vegetables production tecnolgy by akash tahir

8/12/2019 Vegetables production Tecnolgy by Akash Tahir

1/50

Vegetables production Tecnolgy by Akash Tahir

Aims:

understanding and development of class room teaching (formal education)

and learning activity plays a pivotal role in the education system

Unfortunately we could not develop the tradition of utilizing this powerful

sourse of understanding classroom dynamics in our acadmic culture. Thus

we lost the oppertunity to learn from first hand experiences of teachers

This course will create awareness of the potential role of research in

professional development through the improvement of learning activity in

the class. In addition this course will equip students with pre requisite

knowledge and skills necessary to ecome a good research! wich will e turndevelop the research mindeness and apitude among the graduate to infuse

class research in their routine practice.

Objective:

"t The #ompletiales crops on of the course student will e ale to.

$ Understanding the importance of cultivation of vegetale crops

% Understanding the manegement practices for vegetales crops

& Improve the quality and quantity of vegetales crops yield

' will e ale to identify reseachale prolems of vegetales

Identifylocate the site for cultivation of various types of vegetales.

Vegetables:

in culinary terms! a vegetale is an edile plant or its part! intended for

cooking or eating raw. In iological terms! *vegetale* designates memers

of the plant kingdom

Importance of vegetables :


2/50

Nutrition:

+egetales are rich and comparatively cheaper source of vitamins.

Their consumption in plenty fair amount of protein.They also play key role

in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of pretentious and fattyfoods and which help in movement of food in intestine.

,ome of the vegetales are good sources of carohydrates

vitamin " - carrot! tomato! leafy vegetales

+itamin - peas! garlic and tomato

+itamin # - green chillies!#ole crops! leafy vegetales and radish leaves.

Daily e!uirement of Vegetables:

/ 0 $% g of green leafy vegetales! 1 g of other vegetales and 1 g of

roots and tuers with other food.

Importance as "ood:

2ood production is increasing. Then our economic is also strength If is

essential to sustain increased production esides nutritional standard of

people. It can e increased y increasing production of vegetales which

will help to solve food prolem as yield of vegetale crops is ' to $3 times

more than cereals. Thus! vegetales play a vital role on food front as they are

cheapest0sources of natural foods and can admiraly supplement the main

cereals of the country.

Importance to a gro#er-

4ature is in providing us0with all kinds of vegetale crops that can e grown

in different seasons of the year in 5akistan provinces. 6ifferent kinds of!

vegetales provide leaf! stem! flower! fruit or seed for consumption. 2armers

can grow vegetale crops throughout the year for earning regular and steady

income to meet the daily expenditure. There are vegetales of very short

duration that can e grown as rained and intercrops in either agronomical

crops or vegetale crops. There 7are vegetales which will improve soil and


3/50

also provide fodder to catties. Thus farmer has wide choice to select suitale

crop to ad8ust in his cropping pattern in given situation. #limate and soil

conditions of this region are conducive to grow different vegetales.

$mployment:

,ince cultivation of vegetale crops involves intensive cultural operations

starting from sowing to marketing! it provides more and regular employment

opportunities in rural areas.

Industrial importance:

Industry as a commercial proposition largely depends on mainly allied

enterprises like storage! processing marketing and maintenance and service

enterprises to encourage vegetale growing. The value of vegetales as animportant article of daily human diet has come to e recognized all over the

world in recent years .

Vegetables contribute vital ole to Improve our $cnomic:

$. They are rich sources of 75rotective7 elements like minerals! salts! vitamins

and other chemical sustances! which the human ody seeds to maintain

good health and cheer.

%. 5er acre yield of vegetales is very high.

&. They are an important source of farm income.

'. They have high aesthetic value.

. 9ore vegetale crops can e raised in one year.

:. Importance of vegetales in farmer7s economy.

/. +egetales are important .source of farm income-

1. +egetales are sold at a higher rate than other crops. It provides regular as

well as good source of income in addition to the income from the agronomic

crops.

;. It provides regular work throughout the year to the year to the fanners and


4/50


5/50

=overnment has identified agriculture as one of the four ma8or drivers of

growth. "ccording to an estimate! the total value of agriculture crops at

current factor cost is estimated at >s.3.%:1 illion! divided into ma8or

crops.

5akistan has unique ut unsophisticated network of up to six or seven

intermediaries etween the primary source (producer and growers) and the

end user. ecause of the presence of so many layers and the lack of adequate

marketing infrastructure facilities! &3 to '3? of the perishale produce gets

spoiled efore reaching the ultimate consumer.

@nion is one of the main cash crops for the farmers as well as among the

main exportale horticulture commodities from the country. Therefore!

development of onion crop will improve farm incomes and foreign exchangeearnings %.3 @nion 5roduction Aorld @nion 5roduction It is estimated that

annually aout million tons of onions are produced all over the world. In

many parts of the world it is staple food of the people. #hina and India

contriute almost half of world onion production. The world market for

onion is expanding with the increase in gloal population. The statistics

reveal that exporting countries are almost maintaining their share with of

course some ad years due to ad crop. 5akistan @nion 5roduction- 5akistan

annually produces aout $. million tons of onion. Though su8ected toannual variations! overall area and production of onions in 5akistan have

shown an increasing trend during the past years (Tale %)- Tale %- "rea

and 5roduction of @nions for the 5eriod from $;;;33 to %33&3' in

5akistan Bear "rea (C333D ha) 5roduction (C333D tons) $;;;33 $3;.1 $:'1.3

%3333$ $3.: $:&.& %33$3% $3&.1 $&1.3 %33%3& $31.3 $'%/. %33&3'

$3;.3 $'';.3 "verage ($;;;0%33') $3/.% $';'. ,indh is the leading onion

producing province in 5akistan followed y alochistan! 5un8a and 4A25.

5rovince0wise area and production of onion are presented in Tale &- @nion

in 5un8a is mainly produced in ,outhern part comprising of Ehanewal!

+ehari! @kara! 6. =. Ehan! ahawalpur and >. B. Ehan districts. =hotki!

