study aims to shed more
light on this relation.
The relation between on the one hand difficulties in receiving/giving help
and accepting authority and on the other hand empathy may be considered from
the perspective of institutional living group climate. An open living group climate
is designated by support from group workers, opportunities for growth, and a
prosocial atmosphere among juveniles (Van der Helm, 2011a). Such a supportive
environment is thought to promote helping behaviors among juveniles and
between prison staff and juveniles, fostering affiliation and empathy (Van der
Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen, & Van der Laan, 2012). In contrast, a
closed or repressive living group climate is characterized by extreme power
imbalance, deprivation, repression and lack of protection, which not only is
59
antagonistic to helping one another and accepting authority, but also reduces
empathy at the same time (Van der Helm et al., 2012, Van der Helm, 2011a). The dominant role of authority problems in the development and
maintenance of delinquent behavior among adolescents has also been
established in the seminal work of Emler on ‘reputation-enhancement theory’
(Emler, 1984, 1990). Emler and Reicher (1995) argued that perceived unfair
treatment by authority figures contributes to a sense of marginalization, a
negative attitude to institutional authority and a non-conforming self-reputation
(identity) of being tough, unemotional and non-empathic, which provides a
condition for antisocial peer group membership and, subsequently, delinquent
behavior.
To conclude, problems with authority and receiving or providing help may
reflect a repressive social environment and contribute to an antisocial identity
formation, which are both detrimental for, or perhaps even incommensurable
with, empathy development.
Attachment theory provides another explanation for the relations
between difficulties in receiving/giving help, accepting authority and problematic
empathy development, in particular because helping and concern for others,
including empathy, are assumed to be implicated in both the attachment and
caregiving system (Mikulincer, Shaver, Gillath, & Nitzberg, 2005). Notably, many
juvenile delinquents have a history of negative life events, including child abuse
and neglect (Asscher, Van der Put, & Stams, 2015), which has set the stage for
both attachment problems (Hoeve et al., 2012, Van IJzendoorn, Schuengel, &
Bakermans-Kranenburg, 1999) and difficulties with authority figures (Van der
Helm, 2011a).
Adolescents in residential youth care, in particular juvenile delinquents,
tend to have insecure working models of attachment, that is, they have a
negative model of the self as being not worthy of love and a negative model of
others as being not accepting and insensitive to their needs (Hoeve et al., 2012;
Zegers, Schuengel, Van IJzendoorn, & Janssens, 2006). Therefore, receiving and
giving help as well as accepting authority of adult caregivers (i.e., group workers,
prison staff) can be highly problematic, and may at the same time reduce
60
empathy, mainly because attachment insecurity directs attention to one’s own
emotional state rather than the emotional state of others, including their well-
being or distress (Fonagy & Target, 1997). To summarize, problems with receiving
or giving help and accepting authority from professional caregivers may be
considered as attachment-related problems, which can hamper empathy
development.
The present study is conducted to investigate whether there is a relation
between responses to social problem situations in incarcerated juvenile
delinquents and their levels of empathy. We hypothesize inappropriate responses
to social problem situations in terms of inadequate coping with competition, and
problems with social disadvantage, receiving/giving help and accepting authority
to be related to lower levels of empathy.
METHOD
Participants
The present study was conducted with 79 delinquent boys (62%) and 49
delinquent girls (38%) residing in 3 different youth prisons in the Netherlands.
Participants were randomly selected in the institutions. The mean age of
respondents was 15.7 years (SD = 1.4, range 12-19 years). The mean time of stay
was 28 weeks (SD = 15.2 range 1-74 weeks). A total of 97 (76%) of the participants
were born in the Netherlands. All adolescents participated voluntarily (response
rate of 95%). Parents (for those participants aged 12-18) and participants signed
an informed consent declaration form and were told that their answers would be
treated confidentially and anonymously and would be accessed only by the
researchers. As a token of gratitude for their participation, the adolescents
received a telephone card or a small gift of €5.50. All names on the questionnaires
were deleted and were replaced by a code number in SPSS. In order to protect the
privacy of the adolescents, researchers had no access to their names.
Questionnaires were administered by specially trained graduate students of the
Professional University of Leiden, School of Social Studies (Bachelor of Social Work
61
and Master Youth Care) and the University of Amsterdam (Department of
Forensic Child and Youth Care Sciences).
Measures
TAXONOMY OF PROBLEMATIC SOCIAL SITUATIONS-ADOLESCENT VERSION
(TOPS-A)
The TOPS-A was developed by adapting Matthys’ (Matthys, Cuperus, Maassen, &
Van Engeland, 2001) original instrument for self-report use in forensic settings
(Van der Helm et al., 2011c). The questionnaire consists of 22 items measuring
perceived social problem behavior as the main construct. The questionnaire
contains four scales: problems with ‘being disadvantaged’ (8 items), ‘facing
competition’ (5 items), ‘receiving/giving help’ (3 items) and ‘accepting authority’
(6 items). The following questionnaire items are examples of inappropriate
responses to social disadvantage – ‘When others tell me I have the wrong clothes,
I yell at them’ – problems with competition -- ‘When I lose, I quit playing’ –
problems with receiving/giving help -- ‘If someone else feels down, it is his/her
problem’ – and problems with accepting authority – ‘If a group worker is talking, I
just interrupt when I feel so’.
Construct validity and reliability of the TOPS-A were established, and
found to be satisfactory, by means of confirmatory factor analysis and internal
consistency analyses in a group of juvenile delinquents placed in Dutch juvenile
justice facilities (Van der Helm et al., 2011c). Cronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficients of the four scales were as follows: receiving/giving help α = .69,
competition α = .77; accepting authority α = .79, and social disadvantage, α = .81.
BASIC EMPATHY SCALE (BES)
The BES (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006) was developed on the basis of the four basic
emotions: anger, sadness, fear, and happiness (Power & Dalgleish, 1997) and was
translated into Dutch and validated for the Netherlands by Van Langen, Wissink,
Stams, Asscher, and Hoeve (2014). Empathy consists of ‘affective traits’ (the
62
capacity to experience the emotions of another; Bryant 1982) and a ‘cognitive
ability’ (the capacity to comprehend the emotions of another; Hogan, 1969). The
BES consists of 20 items measuring cognitive (9 items) and affective empathy (11
items). An example of an item that measures cognitive empathy is ‘I can see when
my friends are afraid’, and an item measuring affective empathy is ‘When I am
with friends who are afraid, I feel afraid too’.
Jolliffe and Farrington (2006) performed a confirmatory factor analysis in
their validation study among 720 adolescent school children and found a
satisfactory fit for the two-factor model and satisfactory reliabilities (α = .79 and α
= .85 for cognitive empathy and affective empathy, respectively). Van Langen et
al. (2012) replicated their study with 1789 adolescents and found comparable
results (a two-factor solution and internal consistency reliabilities of α = .72 and α
= .81 for cognitive empathy and affective empathy, respectively). In the current
study, we found internal consistency reliabilities of α = .81 for cognitive empathy
and α =.75 for affective empathy.
RESULTS
Preliminary analyses
Table 1 shows the correlations (one tailed significance) between the four factors
of social problem situations and cognitive and affective empathy. Problems with
social disadvantage were negatively correlated with cognitive empathy (r = -.376,
p < .01) and affective empathy (r = -.190, p < .05). Inadequate coping with
competition was negatively correlated with cognitive empathy (r = -.348, p < .01)
and negatively but not significantly correlated with affective empathy. Problems
with receiving/giving help were negatively correlated with both, cognitive and
affective empathy (r = -.249 and r = -.268, respectively, p < .01). Problems with
accepting authority were also negatively correlated with both, cognitive and
affective empathy (r = -.436, and r = -.291, respectively; p < .01).
63
Table 1.Means and standard deviations of social problem situations, cognitive and affective empathy, and correlations among these variables
M SD 2.
Competiti
on
3.
Accepting
/
giving
help
4.
Accepting
authority
5.
Cognitive
empathy
6.
Affective
empathy
1.Being
disadvantaged
3.573 1.401 .538** .465** .634** -.376** -190*
2. Problems
with
competition
1.510 .720 .404** .441** -.348** -.168
3. Problems
with accepting/
giving help
2.574 1.052 .523** -.249** -.268**
4. Problems
with accepting
authority
1.847 .820 -.436** -.291**
5. Cognitive
empathy
2.600 .325 .284**
6. Affective
empathy
1.800 .241
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 (one-tailed significance)
Structural equation model
To further investigate relations between the inappropriate responses to social
problem situations and cognitive and affective empathy a structural equation
model was fitted to the data using Mplus (version 6.11). We chose to only present
the best-fitting model. Fit-indices (CFI, TLI, and RMSEA1) and the model Chi-
Square, also designated as the generalized likelihood ratio, were used to evaluate
model fit (Kline, 2005). The following cut-off values are indicative of close model
fit: NFI2 and CFI > .90, TLI > .95 and RMSEA < .06, whereas a non-significant Chi-
Square indicates exact model fit (Arbuckle, 2007; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2005).
1 NFI (Normed Fit Index), CFI (Comparative Fit Index), TLI (Tucker-Lewis Index) and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are indices of goodness of fit that are independent of sample size. Models that fit well score favourably on these fit-indices. For further references see Arbuckle (2007).
64
The model showed a good fit to the data when using a null hypothesis
significance test: X2 (6) = 7.842, p = .250. Fit indices that are less sensitive to
differences in sample size than the Chi-square test (Sivo et al., 2006) showed an
exact fit to the data: CFI= .989; TLI =.975; RMSEA = .049. It can be derived from
Figure 1 that inadequate coping with competition and accepting authority were
negatively related to cognitive empathy, while problems with receiving/giving
help and with accepting authority were negatively related to affective empathy.
We tested indirect effects using a method for testing indirect effects in
multiple mediator models (Preacher & Hays, 2008). Results showed that the
relation between social disadvantage and cognitive empathy was mediated by
problems with competition (Indirect effect = .137; Z = 2.827, p = .005). The
relation between social disadvantage and affective empathy was mediated by
problems with accepting authority (Indirect effect = .106; Z = 2.106, p = .035).
Finally, there was a trend showing that the relation between accepting/giving help
and cognitive empathy was mediated by problems with accepting authority
(Indirect effect = -.061; Z = 1.935, p = .053).
65
Figure 1. SEM model of social problem situations and empathy
+ p < .10 * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed significances)
DISCUSSION
This study examined the relation between inappropriate responses to social
problem situations and (cognitive and affective) empathy in a group of juvenile
delinquents placed in Dutch secure juvenile institutions. Problems with
competition were negatively related to cognitive empathy, whereas problems
with receiving or giving help were negatively related to affective empathy. The
relation between social disadvantage and cognitive empathy was mediated by
problems with competition. Difficulties in accepting authority were negatively
related to both affective and cognitive empathy, and mediated the relation
between problems with social disadvantage and affective empathy and the
relation between accepting/giving help and cognitive empathy (a trend). It
appears that in particular the degree to which incarcerated juvenile delinquents
Affective empathy
.537***
.-.175+
-.212*
Social disadva ntage
Cognitive empathy
-.347***
-.255**
.288***
.501***
Inadequate competition
Authority problems
Receiving/giving help
.167+
66
accept authority provides the key to understanding the relation between their
responses to social problem situations and empathy.
Adolescents in secure juvenile institutions tend to face a long history of
failures at school and conflicts with authorities (Loeber, Slot, Van der Laan, &
Hoeve, 2009; Shapiro, Smith, Malone, & Collaro, 2010). Failure to accept authority
often aggravates problems, leading to a downward coercive cycle of aggression
and negative encounters with authorities (Granic & Patterson, 2006), which could
result in delinquency (Tarry & Emler, 2007). The central role of ‘authority’
indicates that group workers could have a negative or positive influence on
adolescents’ empathy development, by being either unresponsive or responsive
to the developmental needs of the juvenile delinquents.
There is empirical evidence to suggest that repression reinforces
negative experiences with authority figures, damages therapeutic alliance and
undermines treatment motivation, whereas responsiveness sets the stage for
new and more positive experiences with adults that are intrinsically beneficial,
and which substantially reduce problems with authority (Parhar, Wormith,
Derkzen, & Beauregard, 2008; Van der Helm, 2011a; Ward, Melser, & Yates,
2007).
The negative relation between problems with competition and cognitive
empathy may be explained by reputation-enhancement theory (Emler &
Reicher, 1995), because competition in secure juvenile institutions often
pertains to peer group leadership status, which may be enhanced by a
reputation of callous and non-empathic responding to others (Osgood & O’Neil
Bridell, 2006; Van der Helm, 2011a; Harvey, 2005).
Results of the present study indicate that the relation between problems
with social disadvantage and cognitive empathy was not direct, but mediated by
inadequate coping with competition. It is possible that those who experienced
most problems with social disadvantage were either prone to suffer from
isolation, humiliation and other forms of peer group aggression or inclined to be
isolated, hostile and aggressive themselves (Fluttert, 2011), which in both cases
may create serious problems with inadequate coping with competition (Harvey,
2005). Subsequently, inadequate coping with competition, as hypothesized,
67
proved to be related to lower levels of empathy in the present study.
As already alluded to in the introduction of this article, receiving or
giving help may be considered as an attachment-related concept reflecting
secure or insecure working models of attachment, that is, the lens through
which a person views and interprets social behavior of self and others (Bowlby,
1988; Zegers, 2007). In other words, we argue that problems with receiving or
giving help reflect insecure working models of attachment, which may hamper
the development of mentalizing abilities and both cognitive and affective
empathy. However, this hypothesis was only supported for affective empathy,
showing a weak association with receiving/giving help, which might cast doubt
on the explanation in terms of attachment. The alternative hypothesis pertains
to the negative effect of a repressive living group climate, which is thought to be
antagonistic to helping one another, on empathy development. Again, results of
this study do not convincingly support this hypothesis, in particular because Van
der Helm et al. (2012c) found a repressive living group climate to be related to
cognitive empathy only.
There are some limitations of this study that need to be acknowledged.
First, only self-report measures were used to assess both inappropriate responses
to social problem situations and empathy, which may yield inflated correlations
due to shared measure variance. Second, self-report of social behavior and
empathy may be affected by socially desirable responding. Third, the sample size
was too small to allow for multi-level analysis in order to account for dependency
of measurements in hierarchically structured data (i.e., inmates are nested into
living groups). Notably, the neglect of statistical dependency can result in chance
capitalisation and the risk of spurious research findings. Also, this study was cross-
sectional, which sets limits to the causal interpretation of our study findings. The
evidence is at best correlational, leaving open the possibility that empathy would
be an antecedent of responses to social problem situations (Weiner, 2006). We
post-hoc tested this model, which showed cognitive empathy to be stronger
related to responses to social problem situations than affective empathy, which
concurs with results from the best-fitting model presented in this study. However,
the alternative model fitted the data less well than the hypothesized (best-fitting)
68
model. Because of this and other limitations the results of this study should be
interpreted with caution.
As the present study only provides preliminary evidence of associations
between problematic responses to social problem situations and empathy in
incarcerated juvenile delinquents, results should be replicated in a prospective
longitudinal study that allows for the examination of contextual effects by means
of multi-level analyses. Nevertheless, this study opens the way to further research
into the effectiveness of group interventions with incarcerated adolescents and
possibilities of empathy development with subsequent recidivism reduction. For
instance, social skills training, improvement of the therapeutic alliance (McLeod,
2011) and of living group climate (Eltink et al.,2015) could reduce inappropriate
responses to social problem situations, in particular authority problems, and could
hereby improve moral development (EQUIP, Gibbs, 2003; Van Stam et al., 2014).
