Venezuela

For other uses, see Venezuela (disambiguation).“Venezuelan” redirects here. For other uses, seeVenezuelan (disambiguation).

Venezuela ( i/ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/ VEN-ə-ZWAYL-ə; Span-ish: [beneˈswela]), officially called the Bolivarian Re-public of Venezuela[1] (Spanish: República Bolivaria-na de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coastof South America. Venezuela’s territory covers around916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) with an estimated popula-tion around 33,221,865. Venezuela is considered a statewith extremely high biodiversity, with habitats rangingfrom the Andes Mountains in the west to the AmazonBasin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plainsand Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco RiverDelta in the east.The territory currently known as Venezuela was colonizedby Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peo-ples. In 1811, it became one of the first Spanish-American colonies to declare independence, which wasnot securely established until 1821, when Venezuela wasa department of the federal republic of Gran Colombia.It gained full independence as a separate country in 1830.During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political tur-moil and autocracy, remaining dominated by regionalcaudillos (military strongmen) until the mid-20th cen-tury. Since 1958, the country has had a series of demo-cratic governments. Economic shocks in the 1980s and1990s led to several political crises, including the deadlyCaracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992,and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérezfor embezzlement of public funds in 1993. A collapse inconfidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 electionof former coup-involved career officer Hugo Chávez andthe launch of the Bolivarian Revolution, beginning witha 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitutionof Venezuela.Venezuela is a federal presidential republic consisting of23 states, the Capital District (covering Caracas), andfederal dependencies (covering Venezuela’s offshore is-lands). Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territorywest of the Essequibo River, a 159,500-square-kilometre(61,583 sq mi) tract dubbed Guayana Esequiba or theZona en Reclamación (the “zone being reclaimed”).[6]Venezuela is among themost urbanized countries in LatinAmerica;[7][8] the vast majority of Venezuelans live inthe cities of the north, especially in the capital, Caracas,which is also the largest city in Venezuela.

Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century,Venezuela has the world’s largest oil reserves and has beenone of the world’s leading exporters of oil. Previouslyan underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commoditiessuch as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominateexports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut ledto an external debt crisis and a long-running economiccrisis, in which inflation peaked at 100% in 1996 andpoverty rates rose to 66% in 1995[9] as (by 1998) percapita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a thirdfrom its 1978 peak.[10]

The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gaveVenezuela oil fund not seen since the 1980s.[11] TheVenezuelan government then initiated populist policieswhich initially boosted the Venezuelan economy andfacilitated social spending which significantly reducedeconomic inequality and poverty.[11][12][13][14] Such pop-ulist policies were questioned since their initiation andthe over dependence on oil funds led to overspend-ing on social programs while strict government po-lices created difficulties for Venezuela’s import reliantbusinesses.[11][15][16] Venezuela under Hugo Chávez thensuffered “one of the worst cases of Dutch Disease in theworld” due to the Bolivarian government’s large depen-dence on oil sales.[17][18] Poverty and inflation began toincrease into the 2010s.[19]Venezuela devalued its cur-rency in February 2013 due to the rising shortages in thecountry[20] with shortages in Venezuela including milk,flour, and other necessities and malnutrition then increas-ing, especially among children.[21][22] In 2014, Venezuelaentered an economic recession.[23] In 2015, Venezuelahad the world’s highest inflation rate with the rate sur-passing 100%, becoming the highest in the country’shistory.[24] Economic problems, as well as crime and cor-ruption, were some of the main causes of the 2014–15Venezuelan protests.[25][26]

1 Etymology

In 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited theVenezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of LakeMaracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci,of the city of Venice, so he named the region "Venezi-ola".[27] The name acquired its current spelling as a re-sult of Spanish influence,[27] where the suffix -uela isused as a diminutive term (e.g., plaza / plazuela, cazo /cazuela); thus, the term’s original sense would have beenthat of a “little Venice”.[28] TheGerman term for the area,

1

2 2 HISTORY

"Klein-Venedig", also means little Venice (literally “smallVenice”).Although the Vespucci story remains the most popularand accepted version of the origin of the country’s name,a different reason for the name comes up in the ac-count of Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of theVespucci and Ojeda crew. In his work Summa de ge-ografía, he states that they found an indigenous popula-tion who called themselves the "Veneciuela", which sug-gests that the name “Venezuela” may have evolved fromthe native word.[29]

2 History

Main article: History of Venezuela

Evidence exists of human habitation in the area nowknown as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago; leaf-shaped tools from this period, together with chopping andplanoconvex scraping implements, have been found ex-posed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal inwestern Venezuela.[30] Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts,including spear tips, have been found at a similar seriesof sites in northwestern Venezuela known as “El Jobo";according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000to 7,000 BC.[31]

It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela be-fore the Spanish conquest; it may have been around onemillion,[32] and in addition to today’s indigenous peo-ples, the population included groups such as the Kalina(Caribs), Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, and Timoto-cuicas.The number was reduced after the conquest, mainlythrough the spread of new diseases from Europe.[32] Twomain north-south axes of pre-Columbian population werepresent, producing maize in the west and manioc in theeast.[32] Large parts of the llanos were cultivated througha combination of slash and burn and permanent settledagriculture.[32]

2.1 Colonization

Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas andColonial VenezuelaIn 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas,Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta andthen landed in the Gulf of Paria.[33] Amazed by the greatoffshore current of freshwater which deflected his courseeastward, Columbus expressed in his moving letter to Is-abella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heavenon Earth (terrestrial paradise):

Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Par-adise, for the site conforms to the opinion ofthe holy and wise theologians whom I havementioned. And likewise, the [other] signs

The Welser Armada exploring Venezuela

conform very well, for I have never read orheard of such a large quantity of fresh waterbeing inside and in such close proximity to saltwater; the very mild temperateness also cor-roborates this; and if the water of which I speakdoes not proceed from Paradise then it is aneven greater marvel, because I do not believesuch a large and deep river has ever been knownto exist in this world.[34]

His certainty of having attained Paradise made him namethis region 'Land of Grace', a phrase that has become thecountry’s nickname.Spain’s colonization of mainland Venezuela started in1522, establishing its first permanent South Americansettlement in the present-day city of Cumaná. In the 16thcentury, Venezuela was contracted as a concession bythe King of Spain to the German Welser banking family(Klein-Venedig, 1528–1546). Native caciques (leaders)such as Guaicaipuro (circa 1530–1568) and Tamanaco(died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, butthe newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco wasput to death by order of Caracas’ founder, Diego deLosada.[35]

In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization,indigenous peoples, such as many of the Mariches, them-selves descendants of the Kalina, converted to RomanCatholicism. Some of the resisting tribes or leadersare commemorated in place names, including Caracas,Chacao, and Los Teques. The early colonial settlementsfocused on the northern coast,[32] but in themid-18th cen-tury, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the OrinocoRiver. Here, the Ye'kuana (then known as theMakiritare)organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776.[36]

Spain’s eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorpo-rated into New Andalusia Province. Administered bythe Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early16th century, most of Venezuela became part of theViceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century,and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy

2.2 Independence 3

General starting in 1776. The town of Caracas, foundedin the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed tobecome a key location, being near the coastal port of LaGuaira whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountainrange, providing defensive strength against pirates and amore fertile and healthy climate.[37]

2.2 Independence

Main article: Venezuelan War of IndependenceAfter a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, un-

The signing of Venezuela’s independence, by Martín Tovar y To-var

The Battle of Carabobo, during the Venezuelan War of Indepen-dence

der the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezue-lan marshal who had fought in the American Revolu-tion and the French Revolution, declared independenceon 5 July 1811.[38] This began the Venezuelan War ofIndependence. However, a devastating earthquake thatstruck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion ofthe Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the firstVenezuelan republic.[39] A second Venezuelan republic,proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months be-fore being crushed, as well.[40]

Sovereignty was only attained after Simón Bolívar, aidedby José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won

the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821.[41] On 24 July1823, José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta helpedseal Venezuelan independence with their victory in theBattle of Lake Maracaibo.[42] New Granada’s congressgave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it,he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colom-bia.[41]

Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to lib-erate Ecuador and later become the second president ofBolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia un-til 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the procla-mation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez becamethe first president of the new republic.[43] Between one-quarter and one-third of Venezuela’s population was lostduring these two decades of warfare (including perhapsone-half of the white population),[44] which by 1830 wasestimated at about 800,000.[45]

José Gregorio Monagas abolished slavery in 1854.

The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue, andred: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for thesea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red forthe blood shed by the heroes of independence.[46]

Slavery in Venezuela was abolished in 1854.[45] Muchof Venezuela’s 19th-century history was characterized bypolitical turmoil and dictatorial rule,[47] including the In-dependence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained thepresidency three times and served a total of 11 years be-tween 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the FederalWar (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thou-sands died, in a country with a population of not muchmore than a million people. In the latter half of the cen-tury, Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another caudillo, serveda total of 13 years between 1870 and 1887, with threeother presidents interspersed.In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britainabout the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britainclaimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw asVenezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisisof 1895. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis whenVenezuela’s lobbyist William L. Scruggs sought to arguethat British behavior over the issue violated the UnitedStates’ Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence

4 2 HISTORY

José Antonio Páez

in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, USPresident Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpreta-tion of the doctrine that did not just simply forbid newEuropean colonies, but declared an American interest inany matter within the hemisphere.[48] Britain ultimatelyaccepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its termswas able to persuade the US on many of the details. Atribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue,and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory toBritish Guiana.[49]

File:Gómez, 1928.jpg

Juan Vicente Gómez ruled Venezuela for 27 years (1908–1935).In 1899, Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vi-cente Gómez, seized power in Caracas, marching an armyfrom his base in the Andean state of Táchira. Castrodefaulted on Venezuela’s considerable foreign debts, anddeclined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up inVenezuela’s civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Cri-sis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany, and Italyimposed a naval blockade of several months, before in-ternational arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Ar-bitration in The Hague was agreed. In 1908, another dis-pute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolvedwhen Castro left for medical treatment in Germany andwas promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez.