4ausherhro 2eroze! 4awashah! ,hikarpur! ,anghar! 9irpur Ehas and


6/50

%'/./ $/.3 ,indh $.' :':.$ ''.' 4A25 $3.$ $;%.: $&.% alochistan %3.3

&:;.1 %.' 5akistan $3/.3 $':.' 4A25 and 9astung! kalat and #hagai are

main onion producing districts in alochistan.


7/50

mainly ecause the onion crop was destroyed y floods.

The major items e1ports of vegetables from %akistan-

5akistan is potato exported $%!333 tonnes of 5otato to >ussia in %3$30$$.

The figure dropped to $!333 tonnes in %3$$0$%! a decrease of well over

11?. esides a change in supply side of the >ussian vegetale market!

"nother reason for 5akistanDs low vegetale exports in

%3$$0$% is an exoritant profit margin y middlemen and growers. 5akistan

has ma8ority of uran and rural population surviving on vegetales! Ahich is

relishing food due to nutritive value such as vitamins! proteins! #alcium!

5hosphorous! Iron! water and mineral salts. etc. In its varying climatic

conditions! the vegetales grown may vary from leafy to cole crops! rootvegetales to ul or tuer crops! flower vegetales to Immature fruit

vegetales! which are grown in different parts of the country. The area under

vegetale cultivation excluding potato and sweet potato ut including onion!

garlic! chillies was 3.&1$ million hectors (aout $.:/? of The total cropped

area)! producing aout '.3: million tonnes of vegetales. There is increasing

demand of vegetales from rural to uran areas due to 6omestic

consumption directly in food either in raw or cooked form. ut! vegetales

have variety of uses in the preparation of pickles! chutney ketchup! soups!sauces! salads! etc. except their edile usage for cooking purposes. The

vegetale cultivation in 5akistan is most proaly done in different parts of

the country. There is great variety of vegetales along with their edile parts

such as roots! tuers! uls! >hizomes! leaves! flowers and immature pods!

fruits and seeds. The low quality seed is one of the ma8or yields #onstraints

in vegetales grown in 5akistan. The seed producing agencies and growers

oth suffer a lot due to timely production and availaility @f vegetale seed

in the market during season. In different parts of the country! vegetales aregrown in Eharif or summer and >ai or winter seasons of the year. The >ai

vegetales are grown in cool climate @f winter season! which complete their

life cycle and mature seeds in eginning of summer. Thus! the seed of >ai

vegetales is produced at the maturity time i.e.! the months of "pril and

9ay. whereas! the Eharif vegetales mature their seeds in the months of


8/50

,eptemer and @ctoer while Eharif vegetales are grown in warm climate

of summer.the vegetales of oth >ai and Eharif season are shown along

with their edile parts

%roblem in $1port of Vegetables in %akistan:

$. Inadequate air cargo space. %. estriction in the

export. 6uring shortage of crop export is restricted. Thus regular export is

stopped. '. 4on0 availaility suitale variety. . "sence of cultivation of

suitale crop varieties exclusively for export is fresh for processing. :.

Improper packing of the produce. /. +egetales are packed oin 8ute

(undesirale). 1. #orrugated fieroard oxes are not of enough strength and

damaged in transport. ;. #old storage facilities at all air ports. $3. in

adequate handling space. $$. Inadequate research development ack up. $%.4o export oriented research programmed are eing taken up in vegetales.

$&. Juality of vegetales is not uniform. $'. #ost of vegetale washed in

shorting and grading. ,uggestion for improvement in +egetale Kxport from

5akistan- There is need for such policy so that quality crops at competitive

price are availale regularly in market. 2ollowing are ,uggestion- $Long

term and consistent export policy! "void frequent change in export policy.

%. Kxclusive production of different vegetale for different season in suitale

packets e arranged t have regular supply throughout the year at competitive

price without affecting domestic supply.

&. Knough quality control control measures should e made.

'. >egular assessment for international market.

. ,uitale diversification for export oth in term of countries and

commodities for increasing quality and value.

:. Identity suitale pocket for growing different vegetales.

/. 6evelop agro technique and fro integrated nutrient! 5 and 6 management!

organic farming etc.


9/50

1. 5roduction and distriution of quality seed in adequate qualities e

arranged.

;. 5re0cooling and cold storage facilities are increased.

$3. +entilated and temperature controlled! storage and transport facilities arenecessary.

Vegetables gro#n in %akistan:

9ore than & kinds of vegetales are grown in numerous eco0systems in

5akistan from the dry zone to the wet zone! low elevation to high elevation!

rain fed to irrigated and low input to very high input systems such as plastic

houses. 6uring summer and spring season! tomato! chilies! rin8al! potato!

cucumer! gourds and okra are aundantly availale. 6uring rainy season!gourds! cucumer! eans! okra and rin8al are common. The winter season is

the most important for growing a wide variety of vegetales including!

cauliflower! caage! lettuce! spinach! onion! potato! carrot! radish! turnip!

coriander! fenugreek and peas. +egetales produced in different zones y

using different production technologies during different seasons are traded

across regional markets of 5akistan in order to meet consumer demand

across the country. +aried agro0climatic conditions prevailing in different

provinces of the country also contriute to year round production of differentkinds of vegetales. Thus many vegetales can e grown and seen in the

market during any season.

Area and %roduction:

Total area and production of vegetales including potatoes and condiments!

averaged aout 11 thousand ha and /:$%.' thousand tones! respectively

during the past ten years (%33% 0$%) Tale $. Though su8ected to annual

variations! overall area and production of vegetales in 5akistan have shownan increasing trend during the past $3 years. ,ince %33%03& to %3$$0$%! the

area under vegetale crops including potato and condiments has increased

from %3.; to :$$./ thousand hectares and production has increased from

:''.% to 1'/1.1 thousand tonnes.


10/50

Vegetables e1ports:

"griculture constitutes the largest sector of 5akistanDs economy. This sector

contriutes %$.'? to its =65! provides '3? employment and :3? exports.