Ultimately, individualized social skills treatment in secure institutional facilities,
targeting inadequate social information processing in social problem situations
and aggression, could turn out to be a major factor contributing to effectiveness
of secure institutional treatment (Hoogsteder et al., 2014, 2015).
69
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75
THE RELATION BETWEEN LIVING GROUP
CLIMATE, AGGRESSION AND CALLOUS UNEMOTIONAL TRAITS IN DELINQUENT BOYS IN DETENTION
Evelyn Heynen, Peer van der Helm, Maaike Cima,
Geert-Jan Stams & Andries Korebrits The relation between living group climate, aggression and callous
unemotional traits in delinquent boys in detention (submitted for second
revision) International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology
76
ABSTRACT
Aggression and Callous-Unemotional (CU-) traits are a common problem in
incarcerated delinquent youth. The present study was conducted to examine
whether living group climate was associated with aggression and CU-traits in late
adolescent male offenders (N = 156) in a German youth prison. A structural
equation model was fitted to the data and showed associations between
repression and reactive aggression, repression and callousness, and atmosphere
and uncaring behavior, but no associations between an open and supportive living
group climate and aggression and CU-traits. Previous research in Dutch youth
prisons did not find a relation between repression and aggression, and a negative
relation between a positive living group climate and aggression. These different
findings may reflect differences in the German and Dutch Prison system.
Implications for practice are discussed.
77
INTRODUCTION
Aggression and criminal behavior by adolescents constitute a major social
problem. While a decrease in youth crime in Europe is evident, there are still
problems with the severity and violent nature of it (Blumstein, 2002; Center for
disease control and prevention, 2013, European Commission, 2014, Stelly &
Thomas, 2013). A large sub-group of young delinquents, up to 18 years old, are
often described as “callous” and “unemotional” (Asscher et al., 2011), and show
high rates of aggression and conduct disorder (Fazel, Doll, & Langström, 2008).
Callous-Unemotional (CU-) traits are characterized by a persistent pattern
of behavior that reflects a disregard for others, lack of empathy (Frick & Ray,
2014) and an increased risk for (severe) aggression (Frick & White, 2008; Kimonis
et al., 2014). Previous research reported the importance of distinguishing
between reactive aggression (e.g., in response to provocation, threat or other
adverse social risks), which is based on the frustration-aggression model (Dollard,
Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), and proactive aggression, which is goal
directed and instrumental (Dodge, 1991; Polman et al., 2004) and considered to
be a product of social learning (Bandura, 1973). The difference between reactive
and proactive aggression is apparent in different causes (etiology) and effects
(Raine et al., 2006). Reactive aggression is related to internalizing problems (Card
& Little, 2006), deficits in information processing (Crick and Dodge,1996; Raine et
al., 2006 ) and executive functioning (Giancola et al., 1996; Raine et al., 2006) and
is associated with negative emotionality and anxiety (Fite et al., 2009), whereas
proactive aggression is driven by relatively positive outcome expectancies
(Bandura, 1973) and is more common in delinquents (Card & Little, 2006) and
individuals with poor peer relationships or antisocial personality traits (Cima &
Raine, 2009; Raine, et al., 2006). Youth high on CU-traits tend to demonstrate
both more reactive and proactive aggression (Frick, Cornell, Barry, Bodin, & Dane,
2003), which is not only associated with the development of criminal behavior,
but may also form a problem during incarceration (Frick & & Dickens, 2006;
Marsee, Silverthorn, & Frick, 2005; Ros, Van der Helm, Wissink, Stams, &
Schaftenaar, 2013).
78
When entering the juvenile justice facility, juveniles take along several
difficulties, such as aggression, criminal behavior, substance abuse and psychiatric
problems, often related to mild intellectual disabilities (importation hypothesis:
Cline & Wheeler, 1968; Gover, MacKenzie, & Armstrong, 2000; Kaal, Negenman,
Roeleveld, & Embregts, 2011; Kaal, Overvest, & Boertjes, 2014). Problems often
start in early childhood and are related to stress, neglect, maltreatment or
deprivation (Asscher, Van der Put, & Stams, 2015), resulting in failure of
treatment and social isolation (Spinhoven et al., 2010; Van Vliet & Oei, 2006). At
present, research is conducted to examine the degree to which CU-traits are
stable personality characteristics (Frick & Moffitt, 2010; Frick, Stickle, Dandreaux,
Farrell, & Kimonis, 2005) and if they can be influenced by the environment
(Viding, Blair, Moffitt, & Plomin, 2005). Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van
Langen and Van der Laan (2012) argue that an open living group climate in youth
prison, especially positive contact between staff and inmates (see also: Listwan,
2013), a structured and safe environment and possibilities for personal
development and growth can stimulate empathy and subsequently reduction of
CU-traits (De Waal, Smith-Churchland, Pievani, & Parmigiani, 2014, Viding et al.,
2005).
Research has shown that juvenile prisoners can change their behavior if
they gain more positive perceptions of the setting they live in (Schubert et al.,
2012). In Europe, young prison inmates often live in so called living groups of 8-12
juveniles under supervision of group workers. Those group workers play a central
role in the creation of the living group climate, which can be defined as open
(responsive) or closed (repressive; Van der Helm, Klapwijk, Stams, & Van der Laan,
2009; Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2011b). In fact, it is most likely a
continuum between these two extremes. An ‘open’ living group climate is
characterized by support, clear opportunities for growth, safety, structure and
flexibility, and can increase treatment motivation, internal locus of control and
decrease criminal cognitions (Van der Helm et al., 2011). Especially if group
workers offer support and good possibilities for growth (i.e., going back to
school), aggressive incidents can decrease (Ros et al., 2013). An open climate can
also result in advanced social cognition, social learning and more empathy
79
(Groeneweg, Van der Helm, Stams, & Asscher, 2013; Iacoboni & Dapretto, 2006;
Van der Helm et al., 2012b).
The living group climate is defined as ‘closed’ if there are few
opportunities for growth, if support by prison staff is almost absent and if group
atmosphere is negative (Liebling & Maruna, 2005; Ross, Diamond, Liebling, &
Saylor, 2008; Ross, Liebling, & Tait, 2011; Van der Helm et al., 2011b). A closed
living group climate is highly repressive, can damage the therapeutic alliance and
treatment motivation during detention, but can also lead to more aggressive
behavior of juveniles and increased stress levels (Van der Helm et al., 2011b,
Van der Helm, et al., 2012a).
Several authors (Popma & Raine, 2006; Sato, Uono, Matsuura, & Toichi,
2009) have argued that prolonged stress can lead to a shift in the stress hormone
cortisol, released by the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis, resulting in
less empathy and more callousness. A closed living group climate in youth prison,
characterized by few opportunities for growth, lack of support by prison staff and
a lack of safety, has been shown to result in stress and violence among inmates
(Liebling & Maruna, 2005; Ross, et al., 2008; Ross, et al., 2011; Van der Helm et
al., 2011b).
To date, there is no study investigating the relation between living group
climate and CU-traits. Because high levels of CU-traits in combination with
aggressive behavior are a common problem in youth detention and create a
central component of violent behavior in young prisoners, the present study
focuses on how living group climate is related to the behavior of delinquent youth
in residential care.
The following hypothesis will be investigated: A positive and open living
group climate is associated with less aggressive behavior and less callous-
unemotional traits in detained youth offenders. As the present study was
conducted in a diverse sample of young prison inmates, we will account for the
effects of age, ethnicity and type of offense on living group climate, aggression
and CU-traits.
80
METHOD
Participants
The present study was conducted in a German Youth Prison. A sample of 156
delinquent, adolescent, male prisoners was randomly selected from the part of
the prison population that was accessible at the start of our study. All prisoners
lived in groups of 15-20 young inmates. Participants were aged between 17 and
25 years (M =20.44; SD=1.64). In the participating prison, delinquents between
the ages of 14-27 were incarcerated. The main reason for detention was ‘inflicting
personal injury’ (62%). Most respondents had a German nationality (73%), and
13% Turkish and 14% other nationalities. Education levels were generally low:
33% had not completed education, 45% had completed the lowest level of
education. All adolescents voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, signed an
informed consent declaration, and were told that their answers would be treated
confidentially and anonymously and would be accessed only by the researchers.
Instruments
PRISON GROUP CLIMATE INSTRUMENT (PGCI)
The PGCI (original version: Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2011b) consists
of 36 questions with a five-point-likert scale ranging from 1= don´t agree to 5=
fully agree. Each question belongs to only one of the four aspects of living group
climate: support, growth, atmosphere and repression. The scale for ´support´
assesses the professional behavior of group workers and describes juvenile’s
experience of support by staff. An example of an item from the support scale is
“group workers treat me with respect.” The ´growth´ scale assesses
developmental possibilities, hope for the future and feelings and thoughts about
detention. An example of a growth scale item is “I learn the right things here”. The
´repression´ scale assesses repression, strictness of rules and the control prisoners
experience during their imprisonment. An example of a repression item is “You
have to ask permission for everything”. Finally, the ´atmosphere´ scale assesses
81
group atmosphere related to prisoners’ own feelings of safety and trust. An
example of an atmosphere item is “We trust each other here” (Heynen, Van der
Helm, Stams, & Korebrits, 2014; Van der Helm et al., 2011b). The questionnaire
measures whether the living group climate in a group setting is open and
therapeutic or closed and repressive. An open group climate is defined by high
levels of support, ample opportunities for growth, minimal repression and a clean,
safe and structured environment (Heynen et al., 2014; Van der Helm et al., 2011).
In the present study the German version of the PGCI was used (Heynen et
al., 2014). Reliability coefficients of the German questionnaire were good for
‘support’ (α = .85) and ‘growth’ (α = .85) and sufficient for ‘repression’ (α = .67)
and ‘atmosphere’ (α = .66) (Heynen et al., 2014). Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities for
the present study were also good for growth (α =. 86) and support (α =.84) and
sufficient for repression (α = .61) and atmosphere (α = .63).
INVENTORY OF CALLOUS UNEMOTIONAL TRAITS (ICU)
The ICU scale developed by Frick (2003) is a 24-item self-report measure, with
four response categories ranging from 0=not at all true to 3=definitely true. In the
present study the German version of the self-report questionnaire was used. This
self-report scale has been shown to be a reliable and valid instrument to
investigate CU-traits in adolescent offenders. The scale is divided into three
subscales: Callousness (e.g., “the feelings of others are unimportant to me”; α =
.70), Unemotional (e.g., “I hide my feelings from others”; α = .64) and Uncaring
(e.g., ”I try not to hurt others’ feelings”; α = .73 this item is reversely coded;
Kimonis et al., 2008). The present study showed good reliabilities for callousness
(α = .72) and uncaring (α = .76) and a sufficient reliability for unemotional (α =
.60).
82
The RPQ, developed by Raine and colleagues in 2006, consists of 23 items ranging
on a 3-point scale (from 0=never, 1=sometimes, to 2=often) and makes a
differentiation between reactive (11 items, “Gotten angry when frustrated”) and
proactive (12 items, “Vandalized something for fun”) aggression. The RPQ
assesses both physically and verbally aggressive behaviors, and in the case of
reactive aggression assesses anger generated in response to external stimuli
(Raine et al., 2006). The RPQ has shown to be a valid and reliable instrument to
investigate reactive and proactive aggression with a significant proactive–reactive
inter-correlation and good internal consistency (α = 0.89; Raine et al., 2006; see
also Cima, Raine, Meesters, & Popma, 2013). In the present study, we
administered this questionnaire during the last month. As there was no translated
German version of the RPQ, the first author of this study, a bilingual native Dutch
and German speaker, translated the Dutch version of the test into German. The
German Version was then back-translated by another Dutch and German native
speaker. In the present study, the scale has a good internal consistency for
reactive aggression (α = .80) and proactive aggression (α = .84).
Statistical Analysis
Pearson correlation analyses were conducted in SPSS 21.0 to examine
associations between the different dimensions of living group climate, reactive
and proactive aggression and CU-traits. Subsequently, structural equation
modeling (SEM) was conducted in Mplus (version 6.11) to test a model (ML) with
direct paths between the latent variable living group climate (support, growth,
repression, and atmosphere), reactive and proactive aggression, and CU-traits
(callousness, uncaring, and unemotional). The model also included the effects of
age, ethnicity, and type of offense on living group climate, reactive and proactive
aggression and CU-traits, and accounted for associations among reactive and
proactive aggression and CU-traits. The sample size was considered to be
sufficient to conduct reliable SEM, given the favorable ratio between the sample
size and free parameters to be estimated of 5 to 1 (Bentler & Chou, 1987),
REACTIVE PROACTIVE AGGRESSION QUESTIONNAIRE (RPQ)
83
because a reasonable sample size for a simple SEM model is estimated to be N =
150 (Muthen & Muthen, 2002), and because the sample size of our study
guaranteed sufficient statistical power (.80) to detect small effects at p < .05
(Cohen, 1988; Westland, 2010). Moreover, SEM results were largely consistent
with simple correlation analyses (see below).
Both the fit-indices (CFI, TLI, and RMSEA3) and the model Chi-Square
statistic, also designated as the generalized likelihood ratio, were used to evaluate
model fit (Kline, 2005). The following cut-off values are indicative for a close
model fit: CFI > .95, TLI > .95 and RMSEA < .06, whereas a non-significant Chi-
Square indicates exact model fit (Arbuckle, 2005; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2005).
Modifications indices (MI’s) were used to guide improvement of model fit
between the hypothesized and alternative (modified) model.
RESULTS
PRELIMINAIRY ANALYSIS
Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the sub-(scales) for living
group climate, reactive and proactive aggression and CU-traits as well as the
correlations among these variables. Significant and positive correlations were
found between repression and callousness (r = .229, p = .001), atmosphere and
unemotional traits (r = .159, p = .05), and also between repression and reactive
aggression (r = .275, p = .01). There were also significant and positive correlations
between all subscales of the ICU and proactive aggression (callousness: r = .468, p
= .001; uncaring: r = .285, p = .001; unemotional: r = .214, p = .01). Furthermore,
there were significant correlations between reactive aggression and callousness (r
= .488, p = .001), uncaring (r = .213, p = .01) and support (r = -.172, p = .05).
3 CFI (Comparative Fit Index), TLI (Tucker-Lewis Index), NFI (Normed Fit Index) and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are indices of goodness of fit that are independent of sample size. Models that fit well score favourably on these fit-indices. For further references see Arbuckle (2007).
84
Finally, there was a significant and positive correlation between reactive and
proactive aggression (r = .734, p = .001).
85
Tab
le 1
. Mea
ns,
Sta
nd
ard
Dev
iati
on
s a
nd
Co
rrel
ati
on
s a
mo
ng
th
e P
GC
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nd
RP
Q
M
(SD
)
callo
usn
ess
un
cari
ng
un
emo
tio
nal
sup
po
rt
gr
ow
th
re
pre
ssio
n
at
mo
sph
ere
re
acti
ve
aggr
essi
on
callo
usn
ess
1
.02
(.4
4)
1
u
nca
rin
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86
STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING
To investigate the relations between living group climate, reactive and proactive
aggression, and CU-traits, a structural equation model was fitted to the data
(N=156), accounting for the effects of age, ethnicity and type of offending on
living group climate, aggression and CU-traits, and allowing correlations among
reactive aggression, proactive aggression and CU-traits. The initial model did not
show a good fit to the data: χ2 (38) = 73.893, p = .000, CFI = .902, TLI = .838 and
RMSEA = .078. Therefore, a second model was fitted to the data, with some
changes made on the basis of modification indices: paths were added between
repression and reactive aggression and callousness, and between atmosphere and
uncaring, while unemotional and uncaring were allowed to correlate.
