vce essentials unit 3 psychology part...
TRANSCRIPT
VCE Essentials
Unit 3 Psychology Part 1
Unit 3 AOS # 1 How does the nervous system enable
psychological functioning
Checklist – can you describe the following key concepts relating to U3 AOS 1?
• Functions of divisions of the nervous system
• Conscious/ unconscious responses to sensory stimuli
• Function of different parts of the neuron
• Inhibitory (e.g. GABA) vs. excitatory (e.g. Glutamate) neurotransmitters
• Lock & key effect
• Role of dopamine in Parkinson’s Disease
• Sources of stress (eustress/ distress) daily pressures, life events, acculturative stress, catastrophes
• Bio models of stress: fight-flight-freeze & GAS + the role of cortisol in the stress response
• Psych models of stress: Transactional model (primary vs secondary appraisal) + strengths & weaknesses (compared to the GAS)
• Coping with stress: exercise, avoidance, coping flexibility, etc.
Divisions of the nervous system
• Key skill: discuss key functions of each division
• Key skill: if a question states ‘in terms of the nervous system’…..then the respond must discuss the role of the relevant division/type of neurons involved in the behaviour (sensory, inter or motor)
• Distinguish between the equivalent subdivision e.g. central vs. peripheral; somatic vs. autonomic; sympathetic vs. parasympathetic.
• E.g. peripheral detects sensory input; central processes sensory input
• E.g. somatic regulates skeletal muscle activity (largely external environment); autonomic regulates visceral activity (internal environment)
Divisions of the Nervous System
The nervous system contains a network of specialised cells ‘neurons’ which coordinate the actions of an organism by transmitting signals to different parts of the brain and body
The Central Nervous System
The major functions of the Central NS are
to process informationreceived from the body’s internal (e.g. glands) and external environment (e.g. light, sounds) &
to activate an appropriate response (e.g. a movement).
The Central NS consists of the brain & the spinal cord
The spinal cord The spinal cord allows
communication between the brain & body - has 3 major functions
1. To transmit sensory info from PNS (Peripheral Nervous system) to brain
2. To transmit motor info from brain to PNS
3. (it is also responsible for providing rapid reflexive responses)
The spinal cord runs from the base of the brain to the lower back
It consists of a Cable-like column of nerve fibres
It provides direct connections between various sensory & motor neurons via Interneurons
Peripheral NSThe Peripheral NS is a network of nerves, comprised of all the neurons outside the Central NS
It has two subdivisions: the somatic NS & the autonomic NS
2 major functions of the Peripheral NS
1. It carries information from the Central NS to the body’s muscles (enabling movement), glands & organs (to regulate their activity).
2. It detects, converts and conveys information to the Central NS from the sensory organs e.g. eyes, ears skin receptors (about the external environment) as well as from the organs & glands (about the internal environment).
The Peripheral has two subdivisions – 1. Somatic NS, 2. Autonomic NS
The Somatic Nervous System
The Somatic NS is a network of nerves that carries
sensory information to the Central NS & motor
information from the Central NS.
The Somatic NS is largely concerned with the
external environment and dealing with voluntary
actions.
The Somatic NS has two major functions
1. Motor function: Efferent messages are carried by
motor neurons to skeletal muscles (which are
attached to bones) which trigger movement.
2. Sensory function: Afferent messages are detected
by the sensory organs and then conveyed to the
Central NS where the sensory information will be
processed.
The Autonomic Nervous System
The ANS has - 2 subdivisions: the Sympathetic NS & the Parasympathetic NS,
They counterbalance each other’s activities. Both are both active at the same time, but one is
typically dominant which is determined by our level of arousal or stress.
The Sympathetic Nervous System
Put simply: the Sympathetic Nervous System prepares
the body for action.
When placed in a stressful or threatening situation – The
Sympathetic NS sends a message to the adrenal gland) to
secrete the neurohormone - adrenaline
Adrenalin activates the fight-flight-freeze response
which facilitates physiological changes in heart rate,
blood pressure, expanding air passages in the lungs,
pupil dilation, etc. and thus increase the body’s arousal
levels.
The release of adrenalin also causes the release of
noradrenalin which activates the amygdala (the brain’s
fear center).
Functions such as digestion & urine production do
nothing to aid survival in a threatening situation – so
they reduce their activity as commanded by the
Sympathetic NS and thus these resources are diverted
elsewhere to more
The Parasympathetic Nervous SystemWhen the threat has passed, the parasympathetic
NS counterbalances the effects of Sympathetic NS
The 2 main functions of Parasympathetic NS
1. Restores the body to a state of calm once the
need for the activity of the Sympathetic N.S
has passed. By reversing the changes to
physiological functions that had occurred as
a result of the action of the Sympathetic,
e.g. reducing HR, respiration rate, etc.
2. Keeps bodily systems functioning efficiently
by maintaining homeostasis (a steady
internal body environment) during low stress
times – i.e. (ensuring efficient energy use).
But it maintains a level of arousal for optimal
functioning.
Changes in physiological systems as a result of
activation of subdivisions of the autonomic NS
Exam Questions
Qu.12 2016 VCAA exam
The parasympathetic NS. Is responsible for regulating
A.Anger & aggression
B.Learning & memory
C.Mood & arousal levels
D.Sleep, eating, reproduction
Answer: Both C & D paid
Qu.11 2010 VCAA exam
Which of the following is true for the Autonomic.N.S
A. The ANS is a vital part of the Central.N.S
B. It is impossible to consciously influence the functioning of the ANS
C. The ANS ensures that the constantly changing energy requirements of the body are
met
D. The ANS relays messages between the CNS & the voluntary muscles that control
our internal organs and gland
Answer C
Explain a conscious response to sensory stimuli
1. Initially sensory input is detected by a
sensory organ in the peripheral
(somatic) N.S
2. An afferent message is sent by sensory
neurons towards the brain via the
spinal cord (Central.N.S) for
processing
3. The interneurons in the brain
(Central.N.S) combine the sensory and
motor information, and then initiate a
conscious motor response
4. An efferent message will then be sent
by motor neurons (via the spinal cord)
to skeletal muscles in the somatic.N.S
to execute the necessary response.