The horticulture su0sector (2ruits and vegetales etc.) contriutes $$? tothe total value addition in agriculture sector. The current national

horticulture exports are aout '33 million U,M (%3$$0$%). Kxport of ma8or

vegetales is presented in Tale 1. 5resently 5akistan is mainly exporting

vegetales to "fghanistan! 9alaysia! >ussian 2ederation! ahrain! U"K!

,audi "raia and ,ri Lanka. 5otato! onion! chilies! peas! tomato and frozen

and dried vegetales are few well exported vegetales. 5akistan must

explore markets for other vegetales to avoid relying on only few country

improvements in vegetables:

5roduce is not in line with the international standards and internationally

demanded varieties. >esearch organizations should develop varieties that

est meet the needs of the gloal market. 6evelopment of varieties rich in

nutrients and having resistance against diseases! insect pests! drought! heat

and frost will need more emphasis and concerted efforts. ,eed of promising

varieties of vegetales should e produced to ensure regular supply of true0

to0type good quality seed. There is a need for improving and strengtheningthe seed0producing agencies for etter quality seed production and supply.


11/50


12/50

#auliflower$'330$:33

,quash melon '0

Tomato 0$3

itter gourd- '30:3

5eas %'30%13

,ponge gourd '30:3

>adish '30:3

>ound gourd '30:3

#arrot 130$%3

5umpkin '30:3

Turnip %'30%13

#luster ean %330%'3

,pinach $:30%33

#ow peas %130'33

Nursery Types and Nursery Management

Definition of nursery:

4ursery is a place where plants are grown! nurtured and sold out. =enerally!various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts ofgenuine type.

'election of site for Nurseries:

,ite is the asic requirement of a nursery. ,ite is a place upon which one canproduce seedlings of plants. Jualities of a good site are-

$) 4earness of road

%) 4ear a haitat

&) ,uitale climate

') 4either shady nor exposed area


13/50

) ,ufficient sunlight

:) =ood irrigation facilities

/) =ood soil condition

1) =ood transport facility

Types of Nurseries:8

4urseries are categorized in different ways. "ccording to time durationnurseries are classified in two types- $) Temporary nursery %) 5ermanentnursery

97 8 Temporary nursery:

This type of nursery is developed only to fulfill the requirement of theseason or a targeted pro8ect. The nurseries for production of seedlings oftransplanted vegetales and flower crops are of temporary nature. Like wise

temporary arrangement for growing forest seedlings for planting inparticular area can also e done in temporary nursery.

27 %ermanent nursery:

This type of the nursery is placed permanently so as to produce plantscontinuously. These nurseries have all the permanent features. The

permanent nursery has permanent mother plants. The work goes oncontinuously all the year round in this nursery

. "ccording to type of plants produced nurseries are classified in to

following types-%) Vegetable nurseries:

- 0 In this nursery seedlings of cauliflower! caage! rin8al and tomato areprepared.

,anagement of nursery:8

4ursery plants require due care and attention after having either emergedfrom the seeds or have een raised from other sources like rootstock orthrough tissue culture technique. =enerally they are grown in the open fieldunder the protection of mother nature where! they should e ale to face thelocal environment. It is the duty H main o8ective of a commercial nurserygrower to supply the nursery plants with suitale conditions necessary fortheir development H growth. This is the ma8or work of management in thenursery which includes all such operations right from the emergence ofyoung plantlet till they are fully grown0up or are ready for uprooting Htransplanting in the main fields.


14/50

97 %otting the seedling: ;

efore planting of sapling in the pots! the pots should e filled up withproper potting mixture. 4ow a days different size of earthen pots or plasticcontainers are used for propagation. 2or filling of pots loamy soil! sand and

compost can e used in $-$-$ proportion. ,prouted cuttings! uls! corms orpolythene ag grown plants can e transferred in earthen pots for furthergrowth. "ll the necessary precautions are taken efore filling the pots and

planting of sapling in it.

27 ,anuring - Irrigation: ;

=enerally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not availale in the soil used forseeded. ooted cuttings! layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the

permanent location! require fertilizers. "ddition of fertilizers will give

healthy H vigorous plants with good root H shoot system. It isrecommended that each nursery ed of $3 N $3m area should e given &33gm of ammonium sulphate! 33 gm of ,ingle super phosphate and $33 gmof 9uriate of potash. Irrigation either in the nursery eds or watering the

pots is an important operation. 2or potted plants hand watering is done H foreds low pressure irrigation y hose pipe is usually given.


15/50

y heat! chemical treatment. 2or that soil is disinfected y heating to thetemperature of aout :33# for &3 minutes. v) #hemical treatment O thechemicals like formaldehyde! methyl romide! chloropicrin! vapam are used.@ther diseases like rust! powdery mildew! leaf spot! acterial light! yellowvein mosaic are also oserved. 2or control of these diseases ordeauxmixture! #arendazime! >edomil can e used. Tricoderma viridi a io0fungicide can also e tried out.

=7 >eed control: ;

Aeeds compete with plants for food! space and other essentials. ,o timelycontrol of weeds is necessary. 2or weed control weeding! use of cover crops!mulching! use of chemicals (weedicides) are practiced. 5re0emergenceweedicides like asaline or post0emergence weedicide like %P '06 and>oundup are useful.

?7 ,easures against heat and cold: ;The younger seedling is susceptile to strong sun and low temperature. 2or

protection from strong sun! shading with the help of timer framework of $meter height may e used. 4et house and green house structures can also eused.

@7 %acking of nursery plants 8

5acking is the method or way in which the young plants are tied or kepttogether till they are transplanted. ,o they have to e packed in such a waythat they do not lose their turgidity and are ale to estalish themselves onthe new site. "t the same time! good packing ensures their success ontransplanting. 2or packing askets! wooden oxes! plastic ags are used. Insome parts of the country anana leaves are also used for packing the plantswith their earth all. This is useful for local transportation.

7 'ale management 8

In general the main demand for nursery plants is during rainy season. "proper strategy should e followed for sale of nursery plants. 2or thatadvertisement in local daily newspapers! posters! hand ills! catalogue andappointment of commission agents can e followed.