The modified model showed a good fit to the data: χ2 (34) = 44.228, p =
.113, CFI = .972, TLI = .948 and RMSEA = .044, and a significant improvement of
model fit: χ2 (4) = 29.665, p < .001, which was substantiated by considerable
changes in the other fit indices (CFI, TLI and RMSEA). It can be derived from Figure
1 (showing standardized coefficients, dashed lines representing non-significant
paths, and solid lines representing significant paths) that repression was positively
related to reactive aggression (.196, p = .001) and callousness (.236, p = .001),
while atmosphere was negatively related to uncaring (-.166, p = .016).
Furthermore, reactive and proactive aggression were positively associated with
CU-traits (.537 and .542, p = .000, respectively), reactive aggression was positively
associated with proactive aggression (.745, p = .000), and uncaring was positively
associated with unemotional (.216, p = .012). The control variable ‘age’ showed a
borderline-significant association with CU-traits (-.179, p = .058), indicating that
CU-traits were more common in younger inmates (the Appendix shows all
standardized coefficients, standard errors, z-values and p-values).
Figu
re 1
. Str
uct
ura
l Eq
ua
tio
n M
od
el o
f Li
vin
g G
rou
p C
lima
te, C
U-t
rait
s a
nd
Ag
gre
ssio
n
87
88
DISCUSSION
There is accumulating empirical evidence showing that the social environment can
be more influential than individual factors in explaining both antisocial (Pinker,
2011; Raine, 2014; Zimbardo, 2004) and prosocial behavior (Van IJzendoorn &
Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2014). Also, juvenile offenders change their behavior in
response to the social environment, that is, perceived environmental demands
and pressures (Steinberg, 2009; Schubert et al., 2012; Van der Helm & Stams,
2012). Research has shown that an open living group climate could influence
successful rehabilitation and secure institutional treatment (Van der Helm et al.,
2012, for an overview see Souverein, Van der Helm, & Stams, 2013). Although the
rate of violent delinquency has been declining during the past three decades,
serious and violent (juvenile) offending remains a significant problem (e.g. Clarke,
2013; Hanslmaier, Kemme, Stoll, & Baier, 2014; LaFree, Curtis, & McDowall, 2015;
OJJDP, 2011; Snyder, 2012). The most violent offenders often show high levels of
aggression and CU-traits (Frick & Dickens, 2006; Monahan et al., 2001; Salekin,
Rogers, & Sewell, 1996). The present study is to our knowledge the first to
examine the relation between living group climate and both aggression and CU-
traits in a juvenile justice institution.
Results of this study show that perception of a more repressive living
group climate is associated with more callousness and reactive (but not proactive)
aggression in incarcerated juvenile offenders, which is consistent with the
deprivation hypothesis, indicating that a repressive climate is related to more
antisocial behavior within prison (Harer & Steffensmeier, 1996). Our study results
are also in line with research showing the distinctiveness of reactive aggressive
behavior in response to perceived adverse environmental circumstances,
including repression (the present study), and proactive aggressive behavior, which
is instrumental and anticipates reward (Card & Little, 2006; Kempes, Matthys, De
Vries, & Van Engeland, 2005; Polman, Orobio de Castro, Koops, Van Boxtel, &
Merk, 2007; Raine et al., 2006). However, outcomes of this study are not in line
89
with previous research on living group climate in Dutch youth prisons, which
showed that an open and supportive living group climate was associated with less
aggression, whereas repression was unrelated to aggression (Ros et al., 2011; Van
der Helm et al., 2011). In the Netherlands, juvenile delinquents receive structured
clinical treatment during detention in order to reduce the risk for criminal offense
recidivism (Hoogsteder et al., 2014). As the present study was carried out in a
German youth prison, it seems plausible to suggest that the relation between
living group climate and aggression might be affected by differences in the
juvenile prison system between Germany and the Netherlands, and the respective
goals of retribution, deterrence or rehabilitation. The German juvenile prison system particularly focuses on formal
education, reduction of drug use and aggression (§ 40 Jugendstrafvollzugsgesetz,
Bundesministerium der Justiz, 2006; Walter, 1999, 2009), but does not target
reduction of aggression of juvenile offenders by means of psychiatric care,
evidence-based offender rehabilitation programs, such as Equip (Helmond,
Overbeek, & Brugman, 2012) and Responsive Aggression Replacement Therapy
(Hoogsteder et al., 2014). The recent 2013 vision of the 9 Dutch youth prisons
(Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams, 2012) explicitly states that an open living group
climate and psychiatric help are the two main pillars of the system.
In a post-hoc analysis (Appendix 2) we compared living group climate,
assessed with the PGCI, between the German juvenile justice institution (the
present study) and juvenile justice institutions in the Netherlands (Van der Helm
et al., 2011), matched for gender and age, and found significantly higher levels of
support (d = .70) and group atmosphere (d = .43) in the Netherlands, and no
differences in growth and repression. Notably, De Swart et al. (2012) conducted a
meta-analysis on the effectiveness of residential care, and showed general group
care to be ineffective without the delivery of evidence-based treatment. Another
review of young offenders (Koehler, Loesel, Akoensi, & Humphreys, 2013) showed
that purely deterrent and supervisory interventions even slightly increased
juvenile recidivism. When treatment was the main goal, results were more
positive in terms of recidivism reduction, especially when cognitive behavioral
90
therapy was applied. Given that the Dutch forensic juvenile justice institutions
deliver evidence-based treatment and psychiatric care, an open and supportive
living group climate may reduce aggression problems and eliminate the negative
effects of repression. In Germany, however, an open and supportive living group
climate may possibly have no positive effects on CU-traits and aggression because
evidence-based treatment is lacking, while the negative effects of repression are
not dampened by the use of evidence-based treatment. Only one of the indicators
of an open and supportive living group climate (i.e., a positive group atmosphere
among juveniles) was related to better outcomes (less uncaring behavior), which
seems consistent with our line of reasoning. Notably, growth and support, just as
the overall dimension representing an open living group climate, were unrelated
to aggression or CU-traits.
Other explanations for different results in Germany and the Netherlands
may be found in measurement issues. The Dutch study by Van der Helm et al.
used the Buss Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI; Buss & Durkee, 1957) to assess
self-reported aggression, whereas the present German study used the RPQ. The
BDHI is more focused on trait like features of aggression, whereas the RPQ is
more focused on state like features of aggression. We suggest that a repressive
prison environment may have negative effects on state like features of
aggression, but less on trait like features of aggression. Notably, the repression
experienced by incarcerated juvenile delinquents may partly be a continuation of
their aversive child-rearing experiences, as was recently demonstrated by
Asscher, Van der Put and Stams (2015), which may explain why repression did not
show a significant association with trait like aggression. However, such an
explanation does not seem in agreement with the significant relation between
repression and callousness in the present study. On the other hand, Baron-Cohen
(2011) has argued that empathy, which is incompatible with CU-traits, can be
‘shut on or shut off’, depending on the quality of the environment. In prison,
where the environment is thought to have a great (or even extreme) impact on
the behavior of inmates (Van der Helm, 2011) callous and unemotional behavior
can therefore be more state- than trait-like. This may particularly be the case for
91
adolescents whose brain is still maturating and personality is still developing
(Lenroot & Giedd, 2006).
Although the PGCI has been shown to be a valid and reliable
measurement instrument to assess living group climate in juvenile justice
institutions in Germany and the Netherlands (Heynen, 2014), measurement
invariance for the German and Dutch version of the PGCI has never been
demonstrated, which means that the size of the factor loadings may differ across
the German and Dutch version. Notably, the repression scale of the PGCI consists
of items measuring both repression and deprivation. Deprivation items load
relatively high on the German repression scale of the PGCI, whereas repression
items load relatively high on the Dutch repression scale of the PGCI. It can
therefore be concluded that the association between repression and aggression
particularly signals the negative effects of deprivation in the German youth prison,
which interpretation is in line with the lack of attention paid to psychosocial
development in the German prison system.
The present results have to be considered in light of some limitations. A
first limitation is that the PGCI does not distinguish between repression and
deprivation. We therefore argue that the PGCI needs further development to
account for repression and deprivation in separate scales, which facilitates
research on the unique effects of repression and deprivation and their
combination. A second limitation is that living group climate was assessed by
means of adolescent self-report only, and was not supplemented with
independent objective observations or assessment of the perspective of prison
staff and group workers. A third limitation pertains to the cross-sectional nature
of this study, which does not permit testing the transactional relation between
environment and individual characteristics, and sets limits to the causal
interpretation of the results. While the present study showed that a hard prison
environment may have adverse effects on the frequency of (reactive) aggressive
behavior and the emergence (or stability) of callousness, the opposite could also
be true: Prison staff or group workers may resort to a stricter schedule if
confronted with inmates who are both callous and prone to show aggressive
92
behavior. As the analysis is correlative, based on self-reports of inmates only, and
does not compare various institutions (and living groups) with each other that
differ in terms of climate (e.g., by means of multilevel analysis), it cannot be
excluded that juvenile delinquents with pronounced CU-traits and a greater
propensity toward aggression may be more inclined to view their surroundings as
hostile. Hence, hostile attribution bias (Orobio de Castro, Veerman, Koops, Bosch,
& Monshouwer, 2002) could be an alternative explanation for the results of our
study, at least in part. A final limitation is that the sample consisted of male
offenders only, which restricts generalizability. It would be interesting to compare
a sample of boys and girls because of the expected differences in the
development of aggression during detention (Asscher et al., 2015; Crick, Bigbee, &
Howes, 2008). Future research should examine the longitudinal relations between
living group climate, aggression and CU traits in a more diverse sample of
detained juvenile offenders.
Despite these limitations, the present study is the first to investigate
whether there is a relation between living group climate and both aggression and
CU-traits, showing that repression is associated with aggressive behavior and
callousness in detained youth. This study provides empirical support for the
association between repression and antisocial behavior in a context where social
support from professional staff appears to be low, the group atmosphere al., 2008
among inmates is relatively negative, and evidence-based treatment for detained
youth is lacking. The prevalence rate of any mental disorders among detained
male adolescents is almost 70% (Colins et al., 2010) and the longitudinal relation
between on the one hand externalizing and comorbid disorders and on the other
hand criminal offense recidivism is substantial (Wibbelink, Hoeve, Stams, & Oort,
2015). The outcomes of this study also raises doubts about ‘get tough’ approaches
in prison in general (Gendreau, Goggin, French & Smith 2006; Collier, 2014) and
calls for a more effective and rehabilitative prison management (Lipsey, 2009;
Listwan, 2013; Parhar et al., 2008).
94
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APPENDIX 1
Table. SEM Results Estimates from Mplus
Estimate S.E. Z
two tailed P-Value
Open living group climate BY
support .950 .073 13.030 .000
growth .570 .070 8.120 .000
atmosphere .567 .070 8.125 .000
repression -.346 .080 -4.340 .000
CU-traits BY
callous .809 .089 9.116 .000
uncaring .501 .083 6.018 .000
unemotional .366 .085 4.296 .000
CU-traits ON
open living group climate -.018 .108 -.170 .865 Open living group climate ON
age .032 .084 .381 .703
ethnicity .055 .084 .658 .511
type of offence .057 .084 .677 .498
CU-traits ON
age -.179 .094 -1.897 .058
ethnicity .091 .092 .984 .325
type of offence .043 .093 .467 .641
Reactive aggression ON
open living group climate -.103 .086 -1.190 .234
age .016 .077 1.130 .259
ethnicity .087 .077 1.130 .259
type of offence -.019 .078 -.242 .809
repression .196 .056 3.477 .001
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Estimate S.E. Z
two tailed P-Value
Proactive aggression ON age -.103 .079 -1.305 .192
ethnicity .031 .079 .384 .701
type of offence -.014 .080 -.179 .858
Callousness ON
repression .236 .068 3.464 .001
Uncaring ON
atmosphere -.166 .069 -2.407 .016
Reactive aggression WITH
CU-traits .537 .081 6.629 .000
Proactive aggression WITH
CU-traits .542 .085 6.406 .000
reactive aggression .745 .036 20.483 .000
Unemotional WITH
uncaring .216 .086 2.513 .012
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APPENDIX 2
Table. Post-Hoc Analysis, T-test of Present Results German PGCI versus Dutch PGCI
Germany (N=156)
The Netherlands (N=47)
M SD M SD t d
Support 2.84 0.81 3.43 0.95 -4.16** -.70
Growth 3.41 0.90 3.20 0.94 1.39 .23
Repression 3.39 0.71 3.29 0.68 0.85 .14
Atmosphere 3.03 0.65 3.33 0.83 -2.55* -.43
*p < .05, **p < .001
Note: Matched for gender and age
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FEELINGS OF OTHERS DON’T IMPRESS
ME MUCH! THE EFFECTS OF LIVING GROUP CLIMATE ON EMPATHIC BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENT MALE OFFENDERS
Evelyn Heynen, Peer van der Helm, Maaike Cima, Geert-Jan Stams & Andries Korebrits
Submitted
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ABSTRACT
The present study is a German replication of a study originally performed in the
Netherlands regarding the association between a positive living group climate and
self-reported empathy in incarcerated adolescent male offenders (N = 49). A
structural equation model was fitted to the data and showed a relation between a
positive living group climate and increased empathy after 6 months. The
discussion focusses on group dynamics in youth prisons. The present results open
the way to further research into the importance of group processes in residential
youth care. A positive living group climate could turn out to be an important
factor contributing to the effectiveness of secure institutional treatment.
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INTRODUCTION
One of the most important developmental tasks of adolescents is to become a
person who can empathize with others, that is, someone who has the capacity to
‘understand and share another's emotional state and context’ (Cohen & Strayer,
1996). Empathy is considered to be the evolutionary mechanism behind altruism,
prosocial behavior, human civilization, and subsequently desistance from violence
(De Waal, 2008; Pinker, 2011). Whereas high levels of empathy are associated
with prosocial behavior (Eisenberg, Spinard, & Sadovsky, 2006), lack of empathy is
associated with antisocial behavior, including aggression, delinquency (Jolliffe &
Farrington 2004; Van Langen, Wissink, Van Vugt, Van der Stouwe, & Stams, 2014)
and criminal offense recidivism (Van Vugt et al., 2011).
There is growing empirical evidence showing that the social environment
has a major impact on both antisocial behavior (Miller, 2004) and prosocial
functioning (Van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2014). Also, juvenile
offenders change their behavior in response to the social environment, that is,
perceived environmental demands and pressures (e.g., Schubert, Mulvey,
Loughran, & Losoya, 2012; Steinberg, 2009; Van der Helm & Stams, 2012). A
positive living group climate in terms of support, growth, positive atmosphere and
low repression has shown to be a positive indicator of more empathic behavior. In
a prison environment, repression is related to perceptions of strictness and
control, unfair and haphazard rules, and a lack of flexibility by group workers. Low
repression is thought to be a necessary condition for creating a positive learning
environment in residential youth care (Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan,
2011). ‘Support’ means that group workers are responsive to the specific
developmental needs of the juveniles, involving juveniles in a therapeutic and
empathic relationship, which may challenge their egocentric, emotional and
cognitive schemes and models empathic responding. Growth pertains to the
institutional investment in creating a positive learning environment for the
juveniles, including participation and role-taking opportunities, thus facilitating
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socio-emotional development, coping with social problem situations and
development of empathy (Eltink, Van der Helm, Wissink, & Stams, 2015; Heynen,
Van der Helm, Wissink, Stams, & Moonen, 2015). Group atmosphere pertains to
the way inmates treat and trust each other and experience feelings of safety (Van
der Helm et al., 2011). While a negative group atmosphere is thought to increase
competition, stress, conflict and self-interest, a positive group atmosphere may
foster other-directed positive attitudes, including empathy. Living group climate in
youth correctional facilities can be considered as open and supportive if
repression is low, support and growth are high and group atmosphere is positive.