Reflex arc – in terms of the nervous system
Using the hand on the pin example in the image below.
• 1st – sensory receptors detect a harmful stimuli i.e. the skin receptors detecting a sharp pin in
the hand. Sensory messages are carried by sensory neurons via afferent tracts (in the
Somatic N.S) to the spinal cord
• 2nd – the interneurons in the spinal cord (Central NS) connect and integrate the sensory
message with a motor message, thus triggering a motor response independently of the brain.
• 3rd – the motor neurons convey messages via efferent tracts (part of the Somatic NS) to the
appropriate skeletal muscle (in the arm) which will cause a contraction to occur so that the
hand can withdraw from the harmful stimuli (the pin in this case)
• 4th – the sensory messages will continue (after the reflexive movement) to be conveyed up the
spinal cord to the brain, where the pain is interpreted by the brain (Central NS).
What is the function of Neurons
• Neurons are the core components of the nervous system, a neuron
is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits
information by electrical and chemical signaling.
• Neurons connect to each other to form networks. These neural
networks enable us to learn/ remember/ process sensory input/
perform complex movements/ use language/ etc.
Explain the function of the structural components of neurons
Dendrites Are the branched projections of a neuron that function like antennae by
receiving input (electrochemical stimulation) from other neurons
Axons An axon conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body or
soma. (varies in length from < 1mm to @ 1 meter
Axon
terminals
Store the neurotransmitters in their vesicles, when the soma initiates an action
potential, the axon terminals will release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Myelin
Sheath
Surrounds the axon, which serves to protect the axon and enhance
transmission. The myelination of the axon is a key aspect of our ability to learn
and develop
Synapse synapse is a junction that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another cell via the terminal buttons at the end of axons to the
dendrites of the next neuron.
Soma The Soma is the control center of the cell, if the dendrites relay enough
electrical impulses then the soma will trigger an action potential.
Exam questions
Qu.1 2016 VCAA exam
The correct sequence in which information travels along a neural pathway is
A.Dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter, axon
B.Synapse, neurotransmitter, axon, dendrite
C.Axon, dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter
D.Dendrite, axon, synapse, neurotransmitter
Answer: D
Sample exam
Myelin forms a protective coating over nerve axons.
Another important function of myelin is to
A. Increase the speed of electrical nerve impulses
B. Decrease the speed of electrical nerve impulses
C. Prevent the transmission of neurotransmitters across the synapse
D. Promote the transmission of neurotransmitters across the synapse
Answer: A
The role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural
information between neurons
Neurotransmitters are the electrochemical messages that carry messages to other neurons, muscles or organs. E.g. glutamate or GABA
Neurohormones: can be released into the bloodstream or in the brain via a presynaptic neuron. E.g. adrenaline
Neurotransmitters are released from a neuron via an electrical impulse & they tend to have a rapid effect on the brain.
Neurohormones can be released the same way, but they can also be released into the bloodstream and can have a more lingering effect
Synaptic transmission
Receptors are the structures on the dendrites of neurons that recognize and bind to
specific neurotransmitters. Once bound a cascade of chemical events occurs that
Synaptic transmission starts with the soma which sends an electrical impulse along the
axon to the vesicles in the axon terminals which secrete neurotransmitters into the
synapse
.
Explain neural transmission (lock & key process)
• There are ~ 100 different types of neurotransmitters, each with their
own specialized receptors.
• The neurotransmitters have a unique shape that represents the ‘keys’
that need to bind with the receptors (which also have different shapes)
which represent the ‘lock’
• When the receptor binds with neurotransmitter i.e. the key opens the
lock there will be an inhibitory or excitatory effect.
.
If the binding of the neurotransmitter has an excitatory effect, then the postsynaptic
neuron is more likely to fire.
Specifically: excitatory neurotransmitters such as glutamate (the keys) increase the
permeability of the sodium ion channels on the postsynaptic receptors (the locks).
When glutamate binds the receptors sites it ‘opens the locks’ and thus triggers an influx
of positively charged sodium ions which excites the postsynaptic cell – creating an
action potential (the firing of the neuron).
Excitatory effect e.g. glutamate
If the binding of the neurotransmitter has an inhibitory effect, then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely
to fire.
Specifically: when an inhibitory neurotransmitter such as GABA (the keys) binds with a postsynaptic
receptor (the lock) it causes the chloride ion channels to briefly open which leads to an influx of
negatively charged chloride ions, thus making the neuron more negative than its resting potential which
means it is less likely to fire.
Inhibitory effect e.g. GABA
Drugs/medication can act on the receptor sites of neurotransmitters and can either
enhance the effects of the neurotransmitter or have a ‘blocking’ effect.
Drugs that increase the effect of the neurotransmitter are agonists. They make the
receptors more ‘receptive’ to the neurotransmitters in the synapse and thus increase the
uptake of the neurotransmitters.
Drugs/medication that decrease the effect of the neurotransmitter are antagonists. They
make the receptors less ‘receptive’ to the neurotransmitters in the synapse and thus
decrease the uptake of the neurotransmitters.
Agonistic vs antagonistic effects on neurons
Describe characteristics of Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson’s disease (P.D) is a
progressively degenerative disorder of
the central nervous system that mainly
affects the motor system.
Motor symptoms of P.D: include:
shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement,
instability, involuntary movements,
reduced facial expressions, etc.
Non-motor symptoms of P.D: include:
depression, anxiety, disturbed sleep.
.