2.3 20th century

The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaiboduring World War I proved to be pivotal for Venezuela,and transformed the basis of its economy from a heavydependence on agricultural exports. It prompted aneconomic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935,Venezuela’s per capita gross domestic product was LatinAmerica’s highest.[50] Gómez benefited handsomely fromthis, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the newsource of income helped him centralize the Venezuelanstate and develop its authority.He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela un-til his death in 1935, although at times he ceded thepresidency to others. The gomecista dictatorship sys-tem largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, butfrom 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed,with the latter granting a range of reforms, including thelegalization of all political parties. After World War II,immigration from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain,Italy, Portugal, and France) and poorer Latin Americancountries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina An-garita and ushered in a three-year period of democraticrule under the mass membership Democratic Action, ini-tially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegoswon the Venezuelan presidential election, 1947 (gener-ally believed to be the first free and fair elections inVenezuela). Gallegos governed until overthrown by amilitary junta led by Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Galle-gos’ Defense Minister Carlos Delgado Chalbaud in the1948 Venezuelan coup d'état.Pérez Jiménez was the most powerful man in the junta(though Chalbaud was its titular president), and was sus-pected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud,who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When thejunta unexpectedly lost the election it held in 1952, it ig-

2.4 Bolivarian Revolution 5

nored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as Pres-ident, where he remained until 1958.

Rómulo Betancourt (President 1945-1948/1959-1964), one ofthe major democracy activists of Venezuela

The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23January 1958.[51] In an effort to consolidate the youngdemocracy, the major political parties (with the notableexception of the Communist Party of Venezuela) signedthe Punto Fijo Pact. Democratic Action and COPEIwould dominate the political landscape for four decades.In the 1960s, substantial guerilla movements occurred,including the Armed Forces of National Liberation andthe Revolutionary Left Movement, which had split fromDemocratic Action in 1960. Most of these move-ments lay down their arms under Rafael Caldera's presi-dency (1969–74); Caldera had won the 1968 election forCOPEI, being the first time a party other thanDemocraticAction took the presidency through a democratic election.The election of Carlos Andrés Pérez in 1973 coincidedwith the 1973 oil crisis, in which Venezuela’s income ex-ploded as oil prices soared; oil industries were nation-alized in 1976. This led to massive increases in publicspending, but also increases in external debts, which con-tinued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices dur-ing the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As thegovernment started to devalue the currency in February1983 to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans’ realstandards of living fell dramatically. A number of failedeconomic policies and increasing corruption in govern-ment led to rising poverty and crime, worsening socialindicators, and increased political instability.[52]

Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a po-litical crisis in which hundreds died in the Caracazo ri-ots of 1989, two attempted coups d'état in 1992,[53] andthe impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) for corruption in 1993. Coup leaderHugo Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by presidentRafael Caldera, with a clean slate and his political rights

reinstated.

2.4 Bolivarian Revolution

Main articles: Bolivarian Revolution and Presidency ofHugo ChávezA collapse in confidence in the existing parties led

Hugo Chávez, president from 1999 until his death in 2013.

to Chávez being elected president in 1998, and thesubsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", be-ginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write anew Constitution of Venezuela. Chávez also initiatedBolivarian missions, programs aimed at helping the poor.In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power inthe 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following pop-ular demonstrations by his opponents,[54] but he was re-turned to power after two days as a result of demonstra-tions by poor Chávez supporters in Caracas and actionsby the military.[55][56]

Chávez also remained in power after an all-out na-tional strike that lasted from December 2002 to February2003, including a strike/lockout in the state oil companyPDVSA. The strike produced severe economic disloca-tion, with the country’s GDP falling 27% during the firstfour months of 2003, and costing the oil industry $13.3billion.[57] Capital flight before and during the strike ledto the reimposition of currency controls (which had beenabolished in 1989), managed by the CADIVI agency. Inthe subsequent decade, the government was forced intoseveral currency devaluations.[58][59][60][61][62] These de-valuations have done little to improve the situation of theVenezuelan people who rely on imported products or lo-cally produced products that depend on imported inputswhile dollar-denominated oil sales account for the vastmajority of Venezuela’s exports.[63] The profits of the oilindustry have been lost to “social engineering” and cor-ruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oilproduction.[64]

Chávez survived several further political tests, includingan August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for an-other term in December 2006 and re-elected for a third

6 3 GEOGRAPHY

term in October 2012. However, he was never swornin for his third period, due to medical complications.Chávez died on 5March 2013 after a nearly two-year fightwith cancer.[65] The presidential election that took placeon Sunday, 14 April 2013, was the first since Chávez tookoffice in 1999 in which his name did not appear on theballot.[66]

Nicolas Maduro

Nicolás Maduro has been the President of Venezuelasince 14 April 2013, after winning the second presi-dential election after Chávez’s death, with 50.61% ofthe votes against the opposition’s candidate HenriqueCapriles Radonski who had 49.12% of the votes. TheDemocratic Unity Roundtable contested his appointmentas a violation of the constitution. However, the SupremeCourt of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela’s Con-stitution, Nicolás Maduro is the legitimate president andwas invested as such by the Venezuelan Congress (Asam-blea Nacional).[67][68][69]

Beginning in February 2014, hundreds of thousands ofVenezuelans have protested over high levels of criminalviolence, inflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goodsdue to policies of the federal government.[70][71][72][73][74]Demonstrations and riots have left over 40 fatalitiesin the unrest between both Chavistas and oppositionprotesters,[75] and has led to the arrest of oppositionleaders such as Leopoldo López[75][76] and AntonioLedezma.[77][78][79][80]

3 Geography

Main article: Geography of Venezuela

Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geo-

Topographic map of Venezuela.

logically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate.It has a total area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) and aland area of 882,050 square kilometres (340,560 sq mi),making it the 33rd largest country. The territory it con-trols lies between latitudes 0° and 13°N, and longitudes59° and 74°W.Shaped roughly like a triangle, the country has a 2,800km (1,700 mi) coastline in the north, which includes nu-merous islands in the Caribbean, and in the northeastborders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observersdescribe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well-definedtopographical regions: the Maracaibo lowlands in thenorthwest, the northern mountains extending in a broadeast-west arc from the Colombian border along the north-ern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela,and the Guiana Highlands in the southeast.The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern ex-tensions of South America’s Andes mountain range. PicoBolívar, the nation’s highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft),lies in this region. To the south, the dissected GuianaHighlands contain the northern fringes of the AmazonBasin and Angel Falls, the world’s highest waterfall, aswell as tepuis, large table-like mountains. The country’scenter is characterized by the llanos, which are extensiveplains that stretch from the Colombian border in the farwest to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco,with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most im-portant river system of the country; it originates in one ofthe largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní andthe Apure are other major rivers.Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana tothe east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islandssuch as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba,and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast.Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana (formerlyUnited Kingdom), largely concerning the Essequibo area,and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela.In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve

3.1 Climate 7

the border dispute, from Venezuela, the dispute overthe Essequibo River border flared up, it was submit-ted to a “neutral” commission (composed of British,American, and Russian representatives and without a di-rect Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decidedmostly against Venezuela’s claim.[81]

Venezuela’s most significant natural resources arepetroleum and natural gas, iron ore, gold, and other min-erals. It also has large areas of arable land and water.

3.1 Climate

Main article: Climate of VenezuelaVenezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the

Margarita Island.

Federal Dependencies of Venezuela.

Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humidlow-elevation plains, where average annual temperaturesrange as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F), to glaciers and highlands(the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C(46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies from 430 mm (16.9 in)in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and theAmazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation levelis lower in the period from November to April and laterin the year from August to October. These periods arereferred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Anothercharacteristic of the climate is this variation throughoutthe country by the existence of a mountain range called“Cordillera de la Costa” which crosses the country from

Los Roques archipelago.

TransAndean Highway at Sierra Nevada de Mérida.

east to west. The majority of the population lives in thesemountains.[47]

The country falls into four horizontal temperature zonesbased primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, tem-perate with dry winters, and polar (alpine tundra) cli-mates, amongst others.[82][83][84] In the tropical zone—below 800 m (2,625 ft)—temperatures are hot, withyearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and82.4 °F). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and2,000 m (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to25 °C (53.6 to 77.0 °F); many of Venezuela’s cities, in-cluding the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditionswith temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) arefound in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 m (6,562and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes, wherepastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly aver-ages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters(9,843 ft) in the páramos.The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F)in Machiques,[85] and the lowest temperature recordedwas −11 °C (12 °F), it has been reported from an un-inhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas(Mérida state),[86] even though no official reports exist,lower temperatures in the mountains of the Sierra Nevadade Mérida are known.

8 3 GEOGRAPHY

3.2 Biodiversity

Main articles: Fauna of Venezuela, Flora of Venezuela,National symbols of Venezuela and List of birds ofVenezuelaVenezuela lies within the Neotropic ecozone; large por-

Mount Roraima.

Campylopterus ensipennis, endemic bird of Venezuela.

tions of the country were originally covered by moistbroadleaf forests. One of 17 megadiverse countries,[87]Venezuela’s habitats range from the Andes Mountains inthe west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, viaextensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the centerand the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They includexeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastalmangrove forests in the northeast.[47] Its cloud forests andlowland rainforests are particularly rich.[88]

Animals of Venezuela are diverse and include manatees,three-toed sloth, two-toed sloth, Amazon river dolphins,and Orinoco crocodiles, which have been reported toreach up to 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Venezuela hosts a totalof 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic.[89] Im-portant birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers,[88] andthe yellow-orange Venezuelan troupial, the national bird.Notable mammals include the giant anteater, jaguar, andthe capybara, the world’s largest rodent. More than halfof Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found inthe Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco.[90]

For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G.Dennis[91] which has been digitized and the records made

The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha), Venezuela’s national tree.

available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigaliadatabase.[92] That database includes nearly 3,900 speciesof fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from com-plete, and the true total number of fungal species alreadyknown from Venezuela is likely higher, given the gen-erally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungiworldwide have so far been discovered.[93]

Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species oforchids are found in the country’s cloud forest and low-land rainforest ecosystems.[88] These include the florde mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower.Venezuela’s national tree is the araguaney, whose char-acteristic lushness after the rainy season led novelistRómulo Gallegos to name it "[[l]a primavera de oro delos araguaneyes" (the golden spring of the araguaneyes).Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms ofendemism.[94] Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and50% of amphibian species are endemic.[94] Although theavailable information is still very small, a first effort hasbeen made to estimate the number of fungal species en-demic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been ten-tatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[95]Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known fromVenezuela are unique to the country.[94]

9

3.3 Environment

See also: Environmental issues in Venezuela

Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries onthe planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestationdue to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed andother areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, andlogging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officiallylost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3 millionha. In response, federal protections for critical habitatwere implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forestedland is protected.[90] The country’s biosphere reserve ispart of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; fivewetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[96]In 2003, 70% of the nation’s land was under conserva-tion management in over 200 protected areas, including43 national parks.[97] Venezuela’s 43 national parks in-clude Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park,and Mochima National Park. In the far south is a reservefor the country’s Yanomami tribes. Covering 32,000 mi2(almost 83,000 km2), the area is off-limits to farmers,miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers.