In the Netherlands, juvenile delinquents receive structured clinical
treatment during detention (Hoogsteder, Van Horn, Stams, Wissink, & Hendriks
2014), whereas in the German system the primary goal of incarceration of
delinquent juveniles is education (Bundesministerium der Justiz, 2007). As the
present study was carried out in a German youth prison, it seems reasonable to
suggest that the relation between living group climate and empathy might be
affected by differences in the juvenile prison system between Germany and the
Netherlands. Recent research comparing outcomes of living group climate
research in Germany and the Netherlands showed significantly lower levels of
support and group atmosphere in German juvenile justice institutions (Heynen,
Behrens, & Van der Helm, 2015). Additionally, the population of German youth
offenders proved to be somewhat older compared to the Dutch population
(Heynen et al., 2015b).
In line with the study of Fabes and Eisenberg (1998) who found age
differences in children’s and adolescents’ prosocial behavior in their meta-
analysis, Eisenberg, Cumberland, Guthrie, Murphy and Shepard (2005) found
increases in empathic reasoning from age 17-18 to age 21-22 in a sample of (Euro-
American) girls. Although it is not clear whether these findings can be generalized
to the sample of incarcerated delinquent boys in a German youth prison, it seems
important to take age differences into account when examining the relation
between living group climate and empathy, in particular because age might also
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affect the perception of living group climate in incarcerated juvenile delinquents
(Van der Helm et al., 2011).
Notably, Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen and Van der Laan
(2012) were the first to show in their cross-sectional study that an open and
supportive (rehabilitative) living group climate was associated with higher levels
of empathy in a small group of juvenile delinquents in a Dutch youth prison. The
present study is a replication of this study on living group climate and empathy in
a German youth prison. Replication is considered to be extremely important,
because it is one of the most stringent tests of scientific knowledge, in particular
because it should be ruled out in the first place that research findings are sample-
specific. Moreover, replications are important from the perspective of examining
generalizability of study findings. Notably, a recent study of the open science
collaboration group (2015) showed that only 39% of the replication studies
succeeded to replicate original results. Therefore, the present replication study
examines the relation between a rehabilitative living group climate and empathy
in detained juvenile delinquents six months after placement in a German youth
prison, accounting for age of the juveniles. It is hypothesized that a positive and
open living group climate is associated with more empathy over a period of 6
months.
METHOD
Participants
The present study was conducted in a German youth prison. A sample of 49
adolescent male prisoners was selected from the extant prison population in
January 2013, based on their accessibility and a minimum stay of 3 months in the
institution. The participants resided in living groups of 15-20 inmates. Participants
were aged between 18 and 23 years (M =20.45; SD=1.43). Most respondents had
a German nationality (75%), 7% were Turkish and 18% had other nationalities.
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Education levels were generally low: 25% had not completed any education, and
50% had completed the lowest level of vocational education. The main reasons
for detention were ‘inflicting personal injury’ (57%), theft (50%), violence (32%),
and possession or dealing of drugs (18%; different answers were possible).
Procedure
The present study had two measurements. The second measurement (T2) was
conducted 6 months after the first. Participants completed the Prison Group
Climate Instrument (PGCI; Van der Helm et al, 2011) during the first measurement
wave and the Basic Empathy Scale (BES; Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006) after 6 month.
After ethical approval had been obtained from the institutional review board of
the University of Applied Sciences Leiden, all adolescents voluntarily agreed to
participate in this study, signed an informed consent declaration, and were told
that their answers would be treated confidentially and anonymously, and would
be accessed only by the researchers.
Instruments
BASIC EMPATHY SCALE (BES)
The BES was developed by Jolliffe and Farrington (2006) and contains two
empathy components: cognitive and affective empathy. Affective empathy is the
capacity to experience the emotions of another (Bryant 1982) and cognitive
empathy is the capacity to comprehend the emotions of another (Hogan, 1969).
The original BES consists of 20 items, based on the four human basic emotions:
anger, fear, sadness and joy (Eckman, 2004). The questionnaire consists of 20
questions ranging on a 5-point-likert scale from 1 = I don´t agree to 5 = I fully
agree. An example of an item that measures cognitive empathy is ‘I can see when
my friends are afraid’, and an item measuring affective empathy is ‘When I am
with friends who are afraid, I feel afraid too’. The BES showed considerable
convergent, divergent and construct validity in the validation study by Jolliffe and
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Farrington (2004). In the present study, the validated German version of the BES
was used (Heynen Van der Helm, Stams & Korebrits, 2015d). The German scale
has shown to be a valid and reliable instrument also for the use in incarcerated
adolescents with sufficient reliabilities for cognitive (α = .78) and affective (α =
.71) empathy (Heynen et al, 2015d). In the present study reliabilities were
adequate for cognitive (α = .71) and affective (α = .67) empathy.
PRISON GROUP CLIMATE INSTRUMENT (PGCI) .
The PGCI (Van der Helm et al., 2011) consists of 36 questions ranging on a five-
point-Likert scale from 1= don´t agree to 5= fully agree. Each question belongs to
only one of the four aspects of living group climate: support, growth, atmosphere
and repression. The scale for ´support´ assesses the professional behavior of
group workers and describes the juvenile’s experience of support by staff. The
´growth´ scale assesses learning perceptions, hope for the future and giving
meaning to the prison stay. The ´repression´ scale assesses strictness of rules and
the control prisoners experience during their imprisonment. Finally, the
´atmosphere´ scale assesses group atmosphere related to prisoners’ own feelings
of safety and trust (Heynen, Van der Helm, Stams, & Korebrits, 2014; Van der
Helm et al., 2011). The scale has shown to be valid and reliable (Van der Helm et
al., 2011). In the present study the German version of the PGCI was used (Heynen
et al., 2014). Reliability coefficients of the German questionnaire were good for
‘support’ (α = .85) and ‘growth’ (α = .85) and sufficient for ‘repression’ (α = .67)
and ‘atmosphere’ (α = .66) (Heynen et al., 2014). Cronbach’s alpha’s for the
present study were also good for growth (α =.86) and support (α = .84) and
sufficient for repression (α = .61) and atmosphere (α = .63).
Statistical Analysis
The first section of the results presents the preliminary analyses. Pearson’s
correlation analyses were conducted in SPSS 21.0 to examine associations
between the different aspects of living group climate and empathy. Subsequently,
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structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted in Mplus (version 6.11) to test
a model (ML) with direct paths between the latent variables living group climate
(support, growth, repression, and atmosphere), and empathy (cognitive and
affective), accounting for age. Both the fit-indices (NFI, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA4) and
the model Chi-Square statistic, also designated as the generalized likelihood ratio,
were used to evaluate model fit (Kline, 2005). The following cut-off values are
indicative for a close model fit: CFI > .90, TLI > .95 and RMSEA < .06, whereas a
non-significant Chi-Square indicates exact model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline,
2005).
RESULTS
Preliminary Analysis
Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the four dimensions of
living group climate and cognitive and affective empathy as well as the
correlations among these variables. Significant and positive correlations were
found between support and affective empathy (r = .299, p = .018) and between
atmosphere and affective empathy (r = .333, p = .010). A significant negative
correlation was found between repression and cognitive empathy (r = -.318, p =
.013). There were also some significant correlations between the subscales of the
questionnaires. For the PGCI there were significant correlations between support
and growth (r = .328, p = .011), support and repression (r = -.394, p = .003),
support and atmosphere (r = .487, p = .000), and between atmosphere and
growth (r = .345, p = .008). For the BES there was a significant correlation between
affective and cognitive empathy (r = .679, p = .000).
4 CFI (Comparative Fit Index), TLI (Tucker-Lewis Index), NFI (Normed Fit Index) and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are indices of goodness of fit that are independent of sample size. Models that fit well score favourably on these fit-indices. For further references see Arbuckle (2007).
113
Table 1 descriptive statistics (M & SD) and correlations between age, PGCI and BES
M
SD
Age
support growth repression atmosphere cognitive empathy
age 20.45 1.43 1
support 2.84 .71 -.121 1
growth 3.43 .89 -.077 .328* 1
repression 3.34 .61 -.030 -.394***
-.089 1
atmosphere 3.12 .50 -.126 .487***
.345***
-.210 1
cognitive empathy
2.83 .58 .008 .233 -.197 -.318* .192 1
affective empathy
2.94 .55 -.055 .299* -.072 -.200 .333
** .679
***
Structural Equation Modeling
To investigate relations between living group climate at T1 and empathy at T2, a
structural equation model was fitted to the data (N=49), accounting for age. The
model showed a good fit to the data: χ2 (12) = 13.941, p = .057, CFI = .966, TLI =
.944 and RMSEA = .041. A diagram of the resulting model is presented in Figure 1
(dashed lines represent non-significant paths, whereas solid lines represent
significant paths). It can be derived from Figure 1 that there is a significant
relation between a positive living group climate at T1 and empathy at T2 (β = .393,
p = .025).
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Figure 1. Structural equation model between open living group climate and empathy
DISCUSSION
In 2010 Marshall and Burton called for more research on group processes in
offender treatment. The present study adds to the limited body of empirical
research examining group processes in youth prison, and is a replication of Van
der Helm’s (2012) Dutch study on the relation between an open and rehabilitative
living group climate and empathy in detained juvenile delinquents in Germany.
Results showed that a positive living group climate in terms of low repression and
high support from staff, opportunities for growth and a positive group
atmosphere was related to more empathy in incarcerated juvenile delinquents
after six months, which concurs with results from Van der Helm’s (2012) initial
study on living group climate and empathy.
0.963
0.706 0.626
-0.436 0.38 0.815
0.393
-0.147 0.006
Age
Empathy
Support
Living group climate
Growth Atmospher
e Repressio
n Cognitive Affective
115
Our findings are also in line with recent studies showing an open and
rehabilitative living group climate (including fairness, respect, humanity and
supportive relationships with staff) to be positively associated with active coping
and treatment motivation (Van der Helm, Beunk, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2014),
reactions to social problem situations (Eltink et al., 2015), personality
development (Van der Helm, Stams, Van Genabeek, & Van der Laan, 2012b), and
negatively associated with mental health problems (Beijersbergen, Dirkzwager,
Eichelsheim, Van der Laan, & Nieuwbeerta, 2014), aggressive incidents during
detention (Ros, Van der Helm, Wissink, Stams, & Schaftenaar, 2013), self-reported
aggression (Van der Helm et al., 2012), prison misconduct (Beijersbergen,
Dirkzwager, Eichelsheim, Van der Laan, & Nieuwbeerta, 2015) and criminal offense
recidivism (Schubert et al., 2012).
Research on group dynamics in secure forensic settings pointed to the key
role group workers play in establishing an open living group climate and providing
effective treatment (De Swart, 2011; Liebling, 2004; Ros et al., 2013; Souverein,
Van der Helm, & Stams, 2013). Although more research is needed, several
methods or interventions to improve living group climate quality have shown
promising results. For instance, measuring living group climate regularly, providing
group workers and incarcerated adolescents feedback about the outcomes, and
subsequently discussing these outcomes can result in gradual improvements of
living group climate (Van der Helm, Van Miert, Nagtegaal, Stams, & Beld, 2015). In
the same vein, feedback to staff based on results from work climate research can
improve team functioning and subsequently living group climate because of
parallel processes, that is, a prosocial team climate and respectful leadership can
model a similar living group climate (Van der Helm & Van Raemsdonck, 2015).
Equip (Gibbs, Potter, & Goldstein, 1995) is intended to encourage youth to think
and act responsibly by means of a peer-helping approach, making individuals feel
responsible for each other and actually help each other (Nas, Brugman, & Koops,
2005). The effectiveness of Equip was demonstrated in a meta-analysis conducted
by Van Stam et al. (2014). Non-violent resistance training for prison staff has
shown promising results, but does not focus on relationships among the inmates
116
(Omer, 2004). A training called 'TOP' PM (Top group worker) was developed and
implemented in two Dutch prisons and seems promising, because it makes group
workers aware of their influence on living group climate, accounting for group
dynamics (Van der Helm, Boekee, & Seib, 2011b). In a Dutch forensic residential
institution a de-escalation officer was appointed, who mediates in conflicts
between staff and patients and among patients themselves, which positively
affected living group climate (Jansen et al., 2014). Finally, in order to have a
positive impact on empathy development, living group climate interventions
should create a positive learning environment for the juveniles, in particular
providing opportunities to practice adequate reactions to social problem
situations (Eltink et al., 2015), which have been shown to be related to empathy
(Heynen, et al, 2015a).
Although the present results are promising, there are some limitations of
this study that need to be acknowledged. First, only self-report measures were
used to assess both empathy and living group climate, which constitutes a risk for
biased results due to socially desirable answer tendencies of the participants, and
may inflate correlations due to common-method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Second, the sample consisted only of male prisoners,
which limits generalizability. Future research should also focus on female
delinquents because of the differences in empathic responses by males and
females (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004). Third, the present study was conducted in a
small sample, which did not allow for multi-level analysis to account for statistical
dependency (inmates are nested within living groups). Results should be
replicated in a larger prospective longitudinal study with at least three
measurement waves in order to facilitate the examination of transactional
processes and contextual effects by means of multi-level analyses. Ideally, self-
reports should be combined with staff ratings, independent observations of living
group climate, registered incidents and prison misconduct (Ros et al., 2012). A
final limitation is related to the fact that we did not control for empathy during the
first measurement wave and not for living group climate during the second
measurement wave, which sets limits to the causal interpretation of our study
117
findings because individual stability of both empathy and perceptions of living
group climate have not been taken into account when examining the relation
between living group climate and empathy over a 6-month period.
The present results have to be interpreted with great caution. Only an
experimental replication of this study with an intervention targeting living group
climate warrants causal conclusions about the influence of living group climate on
the development of empathy during detention. Current results show that there is
an association between living group climate and empathy. Notably, it is plausible
to suggest that empathy is influenced by perception of the social environment
(i.e., living group climate), while in turn perception of the social environment is
affected by one’s role-taking capacity, including empathy. Future research should
therefore examine reciprocal effects between living group climate and empathy.
The present study is one of the first quantitative studies investigating the
relation between living group climate and empathy within a sample of
incarcerated juvenile offenders in a youth correctional facility over a 6-moths
period. Results showed a positive living group climate to be associated with
empathy. The present results pave the way to further research into the
importance of group processes in residential juvenile justice facilities. The present
study and previous studies indicate that a positive living group climate may be a
major factor in the effectiveness of secure institutional treatment, and could result
in a range of positive outcomes.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION
The present dissertation comprises five studies examining the relation between
living group climate quality and empathy, aggression, callous and unemotional
(CU)-traits and responses to social problem situations in juvenile delinquents
residing in German and Dutch juvenile justice facilities.
As living group climate was the main concept of this dissertation and there
was no instrument available to assess living group climate in Germany, the Prison
Group Climate Instrument (PGCI; Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2011) was
translated and validated for the German context (chapter 2). Confirmatory factor
analysis of the original four factor model, with support, growth, repression and
atmosphere as reliable dimensions, showed a good fit to the data, indicating
construct validity and reliability of the German PGCI. Preliminary support was
found for convergent validity. Internal consistency reliabilities were sufficient.