B7 ,anagement of mother plants ;

#are of mother plants is necessary so as to get good quality propagules andscion. ". Laeling and records . #ertification #. Irrigation 6. 2ertilizationK. 5runing 2. 5rotection from pests and diseases #ollection and developmentof new mother plants 2ruit 4urseries


16/50

)lassification of vegetables:

Classification based on cultural practices

Though vegetales can e classified in many ways! classification ased oncultural practices has een proved to e the est adaptale in field situations.It is easy to generalize the cultivation practices ased on their culture andclimatic requirements. This means crops that require same cultivation

practices are placed in one group. The common vegetale classes as per theircultivation practices are as follow-i3 'olanaceous fruits

Kxamples include chili! tomato! rin8al! etc.. In each case seed is sown in thenursery ed to raise seedlings for transplanting.ii3 )ole crops

Kxamples include caage! cauliflower! #hinese caage! roccoli! russelssprouts! etc.. "ll are winter crops and have more or less similar culturalrequirements.iii3 oot crops

Kxamples include radish! turnip! carrot! eet! etc.. In each case the seeds aresown directly in the fields.iv3 /ulb crops

Kxamples include onion! garlic etc..v3 )ucurbits

Kxamples include cucumer! ottle gourd! pumpkin! itter gourd! melons!sponge gourd! squash! ridge gourd! etc.. ,eeds are sown directly in the field.vi3 'alad crops

Kxamples include lettuce! celery! parsley! etc..vii3 +eafy vegetables

Kxamples include pallak! spinach! fenugreek! amaranthus! etc..viii3 +egume crops

Kxamples include peas! eans! etc..i13 %erennial crops

Kxamples include asparagus! etc..

13 Tuber crops

Kxamples include potato! sweet potato! tapioca! etc..1i3 ,iscellaneous

Kxamples include okrahindi! etc..Classification based on climactic regions


17/50

ased on the aility of the plant to flower! fruit and produce seeds indifferent climatic regions of the world! the vegetale crops have eenclassified into two ma8or groups.Temperate vegetables

Temperate vegetales such as caage! cauliflower! carrots! etc.. aregenerally sown in higher altitudes in spring and summer and are grown aswinter vegetales in lower altitudes. The vegetales in this category requiretemperate or extreme winter to e ale to flower and produce seeds. Thoughthe crops can e successfully grown for vegetales oth in the tropical andtemperate regions ut they would produce seeds only in the temperateregions.'ubtropical and tropical vegetables

,utropical vegetales and tropical crops such as chili! tomato! okra! rin8alwill only grow in warm conditions and are mainly grown as spring andsummer vegetales in hotter areas.

"actors affecting on plant gro#th light and Temperature:

Introduction:

The growth and development of plants is dependent on aiotic (physical)and iotic (iological) factors. "iotic factors include the physical

environmental conditions and iotic factors include animals! insects! anddiseases.Kach plant has certain environmental requirements. To attain the highest

potential yields a crop must e grown in an environment that meets theserequirements. " crop can e grown with minimal ad8ustments if it is wellmatched with its climate or growing condition. Unfavorale environmentalconditions can produce a stress on plants resulting in lower yields. In suchcases the environment can e artificially modified! such as in greenhouses!to meet the crop requirements.Temperature:

9ost plants function in a relatively narrow range of temperatures. Theextremes of this range may e considered killing frosts at aout &%Q2 (3Q#)and death y heat and desiccation at aout $3Q2 ('3Q#).Air Temperature:

Kach kind of crop grows and develops most rapidly at a favorale range ofair temperatures. This is called the optimum air temperature range. 2or most


18/50

crops the optimum functional efficiency occurs mostly etween and /Q2($% and %'Q#). 9ost crops (and especially vegetales) can e classifiedaccording to the temperature requirements of their optimum air temperaturerange.


19/50

the exposure daily. Transpiration from the leaf stomata helps cool leaves. Ithas een calculated that transpiration can reduce heating y aout $ to%?.,ymptoms of heat in8ury are the appearance of dead areas in leaves ofhypocotyls and young leaves of many plants.


20/50


21/50

carohydrates (starches and sugar) and stored chemical energy are producedduring this iochemical process in plants.5lants capture the energy in light using a green pigment called chlorophyll." very precise numer of photons at specific wavelengths (near :13 nm) arerequired to split a water molecule ($:

#auliflower


29/50

productivity will not e rewarding unless technologies are developed for processing of

vegetales! and the estalishment of industries at the village level to generate

employment and increase incomes of the rural people. Kndeavour should e made to

initiate research to develop simple agro0ased industries that can e estalished in

farming communities. 5ost harvest technology development of value0added products

needs considerale improvement. There is a demand for oth fresh and processed

vegetales especially in the 9iddle Kast and Kuropean markets.

%$'T AND DI'$A'$ ,ANA0$,$NT:

I7 Insect of vegetables and their disease management:

,everal diseases and insect pests seriously affect vegetale production. #ole crops likecaage and cauliflower are attacked y diamondack moth! caage utterfly! caagesemi0looper and aphids. "phids are the main pests on root vegetales. Thrips areimportant in onion. 2ruit and shoot orer is a widely distriuted pest mainly on eggplant

(rin8al) and is a very serious one. >ed pumpkin eetle is a common pest of cucurits.9elon fruit fly is active throughout the year in various parts of the country. ,potted ollworm and 8assids are serious pests of okra. Tomato fruit orer is quite serious throughoutthe country. >oot knot nematodes seriously affect most vegetales! particularly in lightsoils! and cause considerale damage. Insecticides dominate in the strategy of vegetalepest management in 5akistan.