4 Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Venezuela and Politics ofVenezuela

Following the fall of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958,Venezuelan politics were dominated by the Third WayChristian democratic COPEI and the center-left socialdemocratic Democratic Action (AD) parties; this two-party system was formalized by the puntofijismo arrange-ment. Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led toa political crisis which resulted in hundreds dead in theCaracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992,and impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez forcorruption in 1993. A collapse in confidence in the ex-isting parties saw the 1998 election of Hugo Chávez,who had led the first of the 1992 coup attempts, andthe launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning witha 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitutionof Venezuela.The opposition’s attempts to unseat Chávez included the2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, the Venezuelangeneral strike of 2002–2003, and the Venezuelan recallreferendum, 2004, all of which failed. Chávez was re-elected in December 2006, but suffered a significant de-feat in 2007 with the narrow rejection of the Venezuelanconstitutional referendum, 2007, which had offered twopackages of constitutional reforms aimed at deepeningthe Bolivarian Revolution.Two major blocs of political parties are in Venezuela: the

incumbent leftist bloc United Socialist Party of Venezuela(PSUV), its major allies Fatherland for All (PPT) andthe Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), and the op-position bloc grouped into the electoral coalition Mesade la Unidad Democrática. This includes A New Era(UNT) together with allied parties Project Venezuela,Justice First, Movement for Socialism (MAS) and oth-ers. Hugo Chávez, the central figure of the Venezuelanpolitical landscape since his election to the Presidency in1998 as a political outsider, died in office in early 2013,and was succeeded by Nicolás Maduro (initially as in-terim President, before narrowly winning the Venezuelanpresidential election, 2013).

National Assembly of Venezuela building

The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with di-rect and universal suffrage, and is both head of state andhead of government. The term of office is six years, and(as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-electedan unlimited number of times. The president appointsthe vice president and decides the size and compositionof the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the in-volvement of the legislature. The president can ask thelegislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objec-tionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can over-ride these objections.The president may ask the National Assembly to pass anenabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in speci-fied policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in theAssembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have

10 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

been granted such powers.The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the AsambleaNacional (“National Assembly”). The number of mem-bers is variable – each state and the Capital districtelect three representatives plus the result of dividing thestate population by 1.1% of the total population of thecountry.[98] Three seats are reserved for representativesof Venezuela’s indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016period the number of seats is 165.[99] All deputies servefive-year terms.The voting age in Venezuela is 18 and older. Voting isnot compulsory.[100]

The legal system of Venezuela belongs to the ContinentalLaw tradition. The highest judicial body is the SupremeTribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia,whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a singletwelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Con-sejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoralprocesses; it is formed by five main directors elected bythe National Assembly. Supreme Court president LuisaEstela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuelahad moved away from “a rigid division of powers” towarda system characterized by “intense coordination” betweenthe branches of government. Morales clarified that eachpower must be independent adding that “one thing is sep-aration of powers and another one is division”.[101]

4.1 Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Venezuela

Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela main-tained friendly relations with most Latin American andWestern nations. Relations between Venezuela and theUnited States government worsened in 2002, after the2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which theU.S. government recognized the short-lived interim pres-idency of Pedro Carmona. In 2015, Venezuela wasdeclared a national security threat by U.S. PresidentBarack Obama.[102][103][104] Correspondingly, ties to var-ious Latin American and Middle Eastern countries notallied to the U.S. have strengthened. For example,Palestinian foreign minister Riyad al-Maliki declared in2015 that Venezuela was his country’s “most importantally”.[105]

Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration viasuch proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for theAmericas trade proposal and the newly launched pan-Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuelais one of the six nations in the world—along with Russia,Nicaragua, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Tuvalu—to have recog-nized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adoptits Anti-Corruption Convention, and is actively workingin theMercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and en-

ergy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" worldbased on strengthened ties among undeveloped countries.

4.2 Military

See also: National Armed Forces of the BolivarianRepublic of Venezuela

The Bolivarian National Armed Forces of the BolivarianRepublic of Venezuela (Fuerza Armada Nacional Boli-variana, FANB) are the overall unified military forces ofVenezuela. It includes over 320,150men and women, un-der Article 328 of the Constitution, in 5 components ofGround, Sea and Air. The components of the Bolivar-ian National Armed Forces are: the Venezuelan Army,the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, theVenezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan NationalMilitia.

A Sukhoi SU-30MKV of the venezuelan air force.

As of 2008, a further 600,000 soldiers were incorpo-rated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve.The President of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief ofthe national armed forces. The main roles of the armedforces are to defend the sovereign national territory ofVenezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug traf-ficking, to search and rescue and, in the case of a naturaldisaster, civil protection. All male citizens of Venezuelahave a constitutional duty to register for the military ser-vice at the age of 18, which is the age of majority inVenezuela.

4.3 Law and crime

Main articles: Law of Venezuela, Crime in Venezuelaand Corruption in Venezuela

Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards, andwas so for much of the 20th century. The discovery ofoil had worsened political corruption,[106] and by the late1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso's description of oil as

11

“the Devil’s excrement” had become a common expres-sion in Venezuela.[107] Venezuela has been ranked one ofthe most corrupt countries on the Corruption PerceptionsIndex since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 rank-ing placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 rankedcountries.[108] Similarly, theWorld Justice Project rankedVenezuela 99th out of 99 countries surveyed in its 2014Rule of Law Index.[109]

This corruption is shown with Venezuela’s significant in-volvement in drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaineand other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the UnitedStates and Europe. Venezuela ranks fourth in the worldfor cocaine seizures, behind Colombia, the United States,and Panama.[110] In 2006 the government’s agency forcombating the Illegal drug trade in Venezuela, ONA, wasincorporated into the office of the Vice-President of thecountry. However, many major government and mili-tary officials have been known for their involvement withdrug trafficking; especially with the October 2013 inci-dent of men from the Venezuelan National Guard placing1.3 tons of cocaine on a Paris flight knowing they will notface charges.[111]

Venezuela is among the most violent places on Earth. InVenezuela, a person is murdered every 21 minutes.[112]Violent crimes have been so prevalent in Venezuela thatthe government no longer produces the crime data.[113]In 2013, the homicide rate was approximately 79 per100,000, one of the world’s highest, having quadrupled inthe past 15 years with over 200,000 people murdered.[114]The country’s body count of the previous decade mimicsthat of the IraqWar and in some instances had more civil-ian deaths even though the country is at peacetime.[115]The capital Caracas has one of the greatest homicide ratesof any large city in the world, with 122 homicides per100,000 residents.[116] In 2008, polls indicated that crimewas the number one concern of voters.[117] Attempts atfighting crime such as Operation Liberation of the Peo-ple have been done to crack down on gang-controlledareas.[118]

Venezuela is especially dangerous toward foreign trav-elers and investors who are visiting. The United StatesState Department and the Government of Canada havewarned foreign visitors that they may be subjected torobbery, kidnapping for a ransom or sale to terror-ist organizations[119] and murder, and that their owndiplomatic travelers are required to travel in armoredvehicles.[120][121] The United Kingdom’s Foreign andCommonwealth Office has advised against all travel toVenezuela.[122] Visitors have been murdered during rob-beries and criminals do not discriminate against theirvictims. Recently, former Miss Venezuela 2004 win-ner Monica Spear and her husband were murdered withher 5-year-old daughter being shot while visiting, and anelderly German tourist was murdered only a few weekslater.[123][124]

There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000

inmates.[125] They include; El Rodeo outside of Cara-cas, Yare Prison in the northern state of Miranda, andseveral others. Venezuela’s prison system is heavilyovercrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000prisoners.[126]

5 States and regions of Venezuela

Main articles: States of Venezuela and Regions ofVenezuela

Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), a capital dis-trict (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas,and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales,a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into335municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided intoover one thousand parishes (parroquias). The states aregrouped into nine administrative regions (regiones admin-istrativas), which were established in 1969 by presidentialdecree.The country can be further divided into ten geographicalareas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeograph-ical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes andthe Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest,holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlandsabutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela.The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includesthe hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, sep-arated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco,covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The InsularRegion includes all of Venezuela’s island possessions:Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies.The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering DeltaAmacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.