´Support´ and ´growth´ loaded highest on the ´overall group climate´ scale. This is
in line with the findings of the Dutch validation study, showing that ´support´ and
´growth´ are the most prominent indicators of living group climate in prison (Van
der Helm et al., 2011). Support by group workers and their responsivity to the
personal needs of the inmates can facilitate successful rehabilitation during
detention (Souverein, Van der Helm, & Stams, 2013). In future research, the
German version of the PGCI can be used to assess living group climate in judicial
and forensic psychiatric residential institutions in Germany. Investigation of living
group climate on a regular basis can help to improve safety and treatment
outcomes of juvenile offenders.
In chapter 3 the validity and reliability of the German version of the Basic
Empathy Scale (BES) was investigated in a youth prison sample. As previous
research with the BES in the Netherlands, Italy or China was conducted in a non-
clinical or mixed (clinical and non-clinical population) sample, the present study
was one of the first within a group of incarcerated juvenile offenders. The study
provided insight into the empathic faculties of young prison inmates by
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investigating cognitive and affective empathy. A confirmatory factor analysis with
two reliable factors (cognitive and affective empathy) showed a good fit to the
data with a reduced 12-item model. Concurrent validity of the BES was
demonstrated in correlations between cognitive empathy and callous-
unemotional traits. This is in line with a meta-analysis demonstrating that juvenile
delinquents with psychopathic traits show a lack of moral cognition (Stams et al.,
2006). A significant correlation between affective empathy and CU-traits was also
expected (Dadds et al., 2009; Pechorro et al., 2015; Munoz, Qualter, & Padget,
2011), but could not be confirmed, possibly because juvenile delinquents tend to
hide their emotions for fear of being considered as weak by their peers (Van der
Helm et al., 2012). Finally, partial evidence was found for concurrent validity of
the German version of the BES, namely, for cognitive empathy only. The results of
this study were promising, but a replication study is needed to test convergent,
divergent and predictive validity as well as test-retest reliability of the German
BES. The present validation study was conducted in a diverse sample (education,
ethical background and type of offense) of male incarcerated juvenile offenders,
whereas most validation studies of the BES have been conducted in more
homogeneous samples of non-delinquent youth. Although only 12 items of the
original 20-item version were retained, the adapted BES could still be considered
a promising instrument to investigate two dimensions of empathy (affective and
cognitive) in young detained German offenders, in particular because these 12
items seem to adequately represent both affective and cognitive empathy.
Chapter 4 examined the relation between juveniles’ responses to social
problem situations and cognitive and affective empathy in a group of detained
juvenile offenders in Dutch secure juvenile institutions. Results provided
preliminary evidence of associations between problematic responses to social
problem situations and empathy. Inadequate coping with competition was
negatively related to cognitive empathy, and problems with receiving or giving
help were negatively related to affective empathy. Difficulties in accepting
authority were negatively related to both affective and cognitive empathy. The
relation between social disadvantage and cognitive empathy was mediated by
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inadequate coping with competition, while the relation between social
disadvantage and affective empathy was mediated by problems with accepting
authority. There was also a trend, showing that accepting authority mediated the
relation between receiving/giving help and cognitive empathy. It appears that the
degree to which incarcerated adolescents accept authority provides the key to
understanding the relation between responses to social problem behavior and
empathy. The central role of ‘authority’ indicates that group workers could
influence adolescents’ empathy development by being either unresponsive or
responsive to the developmental needs of the juvenile delinquents. As social
problem situations lie at the heart of inappropriate and aggressive reactions
(Van der Helm et al., 2012b), results of this study open the way to further
research into the effectiveness of group interventions with incarcerated
adolescents, and possibilities of empathy development with subsequent
recidivism reduction (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; Van Langen, Wissink, Van Vugt,
Van der Strouwe, & Stams, 2014).
Chapter 5 of this dissertation focused on the associations between living
group climate, (reactive and proactive) aggression and CU-traits (callousness,
unemotional and uncaring). We conducted structural equation modeling to
examine possible associations between living group climate, reactive and
proactive aggression and CU-traits. Results showed that the perception of a
repressive living group climate was associated with more reactive aggression and
callousness. These findings are consistent with the deprivation hypothesis,
indicating that a repressive climate is related to more antisocial behavior within
prison (Harer & Steffensmeier, 1996). Furthermore, there was a negative
association between atmosphere and uncaring. The present results were in line
with previous research showing the distinctiveness of reactive aggressive behavior
in response to perceived adverse environmental circumstances, including
repression, and proactive aggressive behavior, which is instrumental and
anticipates reward (Card & Little, 2006; Kempes, Matthys, De Vries, & Van
Engeland, 2005; Polman, Orobio de Castro, Koops, Van Boxtel, & Merk, 2007;
Raine et al., 2006). The present findings, however, were not in line with previous
127
research conducted in the Netherlands, where repression proved to be unrelated
to aggression. Whereas in the Netherlands juvenile delinquents receive structured
clinical treatment during detention in order to reduce the risk of criminal offense
recidivism (Hoogsteder et al., 2014), in German youth prison the focus is on
education. It is thus plausible to suggest that the relation between living group
climate and aggression might be affected by differences in the juvenile prison
systems between Germany and the Netherlands.
Until today, there is still a lack of research on the influence of living group
climate on offender treatment (Listwan, 2013; Marshall & Burton, 2010; Schubert,
Mulvey, Loughran, & Losoya, 2012). Chapter 6 adds to the limited body of
empirical research examining the effects of living group climate quality on
(cognitive and affective) empathy during incarceration, replicating the study by
Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen and Van der Laan (2012) in the
Netherlands on the relation between living group climate and empathy in
detained juvenile delinquents in Germany. A structural equation model was fitted
to the data. Results showed a relation between a positive living group climate in
terms of low repression and high support from staff, opportunities for growth, a
positive group atmosphere, and increased levels of empathy after six months of
prison stay, which concurs with results from Van der Helm et al.’s (2012) initial
study on living group climate and empathy. Although the results have to be
interpreted with great caution, results point to the key role group workers play in
establishing an open living group climate and providing effective treatment,
indicating that a positive living group climate may be a major factor in the
effectiveness of secure institutional treatment and could result in a range of
positive outcomes (De Swart, 2011; Liebling, 2004; Ros et al., 2013; Souverein, Van
der Helm, & Stams, 2013).
Some further remarks
The validation study of the German version of the PGCI confirms the cross-cultural
validity of the four main concepts of the PGCI (support, growth, repression and
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atmosphere), while the validation study of the German version of the BES
confirmed the cross-cultural validity of affective and cognitive empathy. At the
same time, different factor structures of both the PGCI (Heynen, Van der Helm,
Stams, & Korebrits, 2014; Van der Helm et al., 2011) and BES (Heynen, Van der
Helm, Stams, & Korebrits, 2015; Pechorro et al., 2015; Van Langen, Wissink,
Stams, Asscher, & Hoeve, 2015) in various countries indicate that these
assessment instruments need further development in order to meet the criterion
of measurement invariance.
In 2010 Marshall and Burton called for more research on group processes
in offender treatment. The results of the studies described in chapter 5 and 6 add
to the limited body of research on these group processes, and show the
importance of an open and therapeutic living group climate and low repression
for the reduction of aggressive behavior and CU-traits and the development of
empathy. Results of the study described in chapter 4 particularly highlight the
important role of staff-adolescent relationship quality for empathy development,
which concurs with results from meta-analyses examining the relation between
therapeutic alliance and treatment outcomes (Martin, Garske, & Davis, 2000;
McLeod, 2011).
Research on group dynamics in secure forensic settings point to the key
role of the social environment and the role group workers and staff play in
establishing an open living group climate to provide effective treatment (De Swart
et. al, 2011; Liebling, 2004; Ros et al., 2013; Souverein et al., 2013). Research
shows that especially those inmates who face long sentences are becoming more
depressive and loose hope for the future (Van der Helm, Beunk, Stams, & Van der
Laan, 2014). This diminishes contact with group workers and the ‘long wait inside’
also fosters more feelings of hopelessness and less perceptions of growth. Also
many inmates may fear their release date, a changed world outside where there
are no opportunities for them except for a life of crime (Edwards & Mottarella,
2015; Petersilia, 2003), which emphasizes the need for effective aftercare (James,
Stams, Asscher, Van der Laan, & De Roo, 2013).
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Providing an open and positive living group climate should be a main
requirement for group workers and prison staff in all juvenile justice facilities.
Living group climate should therefore be regularly monitored, and improved if
needed, as the Dutch Justice and Security Department has announced in 2013
(Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams, 2013). In all Dutch juvenile justice facilities,
living group climate is monitored on a regular basis to provide group workers and
incarcerated adolescents feedback. Results and possibilities for change were
discussed and resulted in gradual improvements of living group climate (Van der
Helm, Van Miert, Nagtegaal, Stams, & Beld, 2015). Additionally, working climate
was assessed in different Dutch juvenile justice facilities (Van der Helm et al.,
2014). Group workers received feedback about team functioning, leadership, and
motivation in their team. While giving combined feedback about living group
climate and working climate regularly, institutional climate can improve, but
robust research is still sparse. It is thus important to keep on working on the
improvement of group workers’ understanding of a positive living group climate.
Although results are promising, there still is a lack of experimental and
longitudinal research. Future studies should focus on the development of more
specific evidence based interventions to improve living group climate in juvenile
justice facilities (Marshall & Burton, 2010; Weisz et al., 2013). These experiments
possibly require some measures that deviate from former (19th century) punitive
approaches, which assume that locking up will stimulate remorse, reconsidering
punitive ways of treating young criminals (Dadds & Salmon, 2003; Logan & Gaes,
2003; Parke, 1969; Singer, 1970). Societal courage is needed to apply evidence-
based treatment in the face of public concerns and demands for punishment and
revenge (De Valk et al., 2015) and to continue in the steps of previous prison
reformers, like Howard, Gladstone or Patterson, who in their time tried to
introduce a rehabilitative prison climate. New concepts of ‘community prisons’ or
‘half way houses’ may constitute promising alternatives, but still need to be
examined in robust experimental research.
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Limitations
The results of the studies that make up this dissertation were based on adolescent
self-report only. It can therefore not be excluded that social desirable answer
tendencies affected the results. Moreover, shared method variance may have
increased the magnitude of associations between living group climate, responses
to social problem situations, empathy, aggression and CU-traits. Future studies
should therefore use a mixed method approach by combining different sources of
information, such as behavioral observations, staff ratings and registered
aggression incidents.
Another limitation pertains to the cross-sectional nature of the studies
performed in chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5. Only chapter 6 describes results of a study
with data obtained on two measurement occasions. In future research, a
longitudinal study with multiple measurements may show whether juveniles’
perception of living group climate during detention predicts adaptation outside
prison. It would also be interesting to investigate the effects of the environment
outside prison on the maintenance of positive outcomes of residential treatment.
A longitudinal study with at least three measurement waves allows for the
examination of transactional processes between living group climate and
individual behavior of detained juvenile delinquents.
Finally, the studies presented in this dissertation only provide
correlational evidence for the effects of living group climate on juveniles’ social
development, which sets limits to the causal interpretation of the results.
Causality can only be inferred through the use of an experimental design,
targeting living group climate by means of an intervention. However, to our
knowledge, there are no experimental studies investigating the effects of living
group climate on actual behavior. In addition, there seem to be no studies
examining living group climate as a moderator of treatment effects in residential
youth care institutions.
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To conclude, although this dissertation and previous studies indicate that
living group climate may play an important role in residential treatment of juvenile
offenders, robust scientific evidence is still lacking. Notably, the meta-analysis by
De Swart et al. (2011) and several (quantitative) reviews by Andrews and Bonta
(2010) and others (e.g., Lipsey, 2009) suggest that successful rehabilitation of
justice-involved adolescents can only be achieved through evidence-based
treatment of dynamic risk factors and strengthening protective factors. From this
perspective, it would be particularly interesting to examine whether or not an
open and therapeutic living group climate constitutes a necessary condition for
effective residential treatment, and to examine the degree to which repression
and coercion undermine the effects of evidence-based treatment (De Valk et al.,
2015; Lipsey, 2009; Souverein et al., 2013).
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EPILOGUE ‘NO GUTS NO GAINS’
Research results of this dissertation could be seen as the basis for future
experimental research on the effects of living group climate on rehabilitation of
juvenile offenders. Moving away from traditional 18th century opinion about
crime, punishment and retribution to empirically supported prison reform from
the perspective of children’s rights requires courage to change the system and
experiment with alternative approaches [“GUTS”]. Without that there will be no
“GAINS” or progress, that is, successful rehabilitation of young prison inmates and
a safer, more humane and moral society (Shermer, 2015).
At the end of a horse riding session a rider will always loosen the reins to
reward the horse for its good cooperation. At the end of a detention, group
workers in prison have also to loosen the reins to let youngsters go out.
Unknowingly whether they will use the skills they have learned during detention
and often wondering how long it will take to see them back, because recidivism
remains high (Holman & Ziedenberg, 2006). This high recidivism not only indicates
the urgent need for evidence based treatment to ‘turn the tide’, but also the need
to learn more about the conditions under which evidence-treatment can work.
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138
One of the main goals of imprisonment of juvenile offenders between 12-24
years, not solely in the Netherlands and Germany, is treatment and rehabilitation
into the social world (Bruning et. al., 2011; Gatti, Tremblay, & Vitaro, 2009;
Harvey, 2005; Liebling & Maruna, p. 18, 2005; Wolthuis & Vandenbroeke, 2009).
Youth detention is living with strict rules and regulations and can negatively affect
juvenile’s behavior (Köhler, 2004). Today, there is abundant knowledge on the
effects of individual treatment of juvenile offenders (Garrido & Morales, 2007;
Lipsey, 2009), but in particular, the influences of the ‘social-together’ on the
development and behavior of inmates needs further examination (Marshall &
Burton, 2010). A positive living group climate in residential youth care can be the
foundation of successful treatment and rehabilitation (Van der Helm, Stams, Van
der Stel, Van Langen, & Van der Laan, 2012; Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams,
2013).
But how can a positive living group climate be defined? Already in 1953, the
World Health Organization stated that “climate is the single most important factor
in the efficacy of treatment” (p. 17) administered to psychiatric patients. Today’s
living group climate research is based on the following definition of social climate:
“the material, social, and emotional conditions of a given unit and the interaction
between such factors” (Moos, 1989). The social climate is thus defined as a
multifactorial construct based on different mechanisms that describe how social
relationships in a group are experienced by the persons living and working in this
group.
The PGCI questionnaire is central for the investigation of living group
climate research in the present dissertation. Four factors characterize living group
climate: support, growth, repression and atmosphere (Van der Helm et al., 2011).
The scale for support assesses the support prisoners perceive from staff. The
growth scale measures juvenile’s developmental possibilities and hope for the
future. The repression scale evaluates the perceived repression, strictness of rules
and control, lack of fairness and flexibility in the living group. Finally, the group
atmosphere scale assesses the degree to which the physical and social
environment can foster feelings of safety and trust among the inmates (Van der
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Helm et al., 2011). An open living group climate is defined by high levels of
support, ample opportunities for growth, minimal repression and a clean, safe
and structured environment, with clear rules and a daily routine in which inmates
and workers trust and respect each other (Van der Helm et al., 2011). The findings
of the present dissertation are based on research conducted in German and Dutch
juvenile justice institutions.