Cause of Parkinson’s Disease
lack of dopamine in the substantia nigraDegeneration of dopamine releasing neurons in the
substantia nigra (which is functionally a part of a
group of structures in the basal ganglia)
The dopamine neurotransmitters control messages to
the brain structures that are responsible for initiating
and controlling movement – namely the Basal
Ganglia itself and the motor cortex.
These structures receive insufficient/irregular
dopamine messages – resulting in motor impairment
Drugs that act as dopamine agonists - mimic the
effects of dopamine at the receptor sites of
postsynaptic neurons in the brain. These can provide
relief from the motor symptoms of P.D
.
.
Physiological & psychological responses to stress
Stress defined: a state of physiological or psychological tension brought on by internal or external forces exceeding a persons resources for their ability to cope
The Stress Response: involves both psychological & physiological changes
What’s good about stress?
It enhances performance by arousing both the body and the mind
What’s bad about stress?
If the stress is chronic, stress-related hormones can linger in the bloodstream, which can deplete the immunes system and precipitate a stress-related illness.
Sources of stress:
Distinguish between Eustress vs. DistressHans Seyle (1975) distinguished between ‘good’ stress and ‘bad’ stress
Eustress
A positive psychological response to a stressor
occurs when we find something challenging, motivating, positive, exciting – it triggers an increase in our level of arousal
Examples of eustress responses: excitement, alertness, composed, euphoria, feeling energized or active, motivated, enthusiastic.
Generally eustress is a good kind of stress because it tends to enhance performance and is associated with a healthy body state and positive feelings;
Distress
A negative psychological response to a stressor
occurs when we find something that is harmful, threatening or negative that we can’t handle or find it excessively difficult, we feel rushed, etc. (something that increases arousal)
Examples of distress responses: Irritability, anger, tension, nervousness,
Generally distress tends to impair performance and is associated with a disrupted body state and negative feelings.
Both Distress & Eustress trigger a stress response from the sympathetic nervous system, thus they have an equally taxing effect on the body (the body doesn’t discern between eustress vs. distress).
Describe these sources of stress:
Daily pressures: aka hassles can have a cumulative effect then
this can result in wear and tear on the body & the mind.
Life Events: In 1967 Holmes & Rahe developed the Social
Adjustment Rating Scale, which attempts to quantify the impact
of events that involve either eustress and distress.
Acculuturative stress: occurs when a there is a negative
psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture. Particularly
when there is a great disparity between host culture and culture
of migrant
Major stress & catastrophes that disrupt whole communities.
This could the result of a natural disaster such as a fire or a
flood. As a result of the ‘intense stress’ and individual can trigger
a prolonged activation of the fight-flight-freeze response and
thus the person would be more likely to develop a stress related
illness
Describe Fight-flight-freeze response The fight-flight-freeze is an automatic response that prepares animal to either confront
– OR flee – OR freeze and play dead when presented with a physically or psychological
threatening situation
It’s an adaptive response because it maximises the organism’s chances for survival
When a threat is perceived a signal is sent to the amygdala which activates the sympathetic
NS and triggers a fight-flight-freeze response.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline (stress hormones) are released by the adrenal gland, which will
trigger an array of physiological changes that will maximise the individual’s responsiveness
to the threat.
Explain how the Freeze response is an adaptive response?????? See next slide
Why ‘Freeze’
If the freeze response is triggered, the
organism may avoid detection or can
appear injured (or dead) the attacker
may leave the organism alone, thus it is
an adaptive response.
It also gives the organism a split second
to assess the situation and decide how to
respond i.e. whether to ‘fight’ or
‘flight’.
Physiological signs of a physiological
response: The animal will go pale &
their body temperature will drop.
Physiological changes triggered by FFF response
Key skill: Identify how change – whether response is increased or suppressed
enhances survival prospects
Question 19 2016 VCAA exam
Each time Ben prepares for a (stressful) audition, it is likely that his
A. Pupils will constrict and his levels of stress hormones will increase
B. Heart rate will increase and his levels of stress hormones will decrease.
C. Stomach contractions will decrease and his levels of stress hormones will increase
D. Liver will decrease the release of glucose and his levels of stress hormones will increase
Answer: C
Why are some bodily systems suppressed by a
Fight or Flight response?
Salivation suppressed (dry mouth)
Digestion slowed/ hunger
suppressed
Bowel movements suppressed
These functions are not essential for
survival, so the body’s energy is
directed elsewhere to maximise the
organism’s chance of survival.
The role of cortisol in the stress response
• Cortisol is a stress hormone
• It aids metabolism of fats, proteins,
carb’s & increases glucose levels in
the blood providing additional
energy for muscles
• High levels of cortisol in the body is
helpful in the short-term by
increasing the animal’s chances of
survival when under threat.
• But harmful in the long-term as it
suppresses the immune system, thus
making us more vulnerable to
illness and leads to a decline in the
body’s overall level of functioning.
Explain the GAS – A biological model of the
response to stress• Hans Seyle – based on his experiments with labrats observed that the body tries
to adapt to stress in a predictable manner in order to rapidly overcome the
effects of the stressor and return the body back to homeostasis.
To test this empirically, he devised a series of experiments with lab rats whom
were exposed to a series of stressors e.g. injuries, drugs, extreme variations in
temperature of a room, strenuous exercise, bacteria and forced restraint
• This model is known as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Stage 1 of the GAS: Alarm
• Stage 1: Alarm: Initially the body goes into the shock phase,
where the body acts as it if is injured and thus our resistance is
lowered.
• Stage 1: Alarm: But soon the body goes into countershock, the
fight-flight-freeze response is activated and the level of resistance
rises. Adrenalin & cortisol are released into the bloodstream
which arouses the body.