5.1 Largest cities

6 Economy

Main article: Economy of VenezuelaThe Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for devel-oping monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar whichis used as currency. The currency is primarily printedon paper and distributed throughout the country. ThePresident of the Central Bank of Venezuela is presentlyEudomar Tovar, who also serves as the country’s repre-sentative in the International Monetary Fund. Accord-ing to the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Jour-nal, Venezuela has the weakest property rights in theworld, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropria-tion without compensation is not uncommon. Venezuelahas a Market-based mixed economy dominated by thepetroleum sector, which accounts for roughly a third ofGDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of

12 6 ECONOMY

Graphical depiction of Venezuela’s product exports in 28 color-coded categories.

government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2009 wasUS$13,000, ranking 85th in the world.[51] Venezuela hasthe least expensive petrol in the world because the con-sumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized.More than 60% of Venezuela’s international reserves isin gold, eight times more than the average for the region.Most of Venezuela’s gold held abroad is located in Lon-don. On 25 November 2011, the first of US$11 billion ofrepatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chávez calledthe repatriation of gold a “sovereign” step that will helpprotect the country’s foreign reserves from the turmoil inthe U.S. and Europe.[128] However government policiesquickly spent down this returned gold and in 2013 thegovernment was forced to add the dollar reserves of stateowned companies to those of the national bank in orderto reassure the international bond market.[129]

Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006.Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industryproducts such as steel, aluminium and cement, withproduction concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, nearthe Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and theprovider of about three-quarters of Venezuela’s electric-ity. Other notable manufacturing includes electronicsand automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs.Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3%of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least a quarter ofVenezuela’s land area. Venezuela exports rice, corn, fish,tropical fruit, coffee, beef, and pork. The country is notself-sufficient in most areas of agriculture. In 2012, totalfood consumption was over 26 million metric tonnes, a94.8% increase from 2003.[130]

Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century,Venezuela has been one of the world’s leading exportersof oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previouslyan underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commoditiessuch as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominateexports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut ledto an external debt crisis and a long-running economiccrisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996 and

poverty rates rise to 66% in 1995[9] as (by 1998) percapita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a thirdfrom its 1978 peak.[10] The 1990s also saw Venezuela ex-perience a major banking crisis in 1994.The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted theVenezuelan economy and facilitated social spending.With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions,Venezuela initially made progress in social developmentin 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, educa-tion, and poverty. Many of the social policies pur-sued by Chávez and his administration were jumpstartedby the Millennium Development Goals, eight goals thatVenezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in Septem-ber 2000.[131] The sustainability of the Bolivarian Mis-sions has been questioned due to the Bolivarian govern-ment’s overspending on public works and because theChávez government did not save funds for future eco-nomic hardships like other OPEC nations; with economicissues and poverty rising as a result of their policies inthe 2010s.[15][16][17][132][133] In 2003 the government ofHugo Chávez implemented currency controls after cap-ital flight led to a devaluation of the currency. This ledto the development of a parallel market of dollars inthe subsequent years. The fallout of the 2008 global fi-nancial crisis saw a renewed economic downturn. De-spite controversial data shared by the Venezuelan gov-ernment showing that the country had halved malnutri-tion following one of the UN’s Millennium DevelopmentGoals,[134][22] shortages of staple goods began to occurin Venezuela and malnutrition began to increase.[22] Inearly 2013, Venezuela devalued its currency due to grow-ing shortages in the country.[135][136][137] The shortagesincluded, and may still include, necessities such as toiletpaper, milk, and flour.[138] Fears rose so high due to thetoilet paper shortage that the government occupied a toi-let paper factory, and continued further plans to national-ize other industrial aspects like food distribution.[139][140]Venezuela’s bond ratings have also decreased multipletimes in 2013 due to decisions by the president NicolásMaduro. One of his decisions was to force stores andtheir warehouses to sell all of their products, which led toeven more shortages in the future.[141] Venezuela’s out-look has also been deemed negative by most bond-ratingservices.[142]

6.1 Petroleum and other resources

See also: History of the Venezuelan oil industry andEnergy policy of Venezuela

Venezuela has the largest oil reserves, and the eighthlargest natural gas reserves in the world, and consistentlyranks among the top ten world crude oil producers.[143]Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crudeoil reserves were proven in 2010, allowing Venezuela tosurpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest re-serves of this type.[144] The country’s main petroleum

13

deposits are located around and beneath Lake Mara-caibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and inthe Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where thecountry’s largest reserve is located. Besides the largestconventional oil reserves and the second-largest naturalgas reserves in the Western Hemisphere,[145] Venezuelahas non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil,bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world’sreserves of conventional oil.[146] The electricity sectorin Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily onhydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of thelargest in the world.In the first half of the 20th century, US oil companieswere heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interestedonly in purchasing concessions.[147] In 1943 a new gov-ernment introduced a 50/50 split in profits between thegovernment and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newlyinstalled democratic government, Hydrocarbons MinisterJuan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, theconsortium of oil-producing countries aiming to supportthe price of oil.[148]

In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil indus-try outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleosde Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding overa number of holding companies; in subsequent years,Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system inthe U.S. and Europe.[149] In the 1990s PDVSA becamemore independent from the government and presidedover an apertura (opening) in which it invited in foreigninvestment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limitson foreign investment.The state oil company PDVSA played a key role in theDecember 2002 – February 2003 national strike whichsought President Chávez' resignation. Managers andskilled highly paid technicians of PDVSA shut down theplants and left their posts, and by some reports sabo-taged equipment, and petroleum production and refin-ing by PDVSA almost ceased. Activities eventually wereslowly restarted by returning and substitute oil workers.As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company’sworkforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed for“dereliction of duty” during the strike.[150][151]

6.2 Transport

Main article: Transport in VenezuelaVenezuela is connected to the world primarily via air(Venezuela’s airports include the Simón Bolívar Interna-tional Airport in Maiquetía, near Caracas and La ChinitaInternational Airport near Maracaibo) and sea (with ma-jor sea ports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Ca-bello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest re-gion has limited cross-border transport; in the west, thereis a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is naviga-ble by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi)

Caracas Metro

inland, and connects the major industrial city of CiudadGuayana to the Atlantic Ocean.Venezuela has a limited national railway system, whichhas no active rail connections to other countries. The gov-ernment of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it,but Venezuela’s rail project is on hold due to Venezuelanot being able to pay the $7.5 billion and owing ChinaRailway nearly $500 million.[152] Several major citieshave metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been oper-ating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and ValenciaMetro were opened more recently. Venezuela has a roadnetwork of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi) inlength, placing the country around 45th in the world;[153]around a third of roads are paved.

7 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of VenezuelaFurther information: List of metropolitan areas inVenezuela

Venezuela is among themost urbanized countries in LatinAmerica;[7][8] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in thecities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas, whichis also the largest city. About 93% of the population livesin urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[156] Accord-ing to a study by sociologists of the Central University ofVenezuela, over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4%to 6% of the country’s population, left Venezuela fol-lowing the Bolivarian Revolution.[157][158] Though almosthalf of Venezuela’s land area lies south of the Orinoco,only 5% of Venezuelans live there. The largest and mostimportant city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana,which is the sixth most populous conurbation.[159] Othermajor cities include Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay,Maracaibo, Mérida, San Cristóbal and Barcelona–Puertola Cruz.

14 7 DEMOGRAPHICS

7.1 Ethnic groups

Main articles: Mestizo Venezuelan, White Venezuelan,Afro-Venezuelan, Italo-Venezuelan, Arab Venezuelanand Chinese Venezuelan

The people of Venezuela come from a variety of her-itages. It is estimated that the majority of the popula-tion is of mestizo, or mixed, ethnic heritage. Neverthe-less, in the 2011 census, which Venezuelans were askedto identify themselves according to their customs and an-cestry, the term mestizo was excluded from the answers.The majority claimed to be mestizo or white — 51.6%and 43.6%, respectively.[1] Practically half of the pop-ulation claimed to be moreno, a term used throughoutIbero-America that in this case means “dark-skinned” or“brown-skinned”, as opposed to having a lighter skin (thisterm connotes skin color or tone, rather than facial fea-tures or descent).Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups thatdescend mainly from African or indigenous peoples;2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% asafrodescendiente (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to be-long to indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered “otherraces”.[1][1]

Among indigenous people, 58%wereWayúu, 7%Warao,5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu,3% Cumanágoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima and 1%Yanomami; the remaining 9% consisted of other indige-nous nations.[160]

According to an autosomal DNA genetic study conductedin 2008 by the University of Brasília (UNB), the com-position of Venezuela’s population is 60.60% of Euro-pean contribution, 23% of indigenous contribution, and16.30% of African contribution.[161]

Venezuelans around the world. This map also shows land areaof the neighboring country of Guyana, which is not part ofVenezuela

During the colonial period and until after the Sec-ond World War, many of the European immigrants toVenezuela came from the Canary Islands,[162] which hada significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customsof Venezuela.[163][164][165] These influences on Venezuelahas led to the nation being called the 8th island of the

Canaries.[166][167] With the start of oil exploitation in theearly 20th century, companies from the United States be-gan establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing withthem US citizens. Later, during and after the war,new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe,the Middle East, and China began; many were encour-aged by government-established immigration programsand lenient immigration policies.[168] During the 20thcentury, Venezuela, along with the rest of Latin America,received millions of immigrants from Europe.[169][170]This was especially true post-World War II, as a con-sequence of war-ridden Europe.[169][170][171] During the1970s, while experiencing an oil-export boom, Venezuelareceived millions of immigrants from Ecuador, Colom-bia, and the Dominican Republic.[171] Due to the be-lief that this immigration influx depressed wages, someVenezuelans opposed European immigration.[171] TheVenezuelan government, however, were actively recruit-ing immigrants from Eastern Europe to fill a need forengineers.[169] Millions of Colombians, as well as Mid-dle Eastern and Haitian populations would continue im-migrating to Venezuela into the early 21st century.[168]

According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, publishedby the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants,Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylumseekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007,and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in2007.[172] Between 500,000 and one million illegal im-migrants are estimated to be living in the country.[173]

The total indigenous population of the country is esti-mated at about 500 thousand people (2.8% of the to-tal), distributed among 40 indigenous peoples.[174] TheConstitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural,and multilingual character of the country and includesa chapter devoted to indigenous peoples’ rights, whichopened up spaces for their political inclusion at nationaland local level in 1999. Most indigenous peoples are con-centrated in eight states along Venezuela’s borders withBrazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groupsare the Wayuu (west), the Warao (east), the Yanomami(south), and the Pemon (southeast).

7.2 Languages

Main article: Languages of Venezuela

Although the country is mostly monolingual Spanish,many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In additionto Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirtyindigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón,andmany others for the official use of the indigenous peo-ples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the totalpopulation. Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, speaktheir own languages. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese andSyrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, PuntoFijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay, and Caracas.