As living group climate was the main concept of this dissertation and there
was no instrument available to assess living group climate in Germany, the Prison
Group Climate Instrument (PGCI; Van der Helm, Stams, & Van der Laan, 2011) was
translated and validated for the German context (chapter 2). Confirmatory factor
analysis of the original four factor model, with support, growth, repression and
atmosphere as reliable dimensions, showed a good fit to the data, indicating
construct validity and reliability of the German PGCI. In future research, the
German version of the PGCI can be used to assess living group climate in judicial
and forensic institutions in Germany. Investigation of living group climate on a
regular basis can help to improve safety and treatment outcomes of juvenile
offenders.
In chapter 3 the validity and reliability of the German version of the Basic
Empathy Scale (BES) was investigated in a youth prison sample. A confirmatory
factor analysis with two reliable factors (cognitive and affective empathy) showed
a good fit to the data with a reduced 12-item model. Concurrent validity of the
BES was demonstrated in correlations between cognitive empathy and callous-
unemotional traits. The results of this study were promising, but a replication
study is needed to test convergent, divergent and predictive validity as well as
test-retest reliability of the German BES.
Chapter 4 examined the relation between juveniles’ responses to social
problem situations and cognitive and affective empathy in a group of detained
juvenile offenders in Dutch secure juvenile institutions. Results provided
preliminary evidence of associations between problematic responses to social
problem situations and empathy. Inadequate coping with competition was
negatively related to cognitive empathy, and problems with receiving or giving
140
help were negatively related to affective empathy. Difficulties in accepting
authority were negatively related to both affective and cognitive empathy. The
relation between social disadvantage and cognitive empathy was mediated by
inadequate coping with competition, while the relation between social
disadvantage and affective empathy was mediated by problems with accepting
authority. Results of this study open the way to further research into the
effectiveness of group interventions with incarcerated adolescents.
Chapter 5 of this dissertation focused on the associations between living
group climate, aggression and CU-traits. Results of the structural equation model
showed that the perception of a repressive living group climate was associated
with more reactive aggression and callousness. Furthermore, there was a negative
association between atmosphere and uncaring. The present findings suggest that
the relation between living group climate and aggression might be affected by
differences in the juvenile prison systems between Germany and the Netherlands.
To date, there is still a lack of research on the influence of living group
climate on offender treatment (Listwan, 2013; Marshall & Burton, 2010; Schubert,
Mulvey, Loughran, & Losoya, 2012). Chapter 6 adds to the limited body of
empirical research examining the effects of living group climate quality on
empathy during incarceration. A structural equation model was fitted to the data.
Results showed a relation between a positive living group climate in terms of low
repression and high support from staff, opportunities for growth, a positive group
atmosphere and increased levels of empathy after six months of prison stay.
Although the results have to be interpreted with great caution, results point to the
key role group workers play in establishing an open living group climate and
providing effective treatment.
Research on group dynamics in secure forensic settings point to the key
role of the social environment and the role group workers and staff play in
establishing an open living group climate to provide effective treatment (De Swart
et al, 2011; Liebling, 2004; Listwan, 2013; Ros et al., 2013; Souverein et al., 2013).
Providing an open and positive living group climate should be a main requirement
for group workers and prison staff in all juvenile justice facilities. Living group
141
climate should therefore be regularly monitored, and improved if needed, as the
Dutch Justice and Security Department has announced in 2013 (Van der Helm,
Van Tol, & Stams, 2013). In all Dutch juvenile justice facilities, living group climate
is monitored on a regular basis to provide group workers and incarcerated
adolescents feedback. Results and possibilities for change were discussed and
resulted in gradual improvements of living group climate (Van der Helm, Van
Miert, Nagtegaal, Stams, & Beld, 2015). Additionally, working climate was
assessed in different Dutch juvenile justice facilities (Van der Helm et al., 2014).
Group workers received feedback about team functioning, leadership, and
motivation in their team. While giving combined feedback about living group
climate and working climate regularly, institutional climate can improve, but
robust research is still sparse. It is thus important to keep on working on the
improvement of group workers’ understanding of a positive living group climate.
Without “GUTS” like the improvement of living group climate, there will be no
“GAINS” or progress, in terms of a positive social development and recidivism
reduction in juvenile offenders
142
REFERENCES
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143
working climate in juvenile justice institutions] Leiden: Hogeschool Leiden. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M. , Van der Stel, J. C., Van Langen, M. A. M., & Van der Laan, P. H., (2012). Group climate and empathy in a sample of incarcerated boys. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 56, 1149–1160. DOI: 10.1177/0306624X11421649. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Van Tol, N., Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). De invloed van het orthopedagogisch klimaat in de residentiële justitiële jeugdzorg: een wetenschappelijke onderbouwing. [The influences of living group climate in residential youth care: decreasing recidivism by care, cure and schooling. A scientific approach], National advice report Dutch ministry of Justice.Leiden Wolthuis, A., & Vandenbroucke, M. (2009). Schade herstellen tijdens jeugddetentie. Een evaluatieonderzoek naar herstelgericht werken in Forensisch Centrum Teylingereind. [Recovering damage during youth detention, an evaluation study to investigate recovery focussed work inthe forensic centre of Teylingereind]. Research Report Verwey Jonker Instituut. World Health Organization. (1953). Expert committee on mental health: 3rd report. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
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In Nederland en Duitsland worden jongeren tussen de 12 en 24 jaar gesloten
geplaatst omdat ze verdacht worden van een ernstig misdrijf (voorarrest) of een
gevangenisstraf hebben gekregen. Jeugddetentie betekent opsluiten van
jongeren. Het doel van detentie in Nederland en vele andere Europese landen is
de preventie van recidive en het bevorderen van rehabilitatie om na verloop van
de detentie een leven zonder delinquentie en straf te kunnen leiden (Bruning et.
al., 2011; Gatti, Tremblay, & Vitaro, 2009; Harvey, 2005; Liebling & Maruna, p. 18,
2005; Wolthuis & Vandenbroeke, 2009). Jeugddetentie betekent ook een leven
met strikte regels en richtlijnen, met vaak negatieve effecten op het gedrag van
de gedetineerden (Köhler, 2004). Tot op heden zijn de gevolgen van opsluiting en
de daaruit resulterende consequenties voor de persoonlijke ontwikkeling van
gedetineerde jongeren ontoereikend onderzocht (Liebling & Maruna, 2005;
Marshall & Burton, 2010; Schubert et al, 2012; Van der Helm, Stams & Van der
Laan, 2011). Recent onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat een positieve sociale
omgeving, oftewel een positief leefklimaat, ertoe kan leiden dat gedetineerde
jongeren zich positief kunnen ontwikkelen (Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel,
Van Langen, & Van der Laan, 2012; Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams, 2013).
Maar wat is een goed leefklimaat? Reeds in 1953 heeft de
Wereldgezondheidsorganisatie (WHO) gesteld dat het klimaat de belangrijkste
factor is in de effectiviteit van de behandeling van psychiatrische patiënten (WHO,
1953, p. 17). Het huidige Leefklimaatonderzoek is gebaseerd op de volgende
definitie van een sociaal klimaat: “de materiele, sociale en emotionele
omstandigheden van een omgeving en de interactie tussen deze factoren” (Moos,
1989). Het sociale klimaat dient te worden beschouwd als een multifactorieel
construct gebaseerd op de verschillende mechanismen die essentieel zijn voor de
sociale relaties in een groep. In het geval van jeugddetentie leven gedetineerde
jongeren in groepen van 8-30 jongeren samen (afhankelijk van het land),
gesuperviseerd en begeleid door groepsleiders. Binnen dergelijke leefgroepen
moeten de jongeren zich aanpassen aan geldende regels en normen, wat vaak tot
conflicten kan leiden. Hieronder wordt de term leefklimaat en de daaraan
verbonden concepten kort uitgelegd.
147
De PGCI vragenlijst staat centraal voor het meten van leefklimaat in dit
proefschrift en wordt gekenmerkt door vier factoren: ondersteuning, groei,
repressie en atmosfeer. Ondersteuning staat voor professionele hulp die
medewerkers aan jongeren kunnen bieden en de responsiviteit van de
medewerkers in de bejegening van de jongeren. Groei omschrijft het sociaal en
educatief leren (weer naar school gaan) en de persoonlijke ontwikkeling. Ook
staat groei voor een positieve kijk op de eigen toekomst. Repressie gaat over hoe
strikt en streng jongeren de regels ervaren en de mate van flexibiliteit. Hoe
beleven de jongeren de mate van controle en wordt er eerlijk omgegaan met de
geldende regels en sancties? Atmosfeer gaat over hoe de jongeren de fysieke en
sociale sfeer binnen de leefgroep ervaren. Dit aspect beschrijft of de jongeren zich
veilig voelen en of zij voldoende tot rust kunnen komen binnen de groep waarin
zij verblijven. Hierbij is het ook van belang dat de woongroep opgeruimd en
schoon is en dat frisse lucht en daglicht voldoende ter beschikking staan (Van der
Helm et al., 2011).
Het leefklimaat kan ‘open’ en responsief zijn of ‘gesloten’ en repressief. Een
positief en open leefklimaat wordt gekenmerkt door positieve ondersteuning,
voldoende mogelijkheden tot groei en een positieve atmosfeer in de groep.
Tevens moet de repressie laag en het evenwicht tussen flexibiliteit en controle
van groepsleiders goed zijn. Een gesloten leefklimaat wordt gekenmerkt door
weinig ondersteuning en beperkte mogelijkheden tot groei. De atmosfeer wordt
als negatief en onveilig ervaren en de regels zijn streng en oneerlijk (Van der Helm
et al., 2011).
Het huidige proefschrift omvat 5 studies die de relatie tussen een als
positief ervaren leefklimaat en de sociale ontwikkeling van jeugdige
gedetineerden onderzoeken. Hierbij gaat het vooral om het sociale functioneren,
het verbeteren van empathie, minder geweten- en gevoelloosheid en agressie en
het beter kunnen omgaan met sociale probleemsituaties binnen detentie. Alle
studies in dit proefschrift zijn gebaseerd op onderzoek dat is uitgevoerd in
Duitsland en Nederland.
Tot 2014 bestond geen meetinstrument voor de Duitse jeugddetentie om
148
het leefklimaat binnen de leefgroepen te inventariseren. Om een instrument te
ontwikkelen werd het bestaande Nederlandstalige Prison Group Climate
Instrument (PGCI) naar het Duits vertaald en werd een validatiestudie uitgevoerd
die beschreven wordt in Hoofdstuk 2. Een confirmatieve factoranalyse van het
oorspronkelijke model met de vier factoren ondersteuning, groei, repressie en
sfeer leverde een positief resultaat op. Er is voldoende bewijs gevonden dat het
vertaalde meetinstrument valide en betrouwbaar is. De Duitse versie van de PGCI
kan worden gebruikt om het leefklimaat in Duitse instellingen voor (forensische)
jeugdzorg en jeugddetentie in kaart te brengen en te verbeteren. Resultaten uit
onderzoek met de PGCI kunnen bijdragen aan de verbetering van het klimaat, de
veiligheid van jongeren en medewerkers, het behandelresultaat en de
rehabilitatie van gedetineerde jongeren.
Empathie is een belangrijke sociale ontwikkelingsopgave voor jongeren. In
hoofdstuk 3 wordt de Duitse vertaling van de Basic Empathy Scale (BES)
gevalideerd voor jeugdige delinquenten. Eerdere valideringstudies van de BES
werden vooral uitgevoerd bij jongeren uit de algemene bevolking. Het huidige
onderzoek is een van de weinige onderzoeken binnen een groep jeugdige
delinquenten, die verblijven in detentie. Deze studie biedt inzicht in de processen
van cognitieve en affectieve empathie bij gedetineerde jongeren. Een
confirmatieve factoranalyse ondersteunde de validiteit van een gereduceerde
vragenlijst met 12 vragen, die samen betrouwbaar “cognitieve en affectieve
empathie“ kunnen meten. Resultaten kunnen verder helpen bij het onderzoek
naar werkzame bestanddelen in de rehabilitatie van jeugdige gedetineerden.
In Hoofdstuk 4 wordt de relatie tussen ongepaste reacties op sociale
probleemsituaties en (cognitieve en affectieve) empathie onderzocht. De studie
werd uitgevoerd binnen een groep gedetineerde jongeren in Nederland. De
resultaten laten zien dat problemen in de omgang met competitie negatief
gerelateerd waren aan cognitieve empathie en problemen met het krijgen en
geven van hulp met affectieve empathie. Problemen in het accepteren van
autoriteit waren negatief gerelateerd aan cognitieve en affectieve empathie. De
relatie tussen sociaal in het nadeel zijn en cognitieve empathie werd gemedieerd
149
door inadequate omgang met competitie, terwijl de relatie tussen sociaal in het
nadeel zijn en affectieve empathie gemedieerd werd door problemen met het
accepteren van autoriteit. De resultaten uit dit onderzoek kunnen in de
toekomst worden gebruikt om de effectiviteit van groepsinterventies in
jeugddetentie te verbeteren.
In hoofdstuk 5 ligt de focus op de samenhang tussen leefklimaat,
reactieve en proactieve agressie en geweten- en gevoelloze trekken, genoemd
‘Callous en Unemotional-traits’ (CU-traits). CU-traits zijn een veel voorkomend
probleem bij delinquente jongeren en gaan vaak gepaard met een hoge mate van
agressie. In dit hoofdstuk werd een lineair-structureel model getoetst met
associaties tussen leefklimaat, reactieve en proactieve agressie en CU-traits.
Resultaten laten zien dat een hoge mate van repressie in verband staat met meer
reactieve agressie en meer CU-trekken en een negatieve atmosfeer ook
geassocieerd kan worden met meer CU-traits.
Hoofdstuk 6 focust op de effecten van leefklimaat op de ontwikkeling van
empathie tijdens detentie. Een lineair-structureel model laat zien dat er een
relatie bestaat tussen een positief leefklimaat en verhoogde empathie na 6
maanden detentie bij gedetineerde jongeren. De gerapporteerde resultaten in
deze hoofdstukken onderstrepen het belang van een positief leefklimaat als basis
voor positieve gedragsveranderingen bij delinquente jongeren (hoofdstuk 7).
Geconcludeerd kan worden dat er geïnvesteerd moet worden in een
positief en open leefklimaat en een goede relatie met de jongeren om zo hun
sociaal gedrag te bevorderen (De Swart et. al, 2011; Liebling, 2004; Listwan, 2013;
Ros et al., 2013; Souverein et al., 2013). Dit is met name de taak van de
groepsleiders die werken met jongeren in de leefgroep. Door een responsieve en
open houding zijn zij in staat een positieve balans te vinden tussen flexibiliteit en
controle en kunnen op deze manier zorgdragen voor een positiever klimaat.
Daarom is het belangrijk om na te denken over een structurele verbetering van
het leefklimaat. In 2013 hebben de gezamenlijke directeuren van de Justitiële
Jeugdinrichtingen in Nederland een goed leefklimaat (naast psychiatrische zorg)
als een van de belangrijkste onderdelen van hun visie gemaakt (Van der Helm, van
150
Tol, & Stams, 2013). In een 4-jarig programma wordt in alle instellingen meerdere
malen het leefklimaat gemeten en de resultaten actief teruggekoppeld aan
medewerkers en jongeren (Van der Helm, Van Miert, Nagtegaal, Stams, & Beld,
2015). Additioneel is in enkele Nederlandse instellingen het medewerkersklimaat
gemeten (Van der Helm et al., 2015). Groepsmedewerkers ontvangen feedback
over het team functioneren, leiding en motivatie binnen het team. Door het
regelmatige geven van feedback van de resultaten van het leefklimaat en
medewerkersklimaat kan het leefklimaat binnen de instelling positief veranderen.