Question 11 Sample exam
The Alarm reaction stage of the GAS is usual characterised by an
A. Immediate release of cortisol into the bloodstream
B. Increase in vulnerability to illnesses such as influenza
C. Initial increase in blood pressure and body temperature, followed
by a decrease in both
D. Initial decrease in blood pressure and body temperature, followed
by an increase in both.
Answer D
Stages 2 Resistance (the ‘adaptive’ stage)
Stage 2: Resistance: Whilst the body was experiencing a peak level of arousal during the alarm stage, this
response has come at a cost - e.g. digestion, growth, mensuration, production of sperm where shut down
During the resistance stages, adrenaline continues to circulate in the bloodstream + additional cortisol is released
to further energise the body (for a longer period) and to repair some of the damage to the body - experienced
during the alarm stage.
This enables the body to sustain a high level of resistance, but the parasympathetic.NS reduces HR and
respiration to a more sustainable (adaptive) level (thus both the sympathetic NS & parasympathetic NS are active
during resistance)
Due to the high levels of cortisol in the bloodstream (during the resistance stage) the immune system activity is
suppressed, thus a person may show some early symptoms of (minor) illness e.g. headaches, colds, etc. as the
body’s resistance to other (subsequent) stressors is weakened.
Thus the body sustains a high level of resistance to the initial stressor, but it is far less resistance to subsequent
stressors.
If the stressor has been successfully dealt with during the resistance phase then the body will adapt and will
return to a homeostatic level.
Stages 3 Exhaustion
If the body has been in resistance for an extended period of time and the stressor has
not been resolved then the individual may enter the exhaustion stage.
The resistance to the stressor is reduced as the individual’s biological resources
become depleted (during exhaustion).
Due to the depletion of the immune system (caused by the high levels of sustained
cortisol in the bloodstream) the person becomes vulnerable to (major) illness e.g. a
mental condition such as depression or a physical condition such as a cardiovascular
disorder e.g. heart attack.
Strengths & weaknesses of the GASStrengths of the GAS
It highlights that the body’s resources can become depleted which increases vulnerability to disease.
Provided evidence of the physiological processes involved in the response to a variety of stressors
Provides evidence of the relationship between prolonged stress and impaired health (of rats)
Indicated the correlation (relationship) between the intensity of the stressor and the level of physiological response
Weaknesses of the GAS
Thus it failed to cater for individual differences in terms of the cognitive processes involved in the stress response & thus the model overemphasises the biological processes in response to stress.
Not all people experience the same physiological responses to stress e.g. some may experience hypertension other ulcers, etc.
Experiments were exclusively carried out on rats, thus findings cannot be easily generalisedto humans.
It does not cater for individual differences in the way humans vary in their appraisals of stressors and variations in their coping abilities.
Lazarus & Folkman’s transactional model of stress
& coping
This model focuses on the transaction between people and their external environment
Thus it is a cognitive model (as opposed to the F-F-F response & the GAS which are biological models)
The two key psychological factors that determine the extent of the stress experienced is
1: their appraisal of the significance of the stressor
2: the appraisal of their ability to cope with the stressor.
In order to develop an effective stress management program it is first necessary to identify the factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress (primary appraisal), and to identify the intervention methods which effectively target these factors (secondary appraisal)
Primary Appraisal
The individual determines if they are in a stressful state, by considering whether the person has a personal stake in encounter (are their goals thwarted). The primary appraisal tends to be swift with little reflection.
And if is influence by past experience and individual factors in the person’s life.
The primary appraisal evaluates the significance of the encounter – which is either
1. Has no significance for person
2. Is a benign-positive encounter (desirable)
3. Is significant: Harmful/ threatening/ challenging
Primary Appraisal
If deemed significant, then stressful situations are further appraised as involving
Harm/ loss – an assessment of the damage that has occurred (so far)
Threats – an assessment of the potential future harm
Challenges – an assessment of how can we learn/ gain confidence/grow from this experience
Note: The primary appraisal is a subjective process – it would vary from individual to
individual, which explains why different people can appraise the same stressor differently e.g.
news of a pregnancy can be appraised as benign-positive or as a significant threat (if
unplanned)
Question 4 Sample exam Alex and Danny are both students who have been asked to try out for the national under-21 football squad. Although
Alex knows he is a good player, he is feeling overwhelmed by the level of competition for a place in the national squad and is concerned that he is not good enough to gain squad selection. For the past six months, Alex has had difficulty falling asleep at night. He is often still awake at 2.00am despite having gone to bed, on most nights, at around 10.30 pm. As bedtime approaches, Alex worries that he will not be able to fall asleep.
On the other hand, Danny is enjoying football training and is pleased with his skill development. He is confident of squad selection, does not feel excessively stressed and has no trouble sleep.
d. Explain why Alex and Danny have evaluated their situations differently in terms of the primary appraisal stage of Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress & Coping (3 marks)
• Alex and Danny’s interpretation of stress is determined by the transaction between themselves and the external environment in this case the demands of trying out for the U21 Footy squad.
• Alex has evaluated the tryout as significant as indicated by the harm experienced to his sleeping patterns.
• Danny has evaluated the tryout as benign-positive or irrelevant as the demands of the tryout has not triggered an ongoing stress response.
e. Outline an approach strategy that could help Alex reduces his levels of stress. (2 marks)
• An approach strategy would require Alex to confront the demands and effects of the tryouts
• He could Ask for advice from an experienced national player on how to handle the pressure.
Secondary Appraisal A secondary appraisal is a more
conscious process (than the primary appraisal)
The person assesses their capacity to cope & their ability to reduce harm/threats.
More specifically, the person assesses their resources and levels of energy that they have in order to deal with the stressor and what strategies that could be applied to cope with the stressor.
Coping options resources can come from internal sources e.g. resilience or externalsources e.g. emotional support from family & friends.