8.1 Art 15

Portuguese is spoken not only by the Portuguese commu-nity in Santa Elena de Uairén but also by much of thepopulation due to its proximity to Brazil. The Germancommunity speaks their native language, while the Colo-nia Tovar speaks mostly an Alemannic dialect of Germancalled coloniero. English is the most widely used foreignlanguage in demand and is spoken by many professionals,academics, and members of the upper and middle classesas a result of oil exploration by foreign companies, in ad-dition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, En-glish is common in southern towns like El Callao, for theEnglish-speaking native influence evident in folk songsand calypso Venezuelan and French with English voices.Italian instruction is guaranteed by the presence of a con-stant number of schools and private institutions becausethe Italian government considered mandatory languageteaching at school level. Other languages spoken by largecommunities in the country are Chinese and Galician,among others.

7.3 Religion

Religion in Venezuela according to the 2011 census.[175]

Catholic (71%)Protestant (17%)agnostic/atheist (8%)Other religion (3%)No answer (1%)Main article: Religion in Venezuela

According to the 2011 census, 88 percent of the popula-tion is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), andthe remaining 17 percent Protestant. The Venezuelanswhitout religion are 8% (atheist 2% and agnostic or in-different 6%), almost 3% of the population follow otherreligion (1% of them are of santeria).[175]

8 Culture

Main articles: Culture of Venezuela, Music of Venezuela,Sport in Venezuela and Immigration to Venezuela

The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot, which includes

The joropo, as depicted in a 1912 drawing by Eloy Palacios.

mainly three different families: The indigenous, African,and Spanish. The first two cultures were in turn differen-tiated according to the tribes. Acculturation and assimila-tion, typical of a cultural syncretism, caused an arrival atthe current Venezuelan culture, similar in many respectsto the rest of Latin America, although the natural envi-ronment means that there are important differences.The indigenous influence is limited to a few words of vo-cabulary and gastronomy and many place names. TheAfrican influence in the same way, in addition to mu-sical instruments like the drum. The Spanish influencewas predominant (due to the colonization process andthe socioeconomic structure it created) and in particularcame from the regions ofAndalusia and Extremadura, theplaces of origin of most settlers in the Caribbean duringthe colonial era. An example of this includes buildings,music, the Catholic religion, and language.Spanish influences are evident in bullfights and certainfeatures of gastronomy. Venezuela was also enriched byother streams of Indian and European origin in the 19thcentury, especially from France. In the latest stage in themajor cities and regions oil of U.S. origin and manifesta-tions of the new immigration of Spanish, Italian and Por-tuguese, increasing the already complex cultural mosaic.For example, from United States comes the influence oftaste for baseball, US-style fast food, and current archi-tectural constructions.

8.1 Art

Main article: Art of Venezuela

Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious mo-tifs. However, in the late 19th century, artists beganemphasizing historical and heroic representations of the

16 8 CULTURE

Young Mother by Venezuela-born Arturo Michelena, 1889

country’s struggle for independence.[176][177] This movewas led by Martín Tovar y Tovar.[177][178] Modernismtook over in the 20th century.[178] Notable Venezuelanartists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas,Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artistsJesús Soto, Gego and Carlos Cruz-Díez;[178] and contem-porary artists as Marisol and Yucef Merhi.[179][180]

8.2 Literature

Main article: Venezuelan literature

Venezuelan literature was originally dominated bySpanish influences; Venezuelan literature originated soonafter the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate in-digenous societies.[181] Following the rise of political lit-erature during the Venezuelan War of Independence,Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by JuanVicente González, emerged as the first important genrein the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writ-ing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such asAndrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro.Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos,Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano GonzálezLeón, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. Thegreat poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an edu-cator and intellectual (He was also a childhood tutor andmentor of Simón Bolívar). Others, such as Laureano Val-lenilla Lanz and JoséGil Fortoul, contributed to Venezue-lan Positivism.

8.3 Music

Cover of Alma Llanera

Main article: Music of Venezuela

Indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplifiedby the groups Un Solo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa.The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Typicalmusical styles and pieces mainly emerged in and aroundthe llanos region, includingAlma Llanera (by Pedro ElíasGutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), Florentino y eldiablo (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), Concierto en la lla-nura by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and Caballo Viejo (bySimón Díaz).The Zulian gaita is also a very popular style, generallyperformed during Christmas. The national dance is thejoropo.[182] Venezuela has always been a melting pot ofcultures and this can be seen in the richness and varietyof its musical styles and dances: calipso, bambuco, fulía,cantos de pilado de maíz, cantos de lavanderas, sebucán,and maremare.[183] Teresa Carreño was a world-famous19th century piano virtuoso. In the last years, ClassicalMusic has had great performances. The Simón BolívarYouth Orchestra, under the baton of its principal con-ductor Gustavo Dudamel and José Antonio Abreu, hashosted a number of excellent presentations in many Eu-ropean concert halls, notably at the 2007 London Proms,and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pin-nacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed voluntary sectormusic education program now being emulated in othercountries.

8.5 Cuisine 17

In the early 21st century, a movement knwon as “MovidaAcústica Urbana” featured musicians trying to save somenational traditions, creating their own songs but using tra-ditional instruments.[184][185]

8.4 Sport

Main article: Sport in VenezuelaSee also: Baseball in VenezuelaThe origins of baseball in Venezuela is unclear, although

Estadio Universitario de Caracas

Cachamay Stadium

it is known that the sport was being played in the nation bythe late 19th century.[186] In the early 20th century, NorthAmerican immigrants who came to Venezuela to work inthe nation’s oil industry helped to popularize the sport inVenezuela.[187] During the 1930s, baseball’s popularitycontinued to rise in the country, leading to the founda-tion of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League in1945, and the sport would soon become the nation’s mostpopular.[188][189]

The immense popularity of baseball in the countrymakes Venezuela a rarity among its South Americanneighbors—association football, locally called fútbol, isthe dominant sport in the continent.[187][189][190] How-ever, football, as well as basketball, are among the morepopular sports played in Venezuela.[191] Venezuela hosted

the 2012 Basketball World Olympic Qualifying Tourna-ment and the 2013 FIBA Basketball Americas Champi-onship, which took place in Poliedro de Caracas.Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of SouthAmerica, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela nationalfootball team is gaining popularity as well. The sport isalso noted for having an increased focus during theWorldCup.[191] According to the CONMEBOL alphabetical ro-tation policy established in 2011, Venezuela is scheduledto host the Copa América every 40 years.[192]

Venezuela is also home to Formula 1 driver, Pastor Mal-donado.[193] At the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix, he claimedhis first pole and victory and became the first and onlyVenezuelan to have done so in the history of Formula1.[193] Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in thenation.[194]

In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Venezuelan Rubén Li-mardo won a gold medal in fencing.[195]

8.5 Cuisine

Main article: Venezuelan cuisine

The Venezuelan cuisine, one of the most varied in theregion, reflects the climatic contrasts and cultures coex-isting in Venezuela. Among them are hallaca, pabellóncriollo, arepas, pisca andina, tarkarí de chivo, jalea demango, and fried camiguanas.

8.6 Other

Internationally, Venezuela has been well documented forits successes in beauty pageants.[196] Miss Venezuela isa closely followed event throughout the country, andVenezuela has received 6 Miss World, 7 Miss Universe,6 Miss International and 2 Miss Earth titles.[196]

Venezuela ranks first in the Global Beauties webpagelist as the country with more international pageants titleswon. It also has a Guinness World Record, after DayanaMendoza, Miss Universe 2008 from Venezuela crownedStefania Fernandez, also from Venezuela as Miss Uni-verse 2009, marking the first time over 50 years in thecompetition that a country wins the title in two consecu-tive years.[197]

Venezuela is the most successful country in Miss WorldandMiss International and is second in the Miss Universepageant only surpassed by USA.Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezue-lan architect of the modern era; he designed the CentralUniversity of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and itsAula Magna. Other notable architectural works includethe Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cul-tural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge.

18 11 SEE ALSO

Dayana Mendoza, Miss Universe 2008

9 Education

Central University of Venezuela

Main article: Education in Venezuela

The literacy rate for the adult population was already 91.1by 1998.[198] In 2008, 95.2% of the adult population wasliterate.[199] Net primary school enrollment rate was at91% in 2005.[199] Net secondary enrollment rate was at63% in 2005.[199] Venezuela has a number of universi-ties, of which the most prestigious are the Central Uni-versity of Venezuela (UCV), founded in Caracas in 1721,the University of Zulia (LUZ) founded in 1891, the Uni-versity of the Andes (ULA), founded in Mérida State in1810, and Simón Bolívar University (USB), founded inMiranda State in 1967.

Currently, large numbers of Venezuelan graduates seekfor a future elsewhere due to the country’s troubled econ-omy and heavy crime rate. In a study titled Vene-zolana Community Abroad. A New Method of Exile byThomas Paez, Mercedes Vivas and Juan Rafael Pulidoof the Central University of Venezuela, over 1.35 mil-lion Venezuelan college graduates had left the countrysince the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution.[157][158]It is believed nearly 12% of Venezuelans live abroad withIreland becoming a popular destination for students.[200]According to Claudio Bifano, president of the Venezue-lan Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sci-ences, more than half of medical graduates in 2013 hadleft Venezuela.[201]

10 Health

Main articles: Health care in Venezuela and MissionBarrio Adentro

Venezuela has a national universal health care system.The current government has created a program to ex-pand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Aden-tro,[202][203] although its efficiency and work conditionshave been criticized.[204][205][206] It has reported thatmany of the clinics were closed and as of December 2014,it was estimated that 80% of Barrio Adentro establish-ments were abandoned in Venezuela.[207][208]

Infant mortality in Venezuela is 19.33 deaths per 1,000births for 2014, lower than the South American aver-age (by comparison, the U.S. stands at 5.9 deaths per1,000 births in 2013).[209] Child malnutrition (definedas stunting or wasting in children under age five) standsat 17%; Delta Amacuro and Amazonas have the na-tion’s highest rates.[210] According to the United Nations,32% of Venezuelans lack adequate sanitation, primar-ily those living in rural areas.[211] Diseases ranging fromtyphoid, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B,and hepatitis D are present in the country.[212] Obesity isprevalent in approximately 30% of the adult populationin Venezuela.[209]

Venezuela has a total of 150 plants for sewage treatment.However, still 13% of the population lack access to drink-ing water, but this number has been dropping.[213]

During the economic crisis observed under PresidentMaduro’s presidency, medical professionals were forcedto perform outdated treatments on patients.[214]

11 See also• Index of Venezuela-related articles

• International rankings of Venezuela

• List of Venezuelans

19

• Outline of Venezuela

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[204] “Cabildo Metropolitano evaluará funcionamiento de Bar-rio Adentro”. El Universal. 6 May 2014. Retrieved 7May2014.