Toch is er nog maar weinig robuust onderzoek naar werkzame factoren gedaan.
Het is daarom van groot belang om te blijven investeren in een positief
leefklimaat. Dit vereist moed om het oude denken in termen van straf en
vernedering om te buigen naar ondersteuning en behandeling. Zonder positieve
inzet (“GUTS”), zoals het bevorderen van het leefklimaat, adequate behandeling
en het creëren van ontwikkelingskansen, is er weinig kans op succes (“GAINS”),
zoals een positieve sociale ontwikkeling en recidivevermindering van de
gedetineerde jongeren.
151
REFERENCES
Bruning, M. R., De Jong, M. P., Liefaard, T., Schuyt, P. M., Doek, J. E., & Doreleijers, T. A. H. (2011). Wegwijs in het jeugdsanctierecht [Find your way in youth sanction law]. Wolf Legal Publishers. De Swart, J., (2011). De professionele jeugdzorgwerker [the professional youth care worker]. Doctoral dissertation, Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Gatti, U., Tremblay, R.E., & Vitaro, F. (2009). Iatrogenic effect of juvenile justice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 8, 991–998. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.2008.02057.x. Harvey, J. (2005). Young men in prison: Surviving and adapting to life inside. Cullompton: Willan. Köhler, D. (2004). Psychische Störungen bei jungen Straftätern. [psychological disorders in young juveniles]. Hamburg, Germany: J. Kovac. Liebling, A., & Maruna, S. (2005). Introduction: The effects of imprisonment revisited. In A. Liebling & S. Maruna (Eds), The effects of imprisonment (pp. 1-32). Cullompton, UK: Willan. Listwan, S. J. (2013). Introduction to Juvenile Justice. Bridgepoint Publishing. Marshall, W. L., & Burton, D. L. (2010). The importance of group processes in offender treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15. 141–149. Moos, R. H. (1989). Ward Atmosphere Scale manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Ros, N., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Wissink, I., Schaftenaar, P., & Stams, G.J.J.M. (2013). Institutional climate and aggression in a secure psychiatric setting. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology. 24, 713-727. DOI: 10.1080/14789949.2013.848460. Schubert, C.A., Mulvey, E.P., Loughran, T.A., & Losoya, S.H., (2012). Perceptions of Institutional Experience and Community Outcomes for Serious Adolescent Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavio. 39, 71-93, DOI: 10.1177/0093854811426710. Souverein F., Van der Helm G.H.P & Stams G.J.J.M, (2013). `Nothing works` in secure residential youth care? Children and Youth Services Review. 35, 1941-1945. DOI:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.010. Van der Helm, P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Van der Laan, P. H. (2011). Measuring group climate in prison. The Prison Journal. 91, 158–176.. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Van Miert, V. S. L., Nagtegaal, J., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Beld, M. H. M. (2015). Rapportage justitiële jeugdinrichtingen 2014, een onderzoek naar het leef, leer- en werkklimaat binnen de justitiëlejeugdinrichtingen.[Report juvenile
152
justice institutions 2014, research about living group climate, learning climate and working climate in juvenile justice institutions] Leiden: Hogeschool Leiden. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M. , Van der Stel, J. C., Van Langen, M. A. M., & Van der Laan, P. H., (2012). Group climate and empathy in a sample of incarcerated boys. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 56, 1149–1160. DOI: 10.1177/0306624X11421649. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Van Tol, N., Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). De invloed van het orthopedagogisch klimaat in de residentiële justitiële jeugdzorg: een wetenschappelijke onderbouwing. [the influences of living group climate in residential youth care: decreasing recidivism by care, cure and schooling. A scientific approach], National advice report Dutch ministry of Justice. Wolthuis, A., & Vandenbroucke, M. (2009). Schade herstellen tijdens jeugddetentie. Een evaluatieonderzoek naar herstelgericht werken in Forensisch Centrum Teylingereind. [Recovering damage during youth detention, an evaluation study to investigate recovery focussed work inthe forensic centre of Teylingereind]. Research Report Verwey Jonker Instituut. World Health Organization. (1953). Expert committee on mental health: 3rd report. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
154
In Deutschland und den Niederlanden verbleiben Jugendliche zwischen 12 und 24
Jahren die eine Straftat begangen haben und hierfür bestraft wurden im
Jugendstrafvollzug. Dies bedeutet, eingeschlossen sein, aber auch, beschützt
werden vor sich selbst und vor anderen. Im Vordergrund des Jugendstrafvollzuges
steht immer der Erziehungsgedanke. Ziel ist es, den Jugendlichen zu
rehabilitieren, zu behandeln, Rückfall zu vermeiden und auf ein straffreies Leben
nach der Haft vorzubereiten. Das Leben im Jugendstrafvollzug bedeutet immer
auch ein Leben mit strengen Regeln, die den Umgang miteinander und das
Verhalten des Einzelnen maßgeblich beeinflussen (Köhler, 2004). Bis heute sind
jedoch die Folgen einer Inhaftierung auf die psychosoziale Entwicklung des
Jugendlichen nur unzureichend untersucht (Liebling & Maruna, 2005; Marshall &
Burton, 2010; Schubert et al, 2012; Van der Helm, Stams & Van der Laan, 2011).
Studien haben gezeigt, dass eine positive soziale Umgebung bzw. ein positives
Gruppenklima dazu führen kann, dass die Jugendlichen sich im Strafvollzug auch
positiv entwickeln können (Van der Helm, Stams, Van der Stel, Van Langen, & Van
der Laan, 2012; Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams, 2013).
Aber was macht ein solches positives Gruppenklima aus? Bereits 1953 hat
die Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) beschrieben, dass das Klima in der
effizienten Behandlung von psychiatrischen Patienten der wichtigste Faktor ist
(WHO, 1953, p. 17). Die heutige Forschung des Gruppenklimas beruht auf der
Definition des sozialen Klimas von Moos (1989): “Die materielle, soziale und
emotionale Voraussetzung einer Abteilung und die Interaktion zwischen diesen
Faktoren”. Diese Definition beschreibt das soziale Klima als ein multifaktorielles
Konstrukt, basierend auf verschiedenen Mechanismen, die beschreiben, wie die
Gruppe von den Menschen, die in dieser Gruppe leben und interagieren, abhängig
sind. Das Gruppenklima beschreibt den Umstand, in dem Menschen zusammen
leben müssen. Innerhalb des Jugendstrafvollzuges leben je nach Land und Art der
Strafe ca. 8-30 Jugendliche in einer sogenannten Wohngruppe unter ständiger
Supervision und Beobachtung von Gruppenmitarbeitern/Justizvollzugsbeamten.
In dieser Gruppe müssen die jungen Gefangenen die geltenden Regeln und
Normen der Gruppe, in der sie leben, einhalten. Im Folgenden werden der Begriff
155
„Gruppenklima“ und die diesem zugrundeliegenden Konzepte erlautert.
Das Gruppenklima wird in vier Faktoren unterteilt: Unterstützung,
Wachstum, Repression und Atmosphäre. Unterstützung umschreibt sowohl die
Professionalität der Mitarbeiter im Umgang mit den Jugendlichen als auch die
durch die Jugendlichen erfahrene Unterstützung seitens der Mitarbeiter.
Wachstum umschreibt die Möglichkeiten des Lernens (wieder zur Schule gehen)
und die Möglichkeiten der persönlichen Weiterentwicklung. Wachstumschancen
stehen auch für einen positiven Blick in die Zukunft und das Gefühl, dass die
Inhaftierung einen sinnvollen Beitrag für ein positives und straffreies Leben leisten
kann. Repression beschreibt, wie strikt und streng die Jugendlichen die geltenden
Regeln in der Gruppe erfahren. Es umschreibt ebenfalls das Maß an Kontrolle
sowie den Umgang mit Regeln und Sanktionen innerhalb der Gruppe. Atmosphäre
beschreibt, wie die Jugendlichen die physische und soziale Atmosphäre in Ihrer
Wohngruppe erfahren. Dieser Faktor beschreibt, ob die Jugendlichen in Ihrer
Wohngruppe ausreichend zur Ruhe kommen können und ob sie sich in Ihrer
Wohngruppe sicher und geborgen fühlen. Zusätzlich steht der Faktor Atmosphäre
für die Sauberkeit und Ordnung in der Wohngruppe (Van der Helm et al, 2011).
Das Klima in einer Gruppe kann ‘offen’ und responsiv oder ‘geschlossen’
und repressiv sein. Ein positives und offenes Klima kennzeichnet sich durch
positive Unterstützung, ausreichende Möglichkeiten zur persönlichen und
schulischen Weiterentwicklung, einer positiven Atmosphäre und einem gesunden
Gleichgewicht zwischen Flexibilität und Kontrolle seitens der Mitarbeiter. Ein
geschlossenes Klima wird durch geringe Unterstützung, wenig
Wachstumsmöglichkeiten, eine negative Atmosphäre und einen strikten, strengen
und unfairen Umgang mit Regeln und Kontrollen gekennzeichnet (Van der Helm et
al, 2011).
In dieser Dissertation werden fünf verschiedene Studien aufgeführt, die
den Bezug zwischen einem positiven Gruppenklima und positiven
Verhaltensänderungen bei Jugendlichen Strafgefangenen diskutieren. Hierbei
geht es in erster Linie um das pro-soziale Verhalten der Jugendlichen im Sinne von
Empathie, kaltblütigem Verhalten (CU-traits), Aggressivität und dem Umgang mit
156
sozialen Problemsituationen. Alle Studien dieser Dissertation beruhen auf
Forschungen im Niederländischen und Deutschen Jugendstrafvollzug.
Bis vor kurzem gab es für den deutschen Jugendstrafvollzug kein
Instrument, um das Gruppenklima in den Wohngruppen zu erheben. Um ein
solches Instrument bereitzustellen, wurde das Niederländische Prison Group
Climate Instrument (PGCI) in die deutsche Sprache übersetzt und validiert. Diese
Validierungsstudie wird in Kapitel 2 beschrieben. Eine konfirmatorische
Faktorenanalyse des Models mit den vier Faktoren Unterstützung, Wachstum,
Repression und Atmosphäre gelangte zu einem positiven Ergebnis. Das in die
deutsche Sprache übersetzte Instrument wurde für valide und verlässlich
befunden. Es wird in der nun vorliegenden deutschen Version bereits in einigen
Jugendstrafvollzugsanstalten eingesetzt, um das Gruppenklima zu erheben.
Ergebnisse der Forschung mit dem PGCI können dazu beitragen, dass sowohl die
Sicherheit als auch die Ergebnisse der Behandlung und Rehabilitation im
Jugendstrafvollzug verbessert werden.
In Kapitel 3 wird die deutsche Version des Basic Empathy Scale (BES)
erstmalig in einer klinischen Population forensischer Jugendlicher in Deutschland
validiert. Frühere Empathie-Studien wurden weitestgehend bei normalen, nicht
Gefangenen Jugendlichen durchgeführt. Die heutige Studie gibt einen ersten
Einblick in die Prozesse der kognitiven und affektiven Empathie bei Jugendlichen
Strafgefangenen. Eine konfirmatorische Faktorenanalyse mit den beiden Faktoren
kognitive und affektive Empathie hat zu einem reduzierten Model mit 12 Fragen
geführt. Dieser reduzierte deutschsprachige Fragebogen ist valide und verlässlich.
In Kapitel 4 wird der Zusammenhang zwischen inadäquaten Reaktionen
auf soziale Problemsituationen und Empathie untersucht. Diese Studie wurde in
einer Gruppe von niederländischen Jugendstrafgefangenen durchgeführt. Die
Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es einen negativen Zusammenhang zwischen dem
Umgang mit Konkurrenz und kognitiver Empathie sowie zwischen Problemen im
Geben und Empfangen von Hilfe und affektiver Empathie gibt. Probleme rund
um das Akzeptieren von Autorität stehen in einem negativen Zusammenhang
mit sowohl kognitiver als auch affektiver Empathie. Der Zusammenhang
157
zwischen sozialer Benachteiligung und kognitiver Empathie wurde durch
Probleme im Umgang mit dem Akzeptieren von Autorität beeinflusst. Die
Ergebnisse dieser Studie können zukünftig genutzt werden, um die Effektivität
von Gruppeninterventionen im Jugendstrafvollzug zu verbessern.
In Kapitel 5 liegt der Fokus auf dem Zusammenhang zwischen einem
positiven Gruppenklima, Aggressivität sowie kaltblütigem und emotionslosem
Verhalten, auch genannt Callous and Unemotional-traits (CU-traits). CU-traits
sind ein großes Problem im Jugendstrafvollzug und gehen oft mit einem hohen
Maß an Aggressionen einher. In diesem Kapitel wird mit Hilfe eines
Strukturgleichungsmodels der Zusammenhang zwischen einem positiven
Gruppenklima, Aggressivität und CU-traits verdeutlicht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen
einen positiven Zusammenhang zwischen einem positiven Gruppenklima, weniger
Aggressivität und weniger CU-traits.
Kapitel 6 behandelt den Effekt eines positiven Gruppenklimas auf die
Entwicklung von Empathie während der Inhaftierung. Ein
Strukturgleichungsmodel zeigt, dass ein positives Gruppenklima nach sechs
Monaten in Gefangenschaft im Zusammenhang mit verbesserter Empathie steht.
Die aktuellen Ergebnisse bestätigen die Bedeutung eines positiven Gruppenklimas
mit guten Wachstumschancen, Unterstützung, einer positiven Atmosphäre und
wenig Repression als Basis für positive Verhaltensänderungen bei Jugendlichen
Strafgefangenen.
Die Ergebnisse dieser 5 Kapitel unterstreichen die Wichtigkeit eines
positiven Gruppenklimas, um positive Verhaltensänderungen im
Jugendstrafvollzug schaffen zu können. Kapitel 7 diskutiert die Ergebnisse der
einzelnen Studien.
Konkludierend weisen die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation darauf hin, dass
innerhalb des Jugendstrafvollzug investiert werden muss, um ein positives und
offenes Gruppenklima durch pro-soziales Verhalten der Jugendlichen fördern und
ihnen eine bessere Chance für Ihre Zukunft bieten zu können (Listwan, 2013). Die
schwierigste Aufgabe hierbei haben die Mitarbeiter in den Wohngruppen. Durch
eine responsive und offene Haltung den Jugendlichen gegenüber können
158
Mitarbeiter eine gesunde Balance an Flexibilität und Kontrolle erlangen und somit
zu einem positiveren Gruppenklima beitragen. Deshalb ist es wichtig, über
strukturelle Verbesserungen des Gruppenklimas im Jugendstrafvollzug
nachzudenken. In 2013 haben die Anstaltsleiter aller Niederländischen
Jugendstrafvollzugseinrichtungen ein positives Gruppenklima (neben
psychiatrischer Betreuung) zu einem der wichtigsten Faktoren im
Jugendstrafvollzug benannt (Van der Helm, Van Tol, & Stams, 2013). In einem 4-
jährigen Programm wird in allen Jugendstrafvollzugseinrichtungen regelmäßig das
Gruppenklima erhoben und werden die Ergebnisse aktiv mit Jugendlichen und
Mitarbeitern besprochen (Van der Helm, Van Miert, Nagtegaal, Stams, & Beld,
2015). Zusätzlich wurde in einigen Anstalten auch das Mitarbeiterklima erhoben
(Van der Helm et al., 2015). Mitarbeiter in den Gruppen empfangen Feedback
über das Teamfunktionieren sowie zur Führung und Motivation im Team. Durch
dieses regelmäßige Feedback kann sich das Klima innerhalb der Anstalt positiv
verändern. Dennoch gibt es bis heute nur wenige Studien, welche die Effektivität
dieser Faktoren untersuchen. Darum ist es von größter Wichtigkeit, weiterhin in
ein positives Gruppenklima zu investieren. Hierzu braucht man Mut, um das “alte
Denken” rundum Strafe und Unterdrückung zu verandern in Richtung
„Unterstützung“ und „Behandlung“.