A secondary appraisal can lead to a reappraisal of the stressor and our coping resources
The secondary appraisal involves the use of either an approach or avoidance coping strategy (problem or emotion-focused).
Secondary appraisal – is more
of a conscious process
Strengths & weaknesses of the Transactional Model
Strengths of the Transactional model
• Research used human subjects in the development of the model rather than lab animals
• It considers psychological determinants of the stress response which we have control of
• It caters for individual differences by focusing on variations in how stressors are perceived
and variations in the way individuals respond to stressors.
• It is a dynamic model by allowing for the fact that stressors and circumstances can change
over time and thus our thinking about the stressor can change and thus our response
(reappraisal)
Weaknesses of the Transactional model
• It is difficult to isolate primary & secondary appraisals
• It doesn’t take cultural/ social/ environmental factors into account
• It doesn’t consider physiological responses.
• It is a linear approach that doesn’t allow for individual variation in progression between
stages.
Context-specific effectiveness
A coping strategy is considered to have context-specific effectiveness when there is a match or ‘good fit’ between the coping strategy that is used and the stressful situation.
Factors affecting context-specific effectiveness
1. Situational determinants of coping effectiveness e.g. does the stressor relate to conflict with a third party or with family or friends
2. The personal characteristics of the individual involved, such as their skills, personality, interests, access to social support from family, friends, etc.
3. The demands of the stressor itself
Example
Coping with exam stress: planning, time management and study would be beneficial but ‘mental distancing’ (not thinking about the exams at all) or ‘wishful thinking’ (hoping for good grades) while engaging in minimal study would be detrimental. However, mental distancing or distraction would be beneficial when waiting for the arrival of your results, as you can control this.
Coping flexibility
Coping Flexibility: Refers to the ability to
effectively modify or adjust one’s coping
strategies according to the demands of
different stressful situations.
It includes the abilities to:
Select and apply a coping strategy that
suits the situational circumstances,
Recognise when the coping strategy being
used is ineffective and then discontinue it
and replace with a more effective coping
strategy
Coping flexibility is considered to be an
adaptive personality attribute that enables
us to adjust our thoughts, feelings or
behaviour according to changing
situational circumstances.
Coping flexibility
Individuals with high coping flexibility:
Can monitor & determine if an existing coping strategy is effective.
They can readily adjust their coping strategies if they are ineffective.
They tend to use a variety of coping strategies across situations, and have a good fit between the strategies they deploy and the demands of the situation.
Individuals with low coping flexibility
Lack the ability to recognise that an existing coping strategy is ineffective
They tend to rely on the same coping strategies across different situations, and persist with them, even in the face of ineffectiveness.
Essentially, these individuals are not very adaptable.
Exercise
Exercise is an activity that involves physical exertion in order to improve or maintain one’s physical condition.
Physical exercise has following benefits
It uses up the stress hormones far more rapidly (than rest)
Exercise helps reduce muscle tension associated with high Sympathetic.N.Sactivity.
Releases beta-endorphins which improves mood, reduces stress as well as pain.
Increases the efficiency of the cardiovascular system, which means the body is better equipped to deal with future stressors.
Exercise can help us focus on breathing and thus perfecting a repetitive motion that can lead to a sense of ‘calm’.
Approach and Avoidance StrategiesThe aim of both approach and avoidant strategies is to reduce stress levels and increase the ability to cope.
Approach coping strategies: Involve efforts to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects.
Activity is focused towards the stressor, its causes and a solution that will address the underlying problem, issue or concern and minimise or eliminate its impact.
Include strategies that involve engagement with the stressor. For example, seeking advice from an expert, accepting responsibility, venting to a friend etc.
Strengths of approach coping
Approach coping strategies are generally considered to be more adaptive and effective than avoidance strategies.
People who rely more on approach strategies to cope with a stressor tend to experience fewer psychological symptoms and are more able to function effectively compared to people who rely more on avoidance strategies
Limitation of approach coping
It may require a lot of the individual’s energy and focus to deal with the stressor, thereby neglecting other aspects of their lives.
Avoidance coping Strategies
Involve efforts that evade a stressor and deal indirectly with it and its effects.
Activity is focused away from the stressor and there is no attempt to actively confront the stressor and its causes.
Include strategies that involve behavioural or emotional disengagement. For example, denial, distancing, procrastination, fantasy or wishful thinking, escape, substance abuse, oversleeping etc.
Strengths of avoidant coping
It allows for the conservation of energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed.
It can be more effective in coping with stress in the short term.
Ignoring a stressor for a couple of days while focusing on other things can provide ‘time out’ from a stressor while minimising potential stress from another source.
Limitations of avoidant coping
Avoidant coping strategies tend to be maladaptive
Avoidant coping strategies can trigger stress-related physical problems, such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Long-term use of avoidance strategies can also contribute to other problems. E.g. Delinquency, socially inappropriate behaviours and substance use.
Over time, avoidances cab prevent people from responding to stressors in constructive ways.
Research Methods
Key research skills
refer to p.11-12 of the study design
The extended answer
General advice
Ensure you fully address the question criteria (specified at the end of the scenario)
Write in essay form
Use headings and paragraphs to demonstrate the manner in which each component of the question has been addressed.
Link response to scenario (avoid generic responses)
Allow a reasonable chunk of term (up to 30 minutes, time can be gained elsewhere on the paper).
Spend a minute or two making a plan before you commence your response.
Types of investigations – R.M (Research Methods) ppt 1
There are various means of conducting psychological
investigations/ research
Each of the following have their strengths and limitations
1. Experiments
2. case studies
3. Observational studies
4. Self reports
Experiments
An experiment is used to determine a cause and effect relationship between variables under
controlled conditions i.e. the manipulation of an IV to test its effect on the DV
Advantage
The conditions of the experiment can be reported in a manner than can be easily replicated in order
to enhance the reliability and validity of the results.
