C hapter 10

V I BR A TO A ND TR E MO LO

V ibrato

The absolute whisper is produced when the resonance cavities are

shaped for the vowel and the vocal cords are so far separated that they

do not come into vibration. There is, therefore, no variable fundamental

present, so that the pitch of the absolute whisper cannot be altered. The

air is ex pelled from the lungs and, passing out in a stream, brings the air

in the shaped cavities into vibration, thereby producing the vowel sound.

A s soon as the intensity rises above a whisper, phonation starts; the

glottis begins to close. A t very low intensities, under proper technical

conditions, the vocal cords are still relatively widely separated. Under

these circumstances the breath ex pulsion is very high, and considerable

work must be done by the singer to maintain the breath pressure and

phonate with the resonance cavities held in their proper " set."

A further increase in intensity augments the tension on the muscles

of both the larynx and the pharynx , and narrows, and �nally closes, the slit

of the glottis. A t a certain point of intensity, muscular fatigue would result,

were this tension on the muscles of the pharynx and larynx to be held con-

stant and the breath pressure maintained. This intensity varies with di�er-

ent voices. I t might be termed the mezzo-piano of any given voice which

is free and in correct adj ustment. I t is important to note that even this

intensity is not so very soft— indeed it may be considerably louder than

the F .F . of the same singer were he to be using a throaty technic.

W hen this point at which the vocal muscular system (i.e., the muscles

of the thorax , larynx and pharynx ) would fatigue, if it were held in

constant tension, is reached, the vibrato action begins to come into play;

and this action increases in amplitude as the intensity rises. Under

proper conditions the vibrato swing can become very great, so that,

while the max imum intensity of sound which can be produced by any

given vocal apparatus is �x ed, a sense of increased loudness or emotion

may be conveyed by means of a greater swing of the vibrato.

Let it be perfectly clear, then, that the nature of the vibrato is an

" on" and " o�" nerve impulse to the entire muscular system which actuates

the voice. I n other words, the vibrato is, from the physiological stand-

point, a vibration on a tension. The nerve impulses should, under proper

conditions, be applied, at one and the same instant, to the muscles of

the larynx , pharynx and thorax , released and reapplied, etc., very rapidly.

16 7

There is, of course, a de�nite limit to the freq uency of the vibrato and,

under normal conditions, there is a normal speed. A n increased freq uency

of vibrato is used for the trill and for the high speed running of musical

�gures— scales, chromatic scales, cadenzas, etc.

The vibrato freq uency, (i.e., the number of " on" and " o�" impulses

per second) is probably never found to be too rapid in the case of a

true vibrato. I t is often too slow when the technic is faulty. A n ideal

vibrato freq uency is about 6 -6 .2 per second. The freq uency 6 .2 was

found for a high B �at, sung forte, on a record of C aruso' s voice. The fre-

q uency of the vibrato should be the same at all pitches.

R eadings of the vibrato freq uency and, probably, the pitch variation

so found are reliable, but no other characteristic tak en from records is of

any real value in obtaining q uantitative data.

I n the past a great many such readings have been tak en despite the

fact that but few unaccompanied tones appeared on the records of the

great singers. I t is impossible to obtain su�cient data from the records

of the voice of any given singer to mak e such an investigation of real

value, even if the other factors which render such readings unreliable

were not present.

I n an investigation of the vibrato it is necessary that the singer, in

person, should produce a series of tones of varying pitches and intensities,

and that these tones should be sung under acoustical conditions which

can be de�nitely check ed. F urthermore, the apparatus used must be

highly sensitive.

The investigator must also realize that a successful singer does not

necessarily use his voice well— success may be due to other causes. A gain,

even the greatest artists vary, to a mark ed degree, with each tone they

sing, and the investigator must, therefore, be in a position to give a

de�nite criticism of each particular tone sung, from the standpoint of

registration and resonance adj ustment as well as vibrato. F urthermore,

he must be able to distinguish, de�nitely, between the true vibrato, the

vibrato which has some of the characteristics of the tremolo, and the

tremolo. A s will be shown later, these phenomena can easily be confused.