Ohne den positiven Einsatz von Mitarbeitern im Jugendstrafvollzug
(„GUTS“) sowie einem positiven Gruppenklima, einer adäquaten Behandlung der
Jugendlichen sowie der Schaffung positiver Entwicklungschancen gibt es nur
wenig Aussicht auf Erfolg („GAINS“), welcher sich durch ein positives und soziales
Verhalten und verminderte Rückfallquoten bei jugendlichen Strafgefangenen
kennzeichnet.
159
REFERENCES Bruning, M. R., De Jong, M. P., Liefaard, T., Schuyt, P. M., Doek, J. E., & Doreleijers, T. A. H. (2011). Wegwijs in het jeugdsanctierecht [Find your way in youth sanction law]. Wolf Legal Publishers. De Swart, J., (2011). De professionele jeugdzorgwerker [the professional youth care worker]. Doctoral dissertation, Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Gatti, U., Tremblay, R.E., & Vitaro, F. (2009). Iatrogenic effect of juvenile justice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 8, 991–998. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469- 7610.2008.02057.x. Harvey, J. (2005). Young men in prison: Surviving and adapting to life inside. Cullompton: Willan. Köhler, D. (2004). Psychische Störungen bei jungen Straftätern. [psychological disorders in young juveniles]. Hamburg, Germany: J. Kovac. Liebling, A., & Maruna, S. (2005). Introduction: The effects of imprisonment revisited. In A. Liebling & S. Maruna (Eds), The effects of imprisonment (pp. 1-32). Cullompton, UK: Willan. Listwan, S. J. (2013). Introduction to Juvenile Justice. Bridgepoint Publishing. Marshall, W. L., & Burton, D. L. (2010). The importance of group processes in offender treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15. 141–149. Moos, R. H. (1989). Ward Atmosphere Scale manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Ros, N., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Wissink, I., Schaftenaar, P., & Stams, G.J.J.M. (2013). Institutional climate and aggression in a secure psychiatric setting. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology. 24, 713-727. DOI: 10.1080/14789949.2013.848460. Schubert, C.A., Mulvey, E.P., Loughran, T.A., & Losoya, S.H., (2012). Perceptions of Institutional Experience and Community Outcomes for Serious Adolescent Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavio. 39, 71-93, DOI: 10.1177/0093854811426710. Souverein F., Van der Helm G.H.P & Stams G.J.J.M, (2013). `Nothing works` in secure residential youth care? Children and Youth Services Review. 35, 1941-1945. DOI:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.09.010. Van der Helm, P., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Van der Laan, P. H. (2011). Measuring group climate in prison. The Prison Journal. 91, 158–176.. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Van Miert, V. S. L., Nagtegaal, J., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Beld, M. H. M. (2015). Rapportage justitiële jeugdinrichtingen 2014, een onderzoek naar het leef, leer- en werkklimaat binnen de justitiëlejeugdinrichtingen.[Report juvenile
160
justice institutions 2014, research about living group climate, learning climate and working climate in juvenile justice institutions] Leiden: Hogeschool Leiden. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Stams, G. J. J. M. , Van der Stel, J. C., Van Langen, M. A. M., & Van der Laan, P. H., (2012). Group climate and empathy in a sample of incarcerated boys. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 56, 1149–1160. DOI: 10.1177/0306624X11421649. Van der Helm, G. H. P., Van Tol, N., Stams, G. J. J. M. (2013). De invloed van het orthopedagogisch klimaat in de residentiële justitiële jeugdzorg: een wetenschappelijke onderbouwing. [the influences of living group climate in residential youth care: decreasing recidivism by care, cure and schooling. A scientific approach], National advice report Dutch ministry of Justice. Wolthuis, A., & Vandenbroucke, M. (2009). Schade herstellen tijdens jeugddetentie. Een evaluatieonderzoek naar herstelgericht werken in Forensisch Centrum Teylingereind. [Recovering damage during youth detention, an evaluation study to investigate recovery focussed work inthe forensic centre of Teylingereind]. Research Report Verwey Jonker Instituut. World Health Organization. (1953). Expert committee on mental health: 3rd report. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
162
Aan het begin van dit boek staat de Theorie van Lombroso en de geboren
crimineel. Hoe zat dat ook al weer…? Zijn er dan ook mensen die sociaal geboren
worden? Laten we even alle empirische bewijzen hiervoor achterwege. Want het
maakt ook niet uit, of de mensen die mij geholpen hebben dit stuk mogelijk te
maken, sociaal geboren werden of de sociale vaardigheden waarover zij
beschikken pas later hebben aangeleerd. Zonder de sociale vaardigheden van vele
mensen die mij ondersteund hebben om dit mogelijk te maken was ik nooit tot
hier gekomen!
Ten eerste wil ik mijn promotoren bedanken: Geert-Jan, Andries, Peer en Maaike,
voor alle steun die ik van jullie heb mogen ervaren, en alles wat jullie voor mij
mogelijk gemaakt hebben!
Bedankt aan alle instanties die me gedurende dit project ondersteund en
gefaciliteerd hebben:
Danke an den Kriminologische Dienst des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen sowie den
Jugend-Justizvollzugsanstalten Heinsberg und Iserlohn für die Unterstützung bei
der Datenerhebung.
Directie, medewerkers en jongeren van Stichting Jeugdzorg St. Joseph, het
Keerpunt en Icarus voor de mogelijkheid mijn data te mogen verzamelen.
De directies van Mondriaan Kind en Jeugd, de Vakgroep Clinical Psychological
Science van de Universiteit Maastricht en de Vakgroep KenVak van Hogeschool
Zuyd. Een bijzondere dank aan alle leuke collega’s die altijd een luisterend oor
voor me hebben gehad.
Danke an alle meine Freunde, dass Ihr trotz eines erheblichen Mangels an
sozialem Kontaktvermögen in den letzten Jahren heute noch immer meine
Freunde seid!
163
Bedankt aan alle Pennymeisjes die geduldig naar mijn lange verhalen hebben
geluisterd en er steeds weer in geslaagd zijn mij tot gezamenlijke ontspanning te
paard te motiveren.
Een Bijzonder woord van Dank gaat uit naar mijn twee Paranymphen, Fritzi en
Paul. Fritzi, samen delen wij het lot de enige in de vriendengroep te zijn die het in
het hoofd hebben gehaald, om steeds te streven naar hoger, en de vrije tijd te
offeren voor een studie. Paul, toen wij elkaar op dag 1 van ons studentenleven
onder de tafel tegen de voeten aan schopten wisten we nog niet welk
waardevolle vriendschap hieruit zou ontstaan. Ik ben blij dat jullie mijn vrienden
zijn!
Ein besonderes Dankeschön gilt meiner Familie und ganz besonders meinen
Eltern, die mir immer die Chance gegeben haben, das zu tun, was ich wollte. Ihr
habt mich auch in schwierigen Zeiten immer wieder ermutigt, weiter zu machen!
Danke, dass Ihr immer für mich da seid!!! Ihr seid die beste Familie, die man sich
wünschen kann!
Liebe Marlene, zu sehen wie du wächst und fröhlich bist, macht mich zu einer sehr
stolzen Patentante!
Lieber André, von allen Menschen die mich während dieses Projektes begleitet
haben, bist Du derjenige der am meisten darunter zu leiden hatte! Zusätzlich zur
Promotion an einem gemeinsamen Zuhause zu bauen, hat die Situation selten
einfacher gemacht. Während der gesamten Zeit warst du immer an meiner Seite,
hast stundenlang meine Geschichten von der Arbeit angehört, mit mir Erfolge
gefeiert, Tränen getrocknet und Träume verwirklicht. Zusammen haben wir zwei
wundervolle Projekte erschaffen! Es ist schön, dass es dich gibt!
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Evelyn Heynen was born on October 10th, 1983 in Sittard, the Netherlands. In
2003 she graduated secondary school in Germany (Bischhöfliches Gymnasium St.
Ursula, Geilenkirchen). From September 2003 until June 2004 she studies Arts
therapy at Zuyd Hogeschool in Sittard. In 2004 she started studying health
sciences at Maastricht University, specialization Movement Sciences and Mental
Health sciences. In 2009 she completed her Master in Human Movement Sciences
at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. From June 2009 until January 2011 she
worked as account manager at Clinical Trial Center Maastricht. From January 2011
she worked as clinical trial coordinator at the Department of Child-and Youth
Psychiatry at Maastricht University Medical Center and started her PhD in
September 2012 at this division. Later she performed her work and PhD at the
Child and Youth Division of Mondriaan, Heerlen. While still working on her PhD
she started working as a lecturer at the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life
Sciences Maastricht University in January 2015 and as a scientist at the Faculty of
Health Care at Zuyd Hogeschool Heerlen where she is currently working.
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Heynen, E.J.E. Van der Helm, G.H.P. Stams, G.J.J.M Korebrits, A.M., (2014)
Measuring group climate in A German youth Prison - A German validation
of the `Prison Group Climate Instrument´ (PGCI), Journal forensic
psychiatry and psychology. 14, 45-54.
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Stams, G.J.J.M, Korebrits, A.M. ,(2015),
Anwendungsmöglichkeiten des deutschen ´Prison Group Climate
Instrument´ (PGCI) zur Erfassung des Gruppenklimas in (Jugend)
Strafanstalten, Monatsschrift für Kriminologie und Strafrechtsreform. 3,
224-231.
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Behrens, E., Korebrits, A.M., (2015), Das
Gruppenklima im Deutschen Jugendstrafvollzug, Ein Sachstandsbericht zur
aktuellen Prison Group Climate Forschung in Nordrhein Westfalen,
Bewährungshilfe - Soziales, Strafrecht, Kriminalpolitik. 4, 410-421.
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Dolmans, B. (2015) het kan ook anders,
Nieuwe inzichten in de omgang met jongeren binnen een open groep van
een JeugdzorgPlus Instelling op basis van resultaten van het
leefklimaatonderzoek, Tijdschrift voor Orthopedagogie. 54, 434-440.
Deen, M., Heynen, E.J.E., Schouten, B.A.M., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Korebrits, A.M.,
(2014), Games [4Therapy] project: Lets talk!, (2014). In: Schouten,
Fedtke, Schijven, Vosmeer, Gekker (2014), Games for health 2014, ISBN:
978-3-658-07140-0 (Print) 978-3-658-07141-7 (Online)
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Wissink, I.B., Stams, G.J.J.M, Moonen,
X.M.H., (2015), -I don’t care about what you want!-The Relation
between Juvenile Delinquents’ Responses to Social Problem Situations
and Empathy in Secure Juvenile Institutions. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence 12. 1-15. DOI 10.1177/0886260515618212
166
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Cima, M.J., Stams, G.J.J.M, Korebrits, A.M.
(resubmission after revision), The relation between living group climate,
aggression and callous unemotional traits in delinquent boys in
detention. Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Stams, G.J.J.M, Korebrits, A.M., (submitted
for publication), Measuring Empathy in a German Youth Prison – A
validation of the German version of the `Basic Empathy Scale´ (BES) in a
sample of incarcerated juvenile offenders.
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Cima, M.J., Stams, G.J.J.M, Korebrits, A.M.,
(submitted for publication), - Feelings of others, don’t impress me much -
The effects of living group climate on empathy in adolescent male
offenders.
Heynen, E.J.E., Behrens, E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., (Submitted for publication),
Evaluation der Gruppenklima Forschung in Deutschland und den
Niederlanden auf der Grundlage eines Vergleichs der verschiedenen
Behandlungsmöglichkeiten in den jeweiligen
Jugendstrafvollzugssystemen.
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ATTENDED CONFERENCES
All conferences were attended with abstract and/or presentation:
Heynen, E.J.E., Van Miert, V., Van der Helm, G.H.P. Living group climate and
psychopathology, XIII Annual Conference of the International Association
of Forensic Mental Health Services (IAFMHS) Maastricht, 2013
Heynen, E.J.E., Nagtegaal, J., de Jongh, T., Eltink, E., Van der Helm, G.H.P.,
Interventions of the living group climate of secure residential youth care,
4th conference of the European Association for forensic child and
adolescent Psychiatry, Psychology and other involved professionals
(EFCAP), Youth, Risk and Mental health: Multiple Roads to Recovery,
Living group climate and psychopathology, Manchester, 2014.
Heynen, E.J.E., & Korebrits, A.M., The relationship between prison climate and
psychopathology in German Prisons, XIV Annual Conference of the
International Association of Forensic Mental Health Services (IAFMHS).
Trauma, violence and recovery: risk and resilience across the lifespan.
June 19th – 22th, 2014. Toronto Sheraton Centre.
Heynen, E.J.E., Deen, M., Games for externalizing problem behavior,
Games4Health Europe, 28 October 2014, Utrecht.
Heynen, E.J.E. & Van der Helm, G.H.P. (2014), Living group climate in residential
youth care, together for a better future. Fachtagung des Kriminologischen
Dienstes zum Thema Motivierung im Übergangsmanagement [ Motivation
during rehabilitation care] Düsseldorf, 3 November 2014:
Heynen, E.J.E., Ten Brummelaar, M., Give Juveniles a voice, Van nieuwe kennis
praktijk maken [from new knowledge to practice], Congres Efcap, ForCA
and AWFZJ, 20 November 2014, Geertekerk, Utrecht
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Heynen, E., Vaessen, S., Van Amelsvoort, T., Problems around transitional Care in
the Netherlands, European conference on youth mental health, from
continuity of psychopathology to continuity of care, STraMeHS 2014,
Venice
Nagtegaal, J., Heynen, E., de Jongh, T., Eltink, E., Van Miert, V., Working together
on the living group climate in the correctional juvenile detention centers,
Forensic Care Festival 2015, Utrecht: Fabrique. 27 January 2015.
Heynen, E.J.E., Van der Helm, G.H.P., Korebrits A.M., Living group climate in youth
detention, new possibilities for motivation and treatment, Masterclass,
Protecting young suspects in interrogations, 15 January 2015, Plot, Genk
169
AFFILIATIONS OF CO-AUTHORS
ANDRIES KOREBRITS
Helios Park Clinics Leipzig, Akademisches Lehrkrankenhaus der Universität Leipzig,
Klinik für Kinder und Jugendpsychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Psychosomatik,
Germany
GEERT-JAN STAMS
Department of Forensic Child and Youth Care Sciences, University of Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
INGE WISSINK
Department of Forensic Child and Youth Care Sciences, University of Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
MAAIKE CIMA
Department of Developmental Psychopathology, Radboud University Nijmegen,
The Netherlands
PEER VAN DER HELM
School of Social Studies, Department of residential Youth Care, Professional
University of Leiden, The Netherlands
Department of Forensic Child and Youth Care Sciences, University of Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
XAVIER MOONEN
Department of Forensic Child and Youth Care Sciences, University of Amsterdam,
The Netherlands