[205] “Siete médicos cubanos demandan a Cuba y Venezuelapor “esclavitud moderna"". Retrieved 26 April 2015.

[206] Vinogradoff, Ludmila (13 November 2014). “16 Novem-ber 2014”. ABC (Spanish). Retrieved 16 November2014.

[207] Matheus, Ricardo. Abandonados 70% de módulos de BADiario 2001 (29 July 2007).

[208] “El 80% de los módulos de Barrio Adentro del país estácerrado”. La Patilla. 8 December 2014. Retrieved 8 De-cember 2014.

[209] “The World Factbook”. Central Intelligence Agency. Re-trieved 9 February 2014.

[210] Venezuela at the Wayback Machine (archived 18 March2007). FAO.org.

[211] Venezuela. Unicef.org.

[212] Venezuela Guardian. 25 October 2006. Retrieved 20September 2006.

[213] Chávez Frías 2004.

[214] Dreier, Hannah (24 March 2015). “Mastectomies onthe rise in Venezuela amid economic crisis”. AssociatedPress. Retrieved 24 March 2015.

13 BibliographyArticles

• Cannon, Barry (21 June 2004). “Venezuela, April2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Mythof a United Venezuela”. Bulletin of Latin Ameri-can Research (Wiley-Blackwell) 23 (3): 285–302.doi:10.1111/j.0261-3050.2004.00109.x.

Books

• Aalgaard, Wendy (2004). Venezuela in Pictures.Lerner Pub Group. ISBN 082251172X.

• Aponte, Pedro Rafael (2008). The Invention of theNational in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920-1960. Uni-versity of Pittsburgh. ISBN 9781109053203. Re-trieved 2 July 2015.

• Chasteen, John Charles (2001). Born in Blood andFire: A Concise History of Latin America. Norton.ISBN 978-0-393-05048-6.

• Chávez Frías, Hugo Rafael (2004). Cumpliendo lasmetas del milenio (PDF) (in Spanish). CDBpubli-caciones. ISBN 980-6456-12-2. Archived from theoriginal (PDF) on 11 May 2011.

• Coronil, Fernando (1988). The magical state: na-ture, money, and modernity in Venezuela. Universityof Chicago Press. ISBN 0226116026.

• Cortés, Carlos E. (2013). Multicultural America:A Multimedia Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications.ISBN 978-1-4522-1683-6. Retrieved 30 June 2015.

• Crow, JA (1980). Epic of Latin America. Universityof California Press. ISBN 0-520-04107-0.

• Dickey, John Marcus (1892). Christopher Colum-bus and his monument Columbia : being a concor-dance of choice tributes to the great Genoese, hisgrand discovery, and his greatness of mind and pur-pose. Rand, McNally & Co. ISBN 1-4460-2044-4.Retrieved 1 July 2015.

• Dydynski, Krzysztof; Beech, Charlotte (2004).Venezuela. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN174104197X.

• Ewell, Judith (1984). Venezuela: A Century ofChange. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 090583836X.

• Fichner-Ratus, Lois (2012). Understanding Art(10th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1111836955.

• Georgia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic In-formation and Developments. Int'l Business Publi-cations, USA. 2013. ISBN 1-4387-7443-5.

25

• Gibson, Karen Bush (2006). Venezuela: A Questionand Answer Book. ISBN 978-0736864138.

• Gott, Richard (2005). Hugo Chávez and the Boli-varian Revolution. Verso. ISBN 1844675335.

• Gregory, Desmond (1992). Brute New World: TheRediscovery of Latin America in the Early 19th Cen-tury. British American Press. ISBN 1-85043-567-7. Retrieved 30 June 2015.

• Heritage, Andrew (December 2002). FinancialTimes World Desk Reference. Dorling Kindersley.ISBN 9780789488053.

• Josza Jr., Frank P. (2013). Baseball beyond Borders:From Distant Lands to the Major Leagues. Scare-crow Press. ISBN 978-0810892453.

• Kelly, Janet; Palma, Perdo A. (2006). “Chapter 10:The Syndrome of Economic Decline and the Questfor Change”. In McCoy, Jennifer L.; Myers, DavidJ. The Unraveling of Representative Democracy inVenezuela. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-8428-4.

• Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictio-nary of YUPArchaeology. Springer. ISBN 0-306-46158-7.

• López Maya, Margarita (2005). “Venezuela 2002–2003: Polarisation, Confrontation, and Violence”.In Goumbri, Olivia Burlingame. The VenezuelaReader: The Building of a People’s Democracy.Washington, D.C.: Epica Task Force. ISBN0918346355.

• Massabié, Germán (2008). Venezuela: A Petro-State Using Renewable Energies. Springer. ISBN3531159941.

• McBeth, B. S. (2002). Juan Vicente Gómezand the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908–1935.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052189218X.

• McCaughan, Michael (2005). The Battle ofVenezuela. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-60980-116-8.

• Ng, Yumi (2004). Welcome to Venezuela. GarethStevens Publishing. ISBN 978-0836831238. Re-trieved 2 July 2015.

• Nichols, Elizabeth Gackstetter; Morse, KimberleyJ. (2010). Venezuela. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1598845693.

• Salas, Miguel Tinker (2015). Venezuela: What Ev-eryone Needs to KnowRG. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0199783284.

• Stoan, Stephen K. (1974). Pablo Morillo andVenezuela, 1815–1820. Ohio State UniversityPress. ISBN 0814202195.

• Tarver, H. Michael; Frederick, Julia C. (2006). TheHistory of Venezuela. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-1403962607. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

• Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: The Riseof the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan.Random House. ISBN 0-375-50204-1.

• Wardrope, William (2003). Venezuela. GarethStevens Publishing. ISBN 0836823699.

• Warhol, Tom (2006). Tundra. Marshall Cavendish.ISBN 978-0-7614-2193-1.

• Wunder, Sven (2003). Oil wealth and the fate of theforest: a comparative study of eight tropical coun-tries. Routledge. ISBN 0203986679.

• Yergin, Daniel (1991). The Prize: The Epic Questfor Oil, Money, and Power. Simon and Schuster.ISBN 1439110123.

• Zakaria, Fareed (1999). From Wealth to Power.Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01035-8.

• Zamora, Margarita (1993). Reading Columbus.University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08297-4. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Re-trieved 23 April 2010.

14 External links• (Spanish) E-Government

• (English) Chief of State and Cabinet Members

• (English) Venezuela entry at The World Factbook

• (English) Venezuela at UCB Libraries GovPubs

• (English) Venezuela at DMOZ

• (English) Venezuela from the Library of CongressCountry Studies (1990)

• (English) Venezuela profile from the BBC News

• (Swedish) Geographic data related to Venezuela atOpenStreetMap

• (English) Maps on Venezuela – Cartographic fea-tures

• (English) Key Development Forecasts for Venezuelafrom International Futures

• (Arabic) Venezuela and Tourism from Sky Immi-gration

• Wikimedia Atlas of Venezuela

26 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Venezuela Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela?oldid=674340537 Contributors: Kpjas, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derk-