Disadvantage
There can be a degree of artificiality about testing in a laboratory setting e.g. the testing of emotions,
anxiety, etc.
Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis a statement of the predicted effect of a change in the Independent variable on the value of the dependent variable
The independent variable is the variable manipulated to test its effect on the DV e.g. being sleep deprived or not
The dependent variable is the variable measured e.g. memory ability
A Research Hypothesis must have
1. Statement of the IV
2. Statement of the DV
3. statement of population (not the sample)
4. a directional prediction
Writing a research hypothesis – 2014 exam
Average 1.6 out of 3
Members of the Green Valley Tennis club who learned a new serving technique by viewing an
instructional video of professional tennis player would master the serving technique more
effectively than the members who did not view the instructional video
checklist
1: DV: mastering the new serving technique
2: IV: whether the members viewed the instructional video from the tennis pro or not
3: prediction: members who viewed the video would master the new serving technique more
effectively than the members who had no access to the video.
4: population: members of the Green Valley Tennis Club
Operationalised Dependent variable & Independent variable
Operationalising involves specifying the manner in which the variables will be
manipulated and measured (in terms of the procedures used, that is the operations
employed)
When asked to identify the Independent Variable – look for 2 groups
E.g. participants who drink caffeinated drinks vs. decaffeinated drinks
E.g. students who listen to iPods (for off-campus study) vs. those who don’t
When asked to identify the Dependent Variable – look for the statistics – i.e.
learning ability as operationalised as score on 20 word list
Memory ability as operationalised as number of 30 three letter non sense syllables
recalled.
IV A variable manipulated to test the effect on the DV
DV A variable which measures the effects of the manipulation of the IV
Research designs
The research design can be used to minimise the effects of extraneous/ confounding variables
In VCE Psychology there are 4 options
1. Independent-groups
2. Matched-participants
3. Repeated-measures
4. Cross-sectional study
Each of these have comparative strengths and limitations
Independent-groups
Explanation Each group of participants is assigned to either the control or
experimental condition (the IV or no IV)
Advantages No order effect (as opposed to R.Measures)
More time and cost effective than M.Participants/R.measures
Disadvantage It is the least effective in controlling participant related variables e.g. the
experimental group might have an age or gender bias (compared to the
experimental group), or the might be different in terms of intelligence or
prior exposure to the IV (e.g. medication)
Matched-participants
Explanation Subjects are paired based on shared characteristics e.g. age,
gender, intelligence, prior experience to IV e.g. meditation
Advantage More effective than Independent groups at controlling participant
related variables
Disadvantages • If one member of pair drops out, the results for the other
member of the pair is void
• Time & cost of matching process
• Not all critical factors can be matched e.g. prior experience
with memory tests (if the DV is memory)
Repeated measures
Explanation Participants are involved in both the control condition (not
exposed to the IV) and the experimental condition (exposed to
the IV), results are then compared between the 2 conditions
Advantage Eliminates participant-related variables
Disadvantages • Order effect (see next slide)
Order effect
Explanatio
n
The sequence in which the experimental conditions have been performed has
affected performance on the latter condition i.e.
Practice
effect
The performance of the 2nd task completed may be better because of the experience
gained in completing the 1st task
Boredom
effect
Participants do worse the 2nd time around due to boredom/ fatigue (if a long task)
History
effect
The time interval between repeated testing (if long term) may lead to changes in
participants characteristics potentially confounding the effect of the treatment
variable
Carry-over
effect
When the completing of the initial experimental condition affects the performance
on the subsequent experimental condition e.g. the effects of a sleep-deprivation
experimental condition may carry over to the control condition due to the lack of
time and thus recovery from the fatigue from being sleep-deprived
Counterbalancing the Order effect
Overcoming the
order effect
• Counterbalance: get half the participants to do control condition
first (experimental condition 2nd) and the other half of the
participants to do the experimental condition (control condition
2nd)
• Thus the ‘order effects’ are balanced out over the entire
experiment
Cross-sectional study
Explanation Comparing different groups of people at a single point in time
based on specific characters such as gender, age, level of eduction,
etc. e.g. males vs. females, middle-aged vs. the elderly; highly
educated people vs. the opposite, etc.
Advantage Based on results it provides an easy form of comparison to groups
Disadvantages • The data may lack validity and reliability due to other variables
e.g. individual participant-related variables due to cultural
biases, gender biases, etc.
Matched-participantsQ.13b 2010 VCAA exam
•Matching subjects is time-consuming, hence costly process
•Not all critical factors are matched
•If one member of pair drops out, then results of partner are void
• Coordination/ experience in ‘ball sports’/ catching ability, etc
• If one member of pair had superior natural ability then then this could have an
extraneous/ confounding effect on there results, this can be overcome by
measuring and matching pairs based on similar abilities for the above
Research design questions
Q.6a 2014 Short Answer VCAA exam
What is one benefit of using a repeated measures design in this particular study (on the effects of REM deprivation on pain sensitivity) (1 mark)
Answer: The experimenter could control for participant-related variables in the form of individual differences that may affect the results such as their existing pain sensitivity or normal sleep patterns, age, weight.
In order to obtain the mark, the students needed to link their response to the scenario
Q.12c 2006 & Q.12 2010 Short Answer VCAA examHow is the order effect overcome (2 marks)
Answer: Counterbalancing- involves arranging the order in which the conditions of a repeated measures design are completed so that each condition occurs equally often in each position
Qu.7e i sample exam
What type of research design could Amelia use for the proposed extended investigation (on memorising lists of monosyllabic words that don’t rhyme after a 2 min reading vs. a with images of the words next to the word)? Give a reason for your response (2 marks).
Answer: M.Participants
Match participants on short-term capacity based on pretesting. R.Measures might not be effective due to carry—over effects.