30/50

aout pest and disease management and utterflies,oths and butterflies:

These are grouped together in the order Lepidoptera! whichmeans Cscaly wingsD. The main difference etween moths and utterflies is that moths donot fly during the day unless distured. utterflies also have clued antennae and the

hait of holding their wings vertically when at rest! whereas moths sit with their wingsflat.)ut#orm caterpillars- (several species)They eat into a plantDs stem! sometimes making theplant fall over. They have a very wide host range and can damage almost all vegetalecropsP young seedlings are especially vulnerale. The caterpillars are rown orlack!herring0oned! hairless! and aout '3 mm long. They can e found in the soilsurrounding the plant and curl up nose to tail when distured. The caterpillar pupatesinthe soil and emerges as a medium0sized! grey0odied moth with dark wings. #utwormmay e active throughout most of the year ut itDs the autumn! and more especially thespring generations! that do the most damage.

)abbage #hite butterfly:(Pieris rapae)These also chews holes in leaves. The mature caterpillar has a pale yellow line on its ackand a line of yellow spots on each side. It normally sits on the upper surfaces of leaves inroad daylight. 5lants attacked include caage! roccoli! russels sprouts! #hinesecaage! celery! eetroot! rocket andwatercress. The adult female moth is distinctive! with white wings and a lack spot oneach forewing.)luster caterpillar(Spodoptera littura) chews holes in leaves. @ldercaterpillars also attack flowers and pods. Boung caterpillars are smoothskinned with apattern of red! yellow! and green lines. Ahen distured! the caterpillar curls into a tightspiral with the head protected in the centre. They attack a range of crops includinglettuce! leek and tomatoes.@ther moths attack vegetale crops including armyworm (various species)! andpotatomoth (Phthorimaea operculella).5K,T "46 6I,K",K 9"4"=K9K4T

)ontroled:

There is a range of iological control options for caterpillars in "ustralia. 4aturallyoccurring eneficials include insect predators such as assassin ugs! tachinid flies! paperwasps! lacewings and ladyirds. 5arasites include Trichogramma wasps which parasitisemoth eggs and other wasps such as "panteles and #otesia spp. which parasitise thecaterpillar. Trichogramma is availale commercially for release against


31/50


32/50

occurred the year "eore% and remove and destroy all diseased plant de"ris in the !arden

ater harvest.,pplications o chlorothalonil or manco+e" eectively control this disease.

There is no $aitin! period ater application until harvest or ordeau* mi*ture orchlorothalonil% "ut there is a 5#day $aitin! period or manco+e".e!in applyin! $hen

plants are 8 to 60 inches tall% and continue at 7#day intervals throu!h the !ro$in!

season. ,pplications o these un!icides also control some o the other lea% stem% andruit diseases o tomatoes.

!lossom %nd ot - Tomato:

lossom#-nd ot o Tomatoes9lossom#end rot occurs on the tomato ruit. :t may also

"e a pro"lem on peppers% s3uash% and $atermelons. :t is more common on ruit that is

one#third to one#hal !ro$n and occurs on the "lossom end o the ruit. :t "e!ins as a

small% $ater#soa&ed spot that develops into a dar& "ro$n% leathery spot that may involvehal the ruit. The surace o the spot shrin&s and "ecomes lat or sun&en. rot is caused "y

a lac& o calcium in the developin! ruit. The upta&e o calcium rom the soil "y the

tomato plant can "e reduced "y luctuations in soil moisture9either e*cessively $et soilor e*cessively dry soil. The disease commonly occurs $hen plants are !ro$n rapidly and

lu*uriantly early in the season and are then su"ected to prolon!ed dry $eather. ecause

o dryin! conditions% the disease may "e more serious on the $ind$ard side o a !ardenand on sta&ed tomatoes than on unsta&ed or "ushy plants. Prevent "lossom#end rot "y

maintainin! a soil p; around .5% irri!atin! and mulchin! to maintain uniorm soil

moisture% and avoidin! heavy applications o nitro!en. 'ontrol "lossom#end rot "y

sprayin! $ith 4 ta"lespoons o = percent calcium chloride per !allon o $ater at 7# to60#day intervals or 4 applications. e!in sprayin! $ith irst appearance o symptoms.

verdosin! plants $ith calcium chloride may result in lea "urn. 'alcium chloride is

su!!ested only or tomatoes.

"potted &ilt:

Spotted >ilt o Tomatoes and Peppers9This viral disease is transmitted "y severalspecies o thrips and may &ill plants or drastically reduce ruit#set. 2ruits rom diseased

plants are !enerally small and distorted. Tomatoes develop irre!ular yello$ish

"lotches.:nitial symptoms appear as thic&enin! o veins on youn!er olia!e. ?oun!erolia!e !enerally e*hi"its a pronounced do$n$ard curlin!. :nternodes "ecome

shortened% and immature ruit does not ripen. Dar& purple strea&s can occur on leaves%

stems% and ruits. ther symptoms are "li!htin! and "lac&enin! o youn! shoots. n

individual lealets% small% dar&% circular dead spots may appear. adly spotted leaves mayturn dar& and $ither.

"outhern "tem !light:

Southern li!ht9Southern "li!ht aects most !arden ve!eta"les. The un!us that causessouthern "li!ht attac&s plant parts (roots% stems% leaves% or ruit) that are in contact $ith

or ust under the soil surace.The irst visi"le symptoms are usually an advancin!yello$in! and $iltin! o the olia!e% "e!innin! $ith the lo$er leaves. Durin! $arm%

moist $eather% a $hite un!us !ro$th may appear on the lo$er stem near the soil surace

and on or!anic de"ris in the soil. Later% li!ht tan to dar& "ro$n mustard seed#li&e "odies

called sclerotia develop in the mold. ,s the disease advances% several plants ne*t to oneanother in the ro$ die.Southern "li!ht is diicult to control% "ut you can reduce losses


33/50


34/50

#aage-


35/50

+egetales The est food preservation methods for fresh vegetales depends on theirdegree of ripeness. To preserve the est quality vegetales! it helps to understand thedifference etween maturity and ripeness. 9aturity means the produce will ripen andecome ready to eat after you pick it. >ipeness occurs when the color! flavor! and textureis fully developed. @nce it is fully ripe! fresh produce egins the inevitale and declining

spoilage process. ipe produce is est for fresh eating! drying! and freezing.