sen, Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, DanKeshet, Scipius, Danny, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Akumiszcza, Rickyrab, Leandrod, Edward,Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Modster, Bewildebeast, Liftarn, Mic, Ixfd64, 172, Loisel, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Arwel Parry,Docu, Samuelsen, Notheruser, KoyaanisQatsi, Angela, Darkwind, Ugen64, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Efghij, CarlKenner, Caffelice~enwiki,Tobias Conradi, Agtx, RickK, Lfh, Viajero, Bjh21, WhisperToMe, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Tschild, Grendelkhan,Nv8200pa, Garry Saint, Esquire, Paul-L~enwiki, Gaidheal, Nickshanks, HarryHenryGebel, Stormie, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Secretlon-don, Johnleemk, Hajor, Kinori, Owen, Merriam~enwiki, AlexPlank, Robbot, Vardion, ChrisO~enwiki, Chrism, Chris 73, RedWolf,Kowey, Romanm, Sam Spade, TalkHard~enwiki, Merovingian, Gidonb, Timrollpickering, Jondel, Bkell, Hadal, Sindri~enwiki, DavidEdgar, Lancemurdoch, Profoss, Aetheling, Mushroom, Raeky, SoLando, PeerBr, Rdkamp, Xyzzyva, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, Sentinel,Nichalp, Inter, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Ylvis, David Johnson, Jdavidb, Cantus, Waltpohl, Rick Block, DO'Neil, TommyUdo, Obar-raiz, Juancarlos2004, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Jackol, Golbez, MusiCitizen, TerokNor, AileanMacRaith~enwiki, OldakQuill, Stevietheman,Gadfium, Alexf, Sohailstyle, Geni, CryptoDerk, Knutux, Ran, Antandrus, Beland, MylesCallum, 1297, Rdsmith4, Secfan, Al-Andalus,Icairns, Tormentacreativa, Neutrality, Camipco, Sarcelles, Ozzyprv, Hillel, Cwoyte, Adashiel, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Gest,Dcfleck, Marinheiro, Dablaze, Econrad, Pasquale, Jkl, A-giau, Discospinster, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Hydrox, FiP, Vsmith,HeikoEvermann, YUL89YYZ, Gku, Theandes, LindsayH, SpookyMulder, Chadlupkes, Bender235, ESkog, Alxt, Loren36, Neko-chan,Brian0918, SElefant, Yasis, Sluj, Zscout370, El C, Lycurgus, DamianFinol, Kwamikagami, Phil websurfer@yahoo.com, Mwanner, Sura-chit, Aude, Shanes, Wikwikwack, Art LaPella, Guettarda, Bobo192, Circeus, NetBot, Rhysn, Smalljim, Electrolito, Tronno, Duk, Virid-itas, Elipongo, Adrian~enwiki, Neg, Chirag, Jojit fb, TheProject, Darwinek, PeterisP, MPerel, Polylerus, Cesar Aponte, Foxandpotatoes,Stephen Bain, Merope, Sanmartin, NickCatal, Jumbuck, CAnc, Stephen G. 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B., GoodDay, Suicidalhamster, Can'tsleep, clown will eat me, David Morón, Shalom Yechiel, Gusluz, SuperDeng, Writtenright, OrphanBot, Zagrebo, MJCdetroit, Xeeron,Rrburke, Addshore, Interfector, Bolivian Unicyclist, Edivorce, Pax85, SundarBot, Arab Hafez, Rarelibra, Weirdy, Krich, The Moving Fin-ger Writes, BostonMA, Mbmd1, Nibuod, Nakon, Kntrabssi, Horses In The Sky, Schultmc, Derek R Bullamore, Dantadd, Ofrc3, Wisco,Jopfer, Illnab1024, DavidJ710, Sayden, Bidabadi~enwiki, Skinnyweed, Qmwne235, Ricky@36, Arielco, Ged UK, Wilt, Ohconfucius,Zamd006, Victor D, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Burgas00, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Harryboyles, Anlace, DLinth, JunCTionS, Gjasoccer,Potosino, Rmdallen, Kuru, John, Fanx, Scientizzle, Gobonobo, Tennis Dynamite, Radsm, Mgiganteus1, Green Giant, Triacylglyceride,Highpriority, Gregorydavid, IronGargoyle, Bella Swan, Daebello, Across.The.Synapse, Rinnenadtrosc, BillFlis, Slakr, Hvn0413, Stwalker-ster, Noah Salzman, Mr Stephen, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Qyd, Ryulong, Condem, Dr.K., Peter Horn, Hikitsurisan~enwiki, H, Skinsmoke,Jose77, RMHED, Angryxpeh, Supaman89, Hu12, DabMachine, Levineps, DouglasCalvert, Iridescent, ACinfo, Missionary, Joseph Solisin Australia, Pegasus1138, Wilcho, Epistemos, Igoldste, Billgunyon, MikeHobday, Shmget, Gil Gamesh, Civil Engineer III, CharlesM,Trebnoj, Az1568, Courcelles, Namiba, Fdp, Tawkerbot2, Pderuvo, Alegoo92, Agus elex 2005, Cardiox, Conrad.Irwin, Lahiru k, Galati,WolfgangFaber, JForget, Wolfdog, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb, Sir Vicious, Reppincali, Morelligu, Vints, Ana-con, BeenAroundAWhile, Picaroon, KyraVixen, 0kty, Stevingtonian, Oazambra~enwiki, Dgw, Jesse Viviano, Endurer, N2e, SkylineEvo,NickW557, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot, Logical2u, Zurkhardo, Caracas1830, Tex, Karenjc, Chandra brown erlendson, Chantessy, Sbknud-son, Funnyfarmofdoom, The Photographer, Rudjek, Silvialuna, AMFilmsInc, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Danrok, Kevinp2, Reywas92, Mato,Yussef90, Achangeisasgoodasa, Oliverdp2003, SyntaxError55, Tellectualin, Gogo Dodo, Red Director, JFreeman, Llort, ST47, Chasingsol,Jayen466, Capmaster, GJRFMorelligu, Scott14, Damifb, Tkynerd, Julian Mendez, Acs4b, B, Falcanary, Tawkerbot4, Bbudik1001, JackPhoenix, Codetiger, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, SimonDeDanser, DBaba, Zdalton, Twittenham, BenStorer, Garik, Kozuch, Ward3001, SpK,Omicronpersei8, Torie, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Wikid77, TheYmode, Nyogendran.lm, Qwyrxian, Hannah375, Butter Bandit,Ucanlookitup, Varavour, Memty Bot, SeNeKa, N5iln, Beobach972, Mojo Hand, Juanvillalobos, Marek69, John254, Frank, Norwegian-

15.1 Text 27

Blue, James086, Tellyaddict, Hcobb, Therequiembellishere, Nick Number, Binarybits, Laurawho7, MinnesotanConfederacy, X96lee15,OuroborosCobra, J.K Rowling, Rompe, AlefZet, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Danielfolsom, Mentifisto, Porqin, David Liuzzo, AntiVandalBot,Freddiem, RobotG, Majorly, Fedayee, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto, StantheGarbageMan, Neumannk, QuiteUnusual, Readro, Luse-mer, Jj137, Hurtsmyears, Piotr (Venezuela), Vanjagenije, Robert Mason, Nhgill, LibLord, Credema, A.M.962, Spencer, Alphachimpbot,Camptown, Falconleaf, Storkk, Myanw, Ming Hua, JAnDbot, Carlos Villamizar, Deflective, Leuko, Husond, Tony0106, Mike D 26,MER-C, T L Miles, The Transhumanist, Caracaskid, Spyroware, Mcorazao, Instinct, SeanCollins, Hamsterlopithecus, Andonic, Dcooper,Roleplayer, Hut 8.5, Carrasquero, Tomatejc, PhilKnight, Bnjmn wng, Attarparn, Anthonyd3ca, TheEditrix2, Octeron, Dancameron, .ana-condabot, Wasell, FaerieInGrey, Petrux, Magioladitis, Jordan1975, Connormah, Ramirez72, Jaysweet, Spooky55, Bongwarrior, VoABotII, Fusionmix, AtticusX, Jetstreamer, JNW, JamesBWatson, Rivertorch, Mauriciolustosa, Jespinos, Dcaceres, Pvmoutside, Steven Walling,Lazv, Caracas 2000, Zephyr2k~enwiki, Seamar31, Zatoichi26, Catgut, Animum, IkonicDeath, ACfan, Fang 23, HC’s Hombre, Manav 95,EstebanF, Brunodam, Glen, DerHexer, Markus451, Lenticel, Viyu5, Archen~enwiki, Patstuart, Mschiffler, Gwern, Jerem43, MartinBot,Church of emacs, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Arjun01, Rettetast, Phasechange, Bissinger, Azalea pomp, BlueBerry.Pickn, Protopho-bic, Starsare69, Cdcdoc, MarshalN20, Uriel8, Pernambuco, Daguerio, Seanjohn15, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Kortiz,Tarnishedessence, Lilac Soul, Francis Tyers, Jargon777, Mausy5043, Erockrph, RockMFR, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Rgoodermote, JamesR,Bogey97, Numbo3, Gamhead, Uncle Dick, MistyMorn, Mikelj, Cdolk, Nigholith, MrBell, Eliz81, Petgamer, Megan2121, GuilhermePaula, Ian.thomson, Derwig, Ownage2214, Sherdmm, Slippered sleep, Blue102, Austin512, Rfacusa, JayJasper, Chriswiki, AntiSpamBot,Walfeal, Escriva~enwiki, Robertson-Glasgow, HiLo48, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, Altay otun, Cobi, Ahuskay, Jmcw37, Flatter-world, Student7, Wikignome1, BigHairRef, Hanacy, Jordan Boxer, 2help, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Evb-wiki, Nick, Kielce, NitaReads,Mimana, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Fersolieslava, Tets1, Ja 62, Rmgmu, Jarry1250, AndyMarchbanks, Homo logos, JavierMC, Akoregft, HighK-ing, Ronbo76, Ammon86, Dfffs, TheNewPhobia, SoCalSuperEagle, Aosxseedx, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Lights, X!, Gun-nerdevil4, PeaceNT, Deor, VolkovBot, RJHigginson, ABF, DSRH, Kugelmass, Jeff G., Indubitably, Maxumum12, Butwhatdoiknow, Al-noktaBOT, Saddy Dumpington, Barneca, Maxmc, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, Rkt2312, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Jomasecu, Jkeene, 99DB-SIMLR, Maximillion Pegasus, Kupsmokes2, Emlee123, Aidepikiwym, Technopat, LaNicoya, Sarenne, NPrice, Remoc, Gabokool~enwiki,Scoelho86, AlysTarr, Aymatth2, Qxz, Sjeng, C.J. Griffin, Lradrama, Sintaku, MINGESELLE299, DennyColt, Corvus cornix, Mar-tin451, JhsBot, Leafyplant, DyceBot, Sanfranman59, HereIsJohnny, Dlae, Chibi2chibi, Mdawg10, Mkpumphrey, Seb az86556, Bent-ley4, Alegarza, Wikiperuvian, Master Bigode, Jmdelloso, Timhogs, Ccbfdude, MearsMan, RadiantRay, Madhero88, Rebaaa, Iforget1919,Eostrom, Usergreatpower, Krzysfr, Lashram, Davidraph, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Markfreak, Fleela, Sevela.p, Pedicabo egovos et irrumabo, Insanity Incarnate, Ajax381, Why Not A Duck, Juan Lennon, Ceranthor, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, Perrona~enwiki,Anonimo93, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, YoungProdigy722, Edgarleon, Moranje, Hotshotbasketball019, Codydrew, RacerboyGTR, Kslain,SieBot, Danielinyaracuy, Dusti, Meltonkt, Antipoeten, YonaBot, Tiddly Tom, Euryalus, BotMultichill, Jauerback, Elissus, Jerahad, Likento a glove, Winchelsea, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, RJaguar3, Yintan, FlowerShip, Periergeia, Richzendy~enwiki, Masterdjm,Keilana, Cincydude55, Blackjays1, Bentogoa, Cuvette, JD554, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Tim Thomason, Thatwasrandom801, Blaireaux,Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Mikey31415, Faradayplank, Smilesfozwood, Avnjay, Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, LuciusValens,Hobartimus, Starbwoy, OKBot, Mrtoes, Belligero, Paperfire, Calatayudboy, C'est moi, MoonSha, StaticGull, BlueSakura, Mygerardro-mance, Wikiskimmer, Wjemather, Smtp27, Mumble45, Yessid, Angelo De La Paz, Jimmy Slade, Akurero~enwiki, Tinhorao, USA306,Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Faithlessthewonderboy, RegentsPark, Ddrriivvee, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Tanvir Ahmmed, Elassint,ClueBot, Clivemacd, Snigbrook, Kennvido, Kotniski, Wikievil666, The Thing That Should Not Be, Csedelmeyer, Rjd0060, Plastikspork,Haggismaker, Grasbal, Guitarshredder60, KeninAVL, Dmitri 421, Saddhiyama, Meekywiki, Ferrarofilms, Fiet Nam, Drmies, Alasdair-Green27, KEEPHEAUX!, Mild Bill Hiccup, Night Goblin, Josefus2003, Italiabella89, Mdlawmba, Desaparecido~enwiki, Blanchardb,Orthoepy, Desaparecido1, Neverquick, Pras, ChandlerMapBot, Vash1987, JazzyJBaseball, Nameofme321, F-402, Bbb2007, DragonBot,LeoFrank, Detroiterbot, Sansoncarrasco, Excirial, Diderot’s dreams, Canis Lupus, Jusdafax, Utopian fir myself, Noolvidaremos, Monobi,Mfa fariz, Lartoven, Nolitafairytale, Oangola, Sebi123~enwiki, Kwsn-pub, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Honkbird, Wiggerstar22, Promethean,Acas7i11o, JamieS93, Iohannes Animosus, Tnxman307, Abarretorothaug, Sintari, Basketball110, Deoli1, Revotfel, Redthoreau, Mickeygfss2007, Cocoliras, Durryaxel, Rui Gabriel Correia, ZeltinH., Thingg, Porculus, Aitias, Halgin, Samantha555, Versus22, Smarkflea,NJGW, Lx 121, MelonBot, Ubardak, SoxBot III, Gargantu, DumZiBoT, Sapiens23, Njoedits, Skunkboy74, Jax 0677, Cmetian, XLinkBot,Pichpich, Trogdorman121, Junglekitty, Carlman998877665544332211, Lghvene, Feinoha, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Wik-Head, ThomasDerflinger, NellieBly, Mifter, PL290, Badgernet, Elbillygoat, Good Olfactory, ElMeBot, Randombob12345, Gggh, That-guyflint, Franz weber, Caraqueno, Hihi5154, HexaChord, Potily, Jhendin, Dave1185, Voui, Ishibras, Addbot, Kjfgk454jk, Dg5 4! x, Tcncv,Fyrael, Muffinmlol, Fds norlly fi, Ronhjones, Hattar393, Amanana, Njaelkies Lea, Fieldday-sunday, Viminoa, Cheney123, Jdfng44, Canadi-anLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Brogan115, Mnmazur, Download, Danjonas, Buster7, Glane23, Pathivu, Debresser, Mecjmr, AnnaFrance,Maurobio, Thewonderidiot, Roger68., Soccerolive7, Mbinebri, Numbo3-bot, Flatfish89, TriniMuñoz, Zeyadelhennawi, Gmorillo~enwiki,Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Lightbot, Krano, Luckas Blade, Gail, HAMM, Zorrobot, David0811, MaffuP, Bartledan, HerculeBot, Bricklayer,Waltloc, LuK3, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Ojay123,Wikipedian2, The Earwig, La Obra Santa, EnochBethany, Washburnmav, ArchonMagnus, THENWHOWAS PHONE?, Unisycho56, Mo-Hasanie, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, Potapt, South Bay, MonkECmonkEDo, Againme, Digirami, Bility, Richigi, Backslash Forwardslash,AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Puertorico1, Ormers, A More Perfect Onion, Marauder40, Gas3191, Mr-Ej, Veertlte, 1exec1, Kurt.campbell,Jim1138, Galoubet, Cptnono, Geo24793, DrBash, Locke25, Temujin321, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Tr999, NickK, Jewpuppy,Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Dalv89, RobertEves92, The High Fin SpermWhale, Citation bot, OllieFury, Maxis ftw, JohnnyB256, Kel-logg257~enwiki, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, B. 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28 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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15.2 Images• File:Abolicion_de_la_esclavitud_en_Venezuela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Abolicion_de_