Qualitative vs Quantitative data
2 major types of Quantitative data• 1: Inferential statistics which determines the significance of results and thus can be
used to determine the meaning of results and thus draw conclusions and implications (note inferential statistics such as the p value are no longer covered in the VCE psychology course.
• 2: Descriptive statistics: summarise, organise, describe results and are thus used for analysis e.g. measures of central tendency (the mean) and spread (standard deviation), tables, line graphs, bar charts & percentages.
• A limitation of the use of descriptive statistics is that do not allow the research to determine if the hypothesis is supported or not based on the significance of the results which limits the ability of the researcher to draw conclusions, generalisations and implications.
Confounding vs. Extraneous Variables• The word extraneous means ‘outside’
• An extraneous variable is any variable other than the IV that may affect the
DV at a random point during the experiment such as during the data
collections
• Potentially a valid conclusion can still be made if Ext Var’s have been
identified (not so if a confounding variable has been identified)
Examples of confounding/extraneous variables
1. Participant-related variables (when using an Independent-groups design)
2. Placebo effect
3. Experimenter effect
4. Non-standardised procedures instructions
• The word confounding means ‘confusing’
• A confounding variable is any variable that has been systematically confused
with the IV in terms of its impact on DV – i.e. it is not certain whether the IV
has affect the DV or the outside variable that hasn’t been controlled.
• E.g. an order effect for a repeated measures research design
Past exam question
Sample exam MC q.1
In an experiment it is essential to control for extraneous variables so that
A. There is a probability that the results will be obtained by chance.
B. A valid conclusion can be drawn about the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
C. A valid conclusion can be drawn about the effect of the dependent variable on the
independent variable.
D. The hypothesis is supported and the results of the experiment can be generalised to
the broader population.
Answer: B
Individual participant-related variables
Explanation The composition of the experimental and control groups contain
participant-related variables which could affect the validity of the
results e.g. Intelligence, age, gender, sleep patterns, levels of well-
being, etc.
Overcome by Use a matched-participants design by matching participants on
traits that may affect the DV e.g. age/gender, STM capacity, level
of well-being (determined via inventory scores) etc. or where
practical use a repeated measures research design
Non-standardised procedures
Explanation Variations on the manner in which the participants were tested that
could affect the DV or results i.e. testing at different times of the day
or different room, with varying levels of distraction, etc. this could
diminish the validity of the data generated from an experiment.
Overcome by Standardise the procedures
Explanation Ensure a uniform testing environment e.g. test everyone at the same
time, same place, same instructions, etc.
Placebo effect
Explanation of
placebo effect
Expectations of participants can have an unwanted effect on their
behaviour, hence the results of the experiment – particularly when
the participants are aware of the differences between the control and
experimental conditions e.g. if testing the effects of sleep deprivation
on cognition, then a sleep deprived group might have diminished
expectations compared to participants in the non sleep-deprived
control condition thus potentially affecting the validity of the data.
Overcome by Use placebo’s (fake treatments given to the participants in a control
condition where appropriate e.g. pharmaceutical experiments.
Alternatively use a Single-blind procedure
Explanation Ensure the subjects are unaware ‘blind’ to the knowledge of their
group (control or experimental; exposure to IV or not)
Experimenter effect
Explanation
of
experimenter
effect
An experiment effect can occur when the unconscious (or inadvertent) expectations,
personal characteristics or treatment of the data (by the experimenter) may bias the
results (particularly for the experimental group)
2 types of Experimenter Effect
Self-fulfilling prophecy – the experimenter achieves the results they expect to
generate. Thus, their actions can provide cues to the participants due to experimenter
expectancy such as their body language, tone, etc. which can vary between the
experimental/ control groups and thus influence the participants accordingly
Experimenter bias – the unintentional actions that affect the collection/ treatment of
data, thus the experimenter only ‘sees what they want to see’ when evaluating and
measuring behavioural responses.
Overcome by Double-blind design
Explanation Use an assistant to allocate participants to groups, so both the experimenter and the
participants are unaware ‘blind’ to the knowledge of whether they are in the control
or experimental groups.
Single blind & double-blind procedure• In order to minimise the Placebo Effect – a Single-blind procedure – could be used.
• In order to minimise the Experimenter Effect – a Double procedure – could be used.
A Single-blind procedure involves the experimenter allocating the subjects to the experimental and control groups-
• so they (the subjects) are blind to the knowledge of which group they are in – i.e. experimental or control.
A Double-blind procedure uses an assistant to allocate subjects to the control and experimental groups.
• So that the experimenter is blind to the knowledge of which group the subjects are in.
Benefit/ purpose of single-blind procedure:
• to avoid participants expectation/bias that may affect the results as the participants are blind to whether they are in the control or experimental group.
Benefit of using a double blind procedure
• The characteristics, influence or bias of experimenter will not affect the results.
Sampling and allocation
Participant selection & allocationKey terms
A Population- is the body of the community from which a sample of participants is drawn
Selecting subjects for research is called Sampling
A Sample is a subset of a larger group i.e. the population to be studied.
A representative sample consists of participants with similar characteristics in terms of age, gender, etc. of the population of interest
Participant Allocation – once the sample has been formed, the participants need to be allocated to different groups (control & experimental)
Random allocation- each participant has an equal chance of being allocated to the control or experimental group. If a large sample is used, then random allocation improves the chance of evenly spreading individual participant differences across the control and experimental groups.