@verripe produce is suitale for cooking and freezingP cook vegetales into soup or stew.9oldy or decaying produce elongs in the composter or worm inZTo prepare freshvegetales for preserving! always wash in plenty of running water! remove non0edileparts such as stems and seeds! peel or trim as desired! and cut into slices or cues. efrigerator pickles are the simplest way you can preserve fresh vegetales and extend

their shelf life for a few days. Think of them as a type of salad! or simply crunchy!mouthwatering fast food. These easy refrigerator pickle recipes use almost any vegetale.

,alting is an easy and old0fashioned method for preserving vegetales such as saltedcauliflower. ,alting was promoted in the early twentieth century as an alternative tocanning. 9any people familiar with the technique consider salted vegetales to e farsuperior in taste and texture than canned or frozen ones. Bou must store salted vegetalesin a refrigerator (W'32) or cold cellar where temperatures never go aove 32. eforeusing salted vegetales! you usually remove excess salt y soaking in cold water for % to1 hours. Bou can prepare and serve salted vegetales in the same ways you would as ifthey were fresh! cold in salads! simmered in soups! or prepared as a hot vegetale sidedish.

"ermenting #ith salt:

uses low salt concentration (%[? to ? weight of the salt per weight of the food)! topromote fermentation. ,auerkraut and kimchi are perhaps the most well0knownexamples. ut the technique can e applied to almost any vegetale. This recipe for sourturnips is well known in eastern Kurope as kisla repa or sauer ruen.

Drying vegetables:

is easy to do in your conventional gas or electric oven. Klectric food dehydratorappliances offer more control than your oven. Bou can purchase a asic model for as littleas M3. @ne of the est ways to use dried vegetales is this versatile recipe for ean and

pasta soup."reeCing vegetables-

for long term storage requires adequate packaging and a dedicated freezer appliance(known as a deep freeze) to chill foods to at least 32. True freezing is not possile in thefreezer compartment of your refrigerator where the temperature typically hovers near&%2. Treat your refrigerator0freezer like a checking account. Use it for short termfreezing of food that you plan to use within one month. To use freezing as an effective


36/50

food preservation method! routinely clean out your freezer y consuming the food.

)anning:

#anning requires a modest investment in equipment and skills that are easy to learn andpractice. The fundamental tasks include choosing the right canning method! takingprecautions to prevent otulism poisoning! and preparing and processing canned foodscorrectly. There are two canning methods- oiling waterath (A) canning and steam0pressure canning. Ahich method you use depends on whether the food you plan to can ishigh acid or low acid.


37/50

\root cellar] is the refrigerator.


38/50

stored food should e used up."n extra energy0efficient refrigerator! while requiring theuse of electricity! can also provide a method for long0term storage of locally grownseasonal fruits and vegetales. >egardless of the type of food storage method used! esure to monitor the storage environment using a thermometer! as well as a hygrometerthat measures relative humidity. #heck the produce at least once a month for possile

signs of wilting or decay. "t least once a year! thoroughly clean and sanitize any type ofroot cellar or food storage area. 5roper temperature and humidity! and annual cleaning arecrucial to reliale long0term storage! and regular monitoring will help you maintain thequality of your food for an entire season of delicious eating.

Types of produce for #inter food storage:

The tradition of cellaring takes advantage of cold weather! which provides a naturalwinter food storage environment. In more temperate locations! storage areas need to egiven more thought. Kither way! the storage methods you use must provide a controlledenvironment for the types of foods you wish to keep. If you are new to cellaring! you mayfind that caages! onions! potatoes! and root crops are the easiest types of produce tomaster. If you grow your own vegetales! plant seed varieties recommended for long0

term storage. ipeness occurs when the color! flavor! and texture is fully developed. >ipe produce is

est for cellaring or cold food storage methods! as well as for fresh eating! drying! orfreezing.

9ost produce is est stored in mesh ags! askets! or other containers that allow forplenty of air circulation. 5lace mature produce gently in clean containers without sharpedges. 4ote that some produce! such as potatoes and onions have very different storagerequirements. 5otatoes and onions! along with most types of fruits! donDt make goodneighors in a food storage cellar.


39/50


40/50

whole. ,team0lanch firm0skinned fruits and erries. 5retreat light0colored fruits forrowning. ,pread on towel lined trays to remove excess moisture.5reheat an oven or fooddehydrator to $&32 to $'32. 5lace fruit on drying trays. 6ry until shriveled andleathery! or rittle for longer storage.#ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emovefrom drying trays. ,tore in an airtight container in a cool! dry place. 6ried #hopped

+egetales using a dehydratorBield- $_1 to $_& pound dried per pound of fresh

% l. (aout % dry pt.) fresh vegetales (such as carrots! peas! roccoli! or corn kernels)

>ash vegetables:

5eel and trim as needed. #ut in serving0size pieces and lanch. ,pread on towel0linedtrays to remove excess moisture.5reheat an oven or food dehydrator to $&32 to $'32.5lace vegetales on drying trays. 6ry until vegetales are shriveled and leathery! orrittle for longer storage.

#ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emove from drying trays. ,tore in an airtightcontainer in a cool! dry place.

@ven06ried Tomatoes Bield- $ to %3 ounces

$ to %3 (aout l.) medium fresh ripe tomatoes! preferaly no larger than & inches indiameter #ore! and halve or quarter small tomatoes up to & inches in diameterP slice largetomatoes $_1 to &_1 inch thick.

5reheat oven to the lowest temperature setting. 9aintain an oven temperature etween$%2 and $'2. #heck the oven temperature with an accurate thermometer. 6ecreasethe temperature y propping open the oven door with a wooden spoon or folded towel.

9aximize air circulation to speed drying. 5lace a fan on a chair near the propped0open

oven door so that it lows away the hot! escaping air. @pen neary doors and windows topromote more airflow.

#ontinue to dry until tomatoes have flattened completely! shrunk greatly in size!deepened in color to a dark red! and are no longer plump or sticky. 6ry until pliale! orcrisp and rittle for longer storage.

#ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emove from drying trays. ,tore in an airtightcontainer in a cool! dry place.