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• File:Alma_llanera.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Alma_llanera.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: S/D Original artist: Rafael Bolívar Coronado

• File:Bandera_de_Caracas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Bandera_de_Caracas.svg License:CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISO_639_Icon_es.svg' class='image' title='español'><imgalt='español' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/30px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png'width='30' height='14' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/45px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ISO_639_Icon_es.svg/60px-ISO_639_Icon_es.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='400' data-file-height='180' /></a> File:Flag of Caracas-2.png Original artist: This vector image includeselements that have been taken or adapted from this: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg'class='image'><img alt='Coat of Arms of Caracas.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg/20px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg/30px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg/40px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Caracas.svg.png2x' data-file-width='1234' data-file-height='1226' /></a> Coat of Arms of Caracas.svg (by Heralder).

• File:Barquisimeto_de_Noche.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Barquisimeto_de_Noche.jpg Li-cense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Angel Pérez Santamaria (yo) Original artist: Perez.angel.e

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• File:Biblioteca_de_la_Universidad_Central_de_Venezuela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Biblioteca_de_la_Universidad_Central_de_Venezuela.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The Photographer

• File:CarreteraPicoElAguila.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/CarreteraPicoElAguila.jpg License:CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/98854909@N00/9594311064/sizes/h/ Original artist: Isaac Bonyuet

• File:Chavez-WSF2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Chavez-WSF2005.jpg License: CC BY 3.0brContributors: http://www.agenciabrasil.gov.br/media/imagens/2008/01/14/1819vc037a.jpg/viewOriginal artist: Valter Campanato/ABr

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15.2 Images 29

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Cte_cachamay_aereo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Cte_cachamay_aereo.jpg License:GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shaolingv4

• File:Decrease2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Decrease2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist: Sarang

• File:Dos_Mosquises.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Dos_Mosquises.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berrucomons

• File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeff Dahl

• File:Emblem_of_the_Bolivarian_Alliance_for_the_Americas.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Emblem_of_the_Bolivarian_Alliance_for_the_Americas.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:Enigmaticland

• File:Emblem_of_the_Union_of_South_American_Nations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Emblem_of_the_Union_of_South_American_Nations.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on official emblemprovided by UNASUR. Original artist: Oficina de Coordinación UNASUR

• File:Estadio_de_Béisbol_de_la_UCV_Caracas_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Estadio_de_B%C3%A9isbol_de_la_UCV_Caracas_4.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hernan Florida

• File:Federal_dependencies_of_Venezuela’{}s_Flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Federal_dependencies_of_Venezuela%27s_Flag.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vexilio

• File:Firma_del_acta_de_independencia_de_Venezuela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Firma_del_acta_de_independencia_de_Venezuela.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib_autor/fmiranda/iconografia.shtml Original artist: Martin Tovar y Tovar

• File:Flag_of_Amazonas_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Flag_of_Amazonas_State.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bayo

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• File:Flag_of_Apure_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Apure_State.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: own work, loosely based on Image:Escudo apure.gif Original artist: bayo

• File:Flag_of_Aragua_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Aragua_State.svg License:Public domain Contributors: own work, loosely based on image off the web Original artist: bayo

• File:Flag_of_Barinas_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Flag_of_Barinas_State.svg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Barinasvlag.png, and own work Original artist: Domie (Image:Barinasvlag.png) ; bayo (SVG con-version)

• File:Flag_of_Bolívar_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Bol%C3%ADvar_State.svgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Unukalhai

• File:Flag_of_Carabobo_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Flag_of_Carabobo_State.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bayo

• File:Flag_of_Cojedes_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Flag_of_Cojedes_State.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eudhen

• File:Flag_of_Delta_Amacuro_State.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_Delta_Amacuro_State.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bayo

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domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bayo• File:Flag_of_Mercosur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Mercosur.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: SVG implementation of Mercosul-Mercosur/CMC/DEC Nº 17/02 Original artist: Converted to SVG by Fvasconcellos(talk · contribs)

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15.2 Images 31

• File:PalacioLegislativo2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/PalacioLegislativo2.jpg License: CC BY2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mcdemoura/2316759071/in/set-72157606768588123/ Original artist: Márcio Cabral deMoura

• File:Playa_El_Agua.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Playa_El_Agua.JPG License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Antoniofermin

• File:Roraima3_(79).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Roraima3_%2879%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paolo Costa Baldi

• File:Rómulo_Betancourt,_1961.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/R%C3%B3mulo_Betancourt%2C_1961.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:South_America_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/South_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Imagem feita a partir de Brazil (ortho-graphic projection).svg. Original artist: by Luan <a href='https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Luan,<span>,&,</span>,action=edit,<span>,&,</span>,section=new'><img alt='Tokyoship Talk icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg/20px-Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg/30px-Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg/40px-Tokyoship_Talk_icon.svg.png2x' data-file-width='300' data-file-height='300' /></a> <a href='//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usu%C3%A1rio_Discuss%C3%A3o:Luan'title='pt:Usuário Discussão:Luan'><img alt='Tango style Wikipedia Icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg/20px-Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg/30px-Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg/40px-Tango_style_Wikipedia_Icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='48' data-file-height='48' /></a>

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• File:United_States_Navy_Band_-_Gloria_al_Bravo_Pueblo.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/United_States_Navy_Band_-_Gloria_al_Bravo_Pueblo.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/national_anthems.htmVenezuela.mp3 Original artist: United States Navy Band (performer)

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• File:Venezuela_Export_Treemap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Venezuela_Export_Treemap.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Economic Complexity Observatory, MIT Media Lab and the Center for International De-velopment at Harvard University. (TC) http://atlas.media.mit.edu Original artist: R. Haussmann, Cesar Hidalgo, et.al. Creative CommonsAttribution - Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. See permission to share image on web at: http://atlas.media.mit.edu/about/permissions/

• File:Venezuelan_Air_Force_Sukhoi_SU-30MK2_AADPR-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Venezuelan_Air_Force_Sukhoi_SU-30MK2_AADPR-2.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Venezuela---Air/Sukhoi-Su-30MK2/2004211/L/ Original artist: André Austin Du-Pont Rocha (Mexico Air Spotters M.A.S.)

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32 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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