Non random allocation is more likely to result in extraneous/confounding variables affecting the reliablty/validity of the results (than random allocation)
4 methods of sampling include – Convenience SamplingRandom Sampling & Stratified sampling Stratified Random Sampling
Population
Stratified
Sample
Experimental
Group
Control
group
Exposed
to IVNot
Exposed
to IV
Subjects then
Allocated to
either
Random
Sample
Convenience
Sample
Convenience (opportunity) sampling
Description • Selecting readily available subjects without any attempt to make sample
representative of the population of interest
• E.g. a Psych teacher using his/her class as subjects
Advantage Both time and cost effective
Limitations It often leads to a biased sample
The sample is not representative of the population, which it makes it difficult
(unlikely) that accurate inferences can be made about data obtain the preventing
valid conclusions (to be made) as well as generalisations to the wider public (thus it
diminishes external reliability)
Random sampling
Description • Allocates subjects from the population to form part of the sample, so that every
member of the population of interest has an = chance of being selected
Advantage • If a sample is large enough, then the participant variables will be distributed in
the sample in roughly the same proportions as in the population (so these
participant variables will not affect the DV) thus the sample is representative of
the population of interest.
• It improves the chances of generating valid results and making accurate
inferences and generalisations to the wider population based on results gained
from the sample (it generates more reliable results)
Limitation • Increased time and cost of accessing the population of interest (compared to
convenience sampling)
• Not appropriate for all types of research – e.g. If doing research on
schizophrenia, these people (the population of schizophrenics) may be difficult
to obtain for research
Stratified random sampling
Description • Used when you have a diverse population in terms of the proportions of different groups.
• Divides the population of interest into different strata i.e. groups and then selecting a random sample from each stratum in the same proportions as the population.
• Strata’s might be based on age, gender, living areas, marital status, etc.
Advantage • Attempts to prevent biases by making the sample more representative of the
population.
• It also provides an efficient means of comparing the results between groups e.g.
male vs. female scores
Limitation • Time & associated costs of stratifying the population i.e. identifying &
allocating people into ‘strata’ or subgroups – before selecting the random
sample from each sample
• It might not be practical to access a list of the entire population, which makes
the stratifying process impossible
Control group – past exam questions
Question 4b 2016 VCAA exam (1 mark)
Outline the purpose of the control group as it relates to this experiment (in relation to a
scenario in which two groups learned a list of 5 words – one group were instructed to use
mnemonics to encode, the other group were given no instructions .
Answer: The control group served as a baseline measure of comparison for the recall of the 5
words without encoding instructions against the experimental group who were instructed to
use mnemonics to encode the words [and thus evaluate the effects of the IV (use of
mnemonics to encode) on the DV (recall of the 5 words)].
Note: This question required a clear link to the scenario – 0 marks for generic responses.
Past sampling exam questions
Question 9 (section B) – 2016 VCAA exam
The Sunnydown Basketball League has 1500 players aged 12-18.
Explain how a research could design a random sampling procedure to investigate the effects of sports drinks on the performance in the under-16 basketball players in the Sunnydown Basketball league (3 marks)
Answer (1 mark per dot point)
Putting the names of the 1500 Sunnydown Basketball League players
into a computerised program that ensures every player has an equal chance of being selected to participate in a sample of 100 (or names in a hat)
The 100 players selected would be required to consume the sports drink to determine its effect on their performance.
Question 3 (section C) 2016 VCAA exam
Name the sampling procedure used in the study and identify one advantage of using this sampling procedure (for participants approached at a bridal exhibition to investigate the stress response during stages of the wedding process) (2 marks)
Answer: Convenience sampling
Adv: the participants were readily available at the bridal exhibition thus it was both a time and cost effective means of generating a sample
EthicsEthical standards provide guidelines to researchers that must be followed when working with
humans/ animals with two major objectives
Primarily: Protect the welfare & rights of human participants in research
Secondarily: Promote research that will benefit the community or humankind (maximise
beneficence)
To achieve this, 4 basic principles are described:
Basic
Ethical
principles
Justice
Beneficence
Respect
For persons
Merit &
Integrity
The research should consider the
welfare, rights and perceptions of
the participants involved.
The role of the ethics committee
The ethics committee decides if a research proposal is approved (or not) as well as
deciding if the researchers are qualified to conduct the investigation
monitoring the research through inspections, progress reports, etc.
handling complaints from the community
ensuring the researchers are held accountable for their actions.
The role of the experimenter
The experimenter must follow ethical guidelines
And ensure the welfare and rights of the participants are priortised.
Participants rights
Participants
rights
Debriefing
Deception
Withdrawal
rights
Informed
consent
Voluntary
participation
Confidentiality
Participants must not be
coerced
Participants can withdraw
during the experiment or
their results at the
conclusion
Protection & security of
participants information
Informed Consent
Participants must be given adequate
information about
The instructions should be clear
& participants should have the
Opportunity to ask questions
purpose of the study
(what the results will be used for)
the rights of
The participants
the potential
risks
+ potential benefits
re withdrawal,
confidentiality,
debriefing, etc
for the
participants
Details of the processes
involved in the study
Debriefing
Debriefing is completed at the end of the experiment to
prevent psychological or physiological harm to participants!
Providing the participants with information about the nature & reason for any deception
that was used
Corrects mistaken attitudes & beliefs about the research
Used to minimise (or extinguish) any negative consequences that participants might suffer
– or
Anticipates the subsequent effects of research participation and provides information on
services available to alleviate unnecessary distress that arise from the participation.
Past exam questions on ethics
Question 3 (section C) 2016 exam
Describe how debriefing may be undertaken for the data collection technique used in this study (for the same stress response wedding scenario discuss earlier which stipulated that contact with participants was via a mailing address) (2 marks)
Answer:
Participant’s could have been provided with details of experimental findings and information regarding access to counselling services if they experienced distress.
Via a mail out to all of the sample participants
Question.40 m.choice sample exam
When Dr Kapoor is studying human sleep patterns, she must
A. Ensure patient confidentiality.
B. Debrief patients at the start of the study.
C. Withhold information from participants about the nature of the study.
D. Avoid short-term disruption of participant’s sleep patterns for the purpose of the study.
Answer: A