2or more information aout food preservation methods and recipes! see the ook The


41/50

canning equipment in working condition! and asic supplies such as pickling salt!vinegar! sugar! and spices.

>elish has many delicious uses. esides a topping for urgers or hot dogs! you cancomine relish with yogurt to use as a dip for crackers or vegetales! lend it withvinegar and oil for a flavorful salad dressing! add it to mayonnaise and use as a sandwich

spread! serve it with grilled or roasted meats and seafood! or perk up vegetarian meal ofgrains and legumes. This spicy red tomato and pepper relish pairs well with urgers andother red meats. The green pickle relish adds zest to potato! egg! and tuna salad! andmakes a quick tartar sauce when stirred into mayonnaise! along with fresh hers likeparsley or chives.

,arketing of Vegetables:

9arketing is one of the most important factors in determining the success of any fruit andvegetale farming enterprise. 9arketing includes all the operations and decisions madey producers. These decisions range from deter0mining the most marketale crops forproduction to deciding how to est deliver quality produce to the consumers at a profit.


42/50

Terminal markets are assemly and distriution centers located in large metropolitanareas. 5roducers truck their commodities in large amounts to terminal markets whereuyers purchase and then redistriute the goods to local markets. Terminal markets inTexas are located in 6allas and


43/50

chain stores. 2or successful marketing! produce! grading! packing and cooling arerequired y most uyers. 5acking facilities provide these services for growers and alsomay harvest! manage field operations! supply inputs! deliver to uyers and leaseproduction equipment.

Advantages to dealing #ith shipping point firms:

=rowers have the aility to market large volumes through pooling! and do not have toestalish a terminal market sales program of its own.,hipping point uyers may provideguidance on grades! container sizes! etc.5roduce may e sold to sources not otherwiseavailale to producers.

Disadvantages to dealing #ith shipping point firms:

5rices received depend on the facility since the firm has limited information on marketprices and conditions.The firm does not develop terminal market outlets of its own.Theargaining position of the firm is weak! especially if there are a limited numer ofshipping point firms in the area.

/rokers:

rokers are individuals or firms who neither take title nor possession of produce! utserve as agents to negotiate sales contracts etween uyers and sellers. ,ome sellers relyon rokers entirely while others use roker services in a supplemental fashion with theirown sales and procurement staff. rokers try to locate the est quality produce at fairprices for oth uyers and sellers! and they inform uyers and sellers of terms! conditionsand special agreements of proposed contracts. rokers may also handle invoicing!collections and remittance! ut rokers are not responsile for payment if uyers fail tohonor a contract.

There are t#o types of brokers:

involved in the exchange of fruits and vegetales! uyers and sellers. uying rokers areindividuals or firms that arrange sales etween terminal markets and local retailers.,elling rokers arrange sales etween local growers and terminal market uyers. Aithmodern forms of communication! uying and selling rokers may e located in shippingpoint or terminal wholesale markets.

,ome considerations important to rokers in grower clients are the aility to supplyproduce over a long season! consistently high quality! large volumes from one source andexperience in growing produce. rokers generally investigate growersD reputations to seeif they have the needed production experience to meet the terminal market uyersDrequirements. "lthough rokers handle the sale of produce! producers retainresponsiility for most of the marketing functions. 5roducers are still responsile for the

production! handling! assemling! grading and packing activities.Advantages to selling through a broker:

=rowers otain the services of a professional produce salesman and have access to alarge numer of uyers.rokers provide needed price information.5roducers are notresponsile for the selling function which reduces personnel overhead for selling.

Disadvantages to selling through a broker:

5roducts must e homogeneous and ale to e graded! ut grades may not represent


44/50

sellerDs quality. 5roducerDs volume may e inadequate! and cost of rokerage sales is highif large volumes are handled. 5roducers remain responsile for product delivery andquality.

%rocessors:

@ther non0direct marketing options for producers are fruit and vegetale processingplants. These plants have the capacity to process large quantities of produce. 5rocessorscompete on a national level y reducing per unit production costs or y locating producethat can increase the receiving or distriution efficiency. 5roducers usually contract toprovide processing plants with a certain amount of quality produce over a certain periodof time.


45/50

etail Outlets:

9any opportunities exist for small acreage producers who are willing to deliver freshpro0duce to retail outlets. Aith the growing popularity of salad ars and the need fordependale high quality produce! some restaurants purchase locally grown fresh fruitsand vegetales. =rocery stores are also potential contacts for fresh produce sales. @ther

potential markets include institutions such as schools! hospitals! prisons and hotels.,elling to these markets requires a truck to transport the merchandiseP time to deliver toeach location (as several will e needed to make delivery cost efficient)P and the aility todeal with several uyers on an individual asis. uyers and sellers usually negotiateprices and delivery times. These outlets require frequent low volume deliveries of avariety of produce. Institutional markets may purchase lower quality grades and notrequire specific containers.

5roducers need to make contact with potential uyers in the winter months efore thegrowing season in order to identify packing! quality! container! variety requirements andto ecome acquainted with uyers. #ontact should again e made with the uyers prior toharvest in order to deliver samples and place orders. =rowers should deliver the amounts

and qualities contracted on time. "t the end of the season! producers should ask uyerswhat changes would improve the operation. #onsulting with uyers allows them toinfluence the operation! and makes them more likely to purchase produce next season.

Advantages of dealing #ith retail outlets:

=rowers may e paid at time of delivery. =rowers can argain for price levels.5ackingcosts may decrease and special containers may not e necessary.5roducers replacemiddlemen in the marketing process.

Disadvantages of dealing #ith retail outlets:

,uperior quality produce may e demanded. 5roducers need time and extra planning to

develop client contracts and deliver produce. There is the possiility of hightransportation costs per unit volume.

Direct ,arket Alternatives:

>egardless of its occurrence through pick0your0own operations! roadside stands! orfarmersD markets! direct marketing is an approach which is usually eneficial to othproducers and consumers. Ahen producers choose to use a direct market! they want tocapture the retail dollar that consumers pay at other markets. If growers expect to receiveprices similar to those at retail outlets! they must provide the same value of services asother retailers and wholesalers. >etail store produce price consumers pay generallycovers the cost of producing! grading! packing transporting! wholesaling and retailing. Inorder to receive higher net returns! producers try to provide all the marketing services at alower cost! provide services which are not availale through other markets and eliminatecertain unnecessary services. #onsumers! on the other hand! purchase from direct marketsto uy high quality fresh produce directly from producers at competitive prices. esidesproviding a financial exchange arena for oth producers and consumers of fresh produce!direct markets also provide social settings for these individuals. 5roducers have theopportunity to discuss production practices! display ideas! usage of different types ofproduce and to socialize with friends! neighors! and consumers. #onsumers have theopportunity to visit a local farm and talk with others who share similar interests.


46/50

"lthough direct marketing seems to provide an opportunity for producers to receivehigher net returns! producers should consider the amount of additional time and effort! therequired production knowledge and the needed retail sales experience associated withdirect markets. 5roducers should e aware that direct markets may require them to worklong hours! do a variety of work and deal with various types of people in a pleasant

manner. 9uch of the time required to operate a direct market is spent with customers.5roducers should talk with customers to promote positive attitudes and goodwill for themarket which will hopefully result in repeat sales. The sales time required to operate adirect market may take away from production activities. 9any times! other familymemers are in charge of the retailing portion of the direct marketing operation! so thegrower can manage the production activities of the operation.

%ick;6our;O#n Operations:

5ick0your0own operations (5B@) are a type of direct marketing outlet where consumerscome to the farm and harvest fruits and vegetales themselves. 5B@ operations are

feasile for crops that mature at one time or those which maturity is easily identified.5B@ is often preferred y consumers who like to select fresher! higher quality produce atlower prices. "lso! many consumers en8oy picking produce themselves as a recreationalevent or family outing. 5B@ markets can serve as an additional selling method forproducers who use other direct and non0direct marketing alternatives.


47/50

2ield layout is also important to the 5B@ operator. 2ield planting should e coordinated!so that the earliest maturing crops are nearest the weigh in station to minimize damage toimmature crops. 2ruits and vegetales that require the most supervision should e locatednear the checkout area. The timing of spray applications is also an important issue for5B@ operations! since customers may wander to an area of an operation that has een

recently sprayed or planted. "lso! chemical application for some crops may drift on cropsto e harvested that are within the vicinity and cause potential health prolems.

uality:


48/50

)ontainers:


49/50

The facilities used to house a roadside stand do not need to e elaorate! ut should serveoperational needs. Kssential facilities for the market are a sales area! adequate parkingand roadway access. The facilities should provide protection for produce! employees andcustomers. ,ome optional facilities are a cool storage area! restrooms! playground and apicnic area.

uildings used for a market may e new or converted. The uildings or stands must eneat! attractive and large enough for adequate displays with plenty of room for walking!and! should always e in good repair and freshly painted with conservative colors. Thefloor can e of wood! concrete! clean shavings or sawdust. The roof should e sufficientlyhigh to avoid radiation. The main purpose of the uilding is to protect the produce andcustomers from the weather. Ahen uilding a structure! producers should consider theexpected sales levels! the length of the season and types of produce to e sold. 2rom thesefactors! growers can determine the size of the uilding! the appropriate uilding designand needed construction materials.

"fter evaluating their market expectations! growers may find that no permanent roadsidestand structure is needed. If the grower has one or two items to sell! a temporary stand or

a simple pole shed might e quite adequate. >egardless of the structure used! it isimportant to keep the rural image with a colorful creative stand.

The amount of equipment needed also varies with the type of stand. The only necessarypieces of equipment for a roadside stand are a money ox or a cash register and a producedisplay. @ther types of equipment that might e included are scales! an ice machine! acold storage unit! and accent lighting fixtures. ,ome specialized equipment might eneeded! depending on the market type and services offered.

'ource of %roduce:

The source of produce depends on the type of market. =rowers may specialize in oneproduct or sell a variety of goods. The produce may e entirely grown y the roadsidemarketer! purchased from other area growers or purchased from wholesalers. ,omemarkets sell one superior quality product during the harvest season.


50/50

They wish to take advantage of lower prices.

They prefer fresher! higher quality produce.

2armersD markets offer a wide variety of produce to choose from.

5roduce is availale in large quantities for canning and preserving purposes.

They en8oy the market atmosphere and conversing with produce growers.

They like to support local agriculture.

'ummary:

#areful evaluation of potential uyer needs efore making production decisions can aidvegetale producers in choosing non0direct marketing methods that may enefit theirmarketing plans and overall operation. 5roducers need to know quality! quantity!packaging and delivery requirements. 5roducersD ailities and limitations also areimportant. 2or example! more time is required to deliver to several stores than to sell toone wholesaler. "lso! producersD volumes and qualities may dictate what non0directmarketing options to choose and should e considered carefully when making marketing

decisions.

Vegetable "orcing and Vegetable for %rocessing:

Vegetable "orcing:

It is the method of growing of vegetales out of their normal in sellers! heated uildings!greenhouses! cold farms and under other artificial growing conditions. It is the mostintensive type of vegetale growing. +egetale produced through these! give a very highreturn! vegetale forcing is not possile ecause the consumers cannot afford the pricesof such vegetales. "ccording to #houdhury ($;;/) growing of the summervegetales.on the river eds during the winter months with the help of organic manure!with reaks of dry grass is also type of forcing. ,ome times for early product seedlings of

crops like tomato or rin8al are forced to germinate in small protected structures. Thismay also e a type of vegetale forcing.

Vegetable for %rocessing:

Low cost with high quality and convenience in storage and use! have given rise to

vegetale processing in India. ut this industry is still not well0developed 5eople also in

general! have not yet developed liking for the canned and processed vegetales in India.

,till we need vegetales of good quality for canning! dehydration and freezing in our

existing factories. 5ickling and fermentation also require vegetales. 2or these also we

must grow good vegetales. +egetales for processing are generally grown around

vegetales processing factories! for the regular supply of vegetales to the factories

vegetables production tecnolgy by akash tahir

Documents