O ne last point with regard to deductions drawn from records: The

intensity range recorded is so limited that the singer is most unlik ely

to produce his voice normally. I f he is an ex perienced recording artist

he will probably never sing very loud or very soft tones. F or this reason,

it is unlik ely that any tone which is so soft as to be without vibrato will

appear on the record, despite the fact that when the tone is pianissimo

the vibrato should be practically absent. A s a result of the " on" and

" o�" vibrato impulse, the intensity of the tone varies periodically (about

6 -6 .2 times per second), and the degree of this intensity variation is

dependent upon the loudness of the tone being phonated. A t normal

intensity this variation seems to be about 3-6 decibels, according to the

latest readings tak en in the laboratories of E lectrical R esearch Products,

I nc. I t is evident that this intensity variation must be accompanied by a

�uctuation of pitch, because the " on" and " o�" nerve impulses are applied

to the laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles as well as to the muscles of the

thorax . This pitch change is far greater than one would imagine. F or

instance, C aruso' s vibrato shows a pitch variation of a semitone— in other

words, when this supremely great artist sang a full, high tone he was

producing an interval change eq ual to that of a semitone trill.

The pitch change of the vibrato can, however, be so greatly increased

that, in the case of an ex treme fortissimo, an interval of no less than three

semitones has been recorded on the oscillograph. (S ee F ig. 33.)

• iilH H im-

F ig. 33— A coustic S pectrometer R eading of the V ibrato of a

W ell-produced V oice S inging F ortissimo

E ach dot (or line) indicates an interval of a q uarter of a tone. Note that

about six dots are involved in the vibrato (the pitch variation is about one

and a half whole tones).

The ex traordinary feature of this phenomenon is that the ear hardly

seems to detect any de�nite pitch change at all.

O ne would imagine that an alternating pitch change of one to three

semitones would e�ect the ear unpleasantly, especially in view of the

fact that there is no harmonic relationship between the high and low

freq uencies of the vibrato. But here we come to one of those interesting

psychological factors with which we are so often faced in our study of

the human voice. E very great voice of which we have any record has

always had a vibrato. I n fact, it is not humanly possible for a singer to

hold the tension for the proper adj ustments of the larynx , pharynx and

thorax for a full, free tone without this physical release of the " on" and

" o�" application of the nerve impulse. Thus, if he attempts to hold a full

tone without vibrato, the entire resonance system will actually collapse.

Because every great voice has always had a vibrato, the ear has come

to associate the vibrato with a well-produced tone. Therefore it not only

accepts this pitch change, but rej ects the tone which is steady, because

such a tone is always associated with a throaty technic and, hence, an

unpleasant q uality.

The intensity vibrato varies from zero at pianissimo to about 10 decibels

at fortissimo. A t mezzo-forte, it is about 5 decibels. (S ee F ig. 34 A .)

The human voice di�ers from a mechanical sound-producing apparatus

inasmuch as the break -down of any one part of the system will bring

about a change in the functioning of other parts of the apparatus; with

the mechanical instrument, it will merely cause distortion or total collapse.

The actual e�ect of the vibrato, from the standpoint of the listener,

the rise in intensity. I f the nerve impulses to the larynx , pharynx and

thorax are not in phase, the high freq uency point of the vibrato may

occur at the point of low intensity. This is particularly true in the case

of a very loud tone. O ne would imagine that this phase relation would be

a vital factor in good q uality, but, while further investigation is necessary

before any de�nite statement can be made, in actual practice this shifting

of the high freq uency point does not seem to a�ect the q uality of the tone

in any mark ed degree.

/^ -^ --Y /w^ ~ ^ ^

F ig. 34— H igh S peed Level-recordings of the V ibrato

A — This shows a reading of the intensity vibrato of a well-produced voice

singing forte. Note the evenness of the vibrato. The space between the hori-

zontal lines is 10 d.b. Note that the vibrato variation is about half this space,

i.e., 5 d.b.

B— This shows a reading of the crescendo on the vibrato of a well-produced

voice.

The accompanying tracing was registered on the high speed level-recorder

at the Bell Telephone Laboratories. The tone high F f, sung by a baritone whose

technic was good, was started softly and swelled to fortissimo.

This piece of apparatus registers, with great accuracy and at high speed,

every intensity variation. The reader will notice the de�nite increase in the

intensity variation of the vibrato as the tone is swelled.

This increase in the amplitude of the vibrato produces the e�ect of a far

greater augmentation of the intensity than actually occurs. The rise in intensity

of this particular tone appeared to be very great, while the actual increase in

intensity— the mean between the high and low point of the vibrato at fortissimo

as compared with the more or less even intensity of the soft part of the tone

which was practically without vibrato— was relatively slight.

I t has been believed by certain investigators that the vibrato is switched on

lik e an organ-stop and does not vary with intensity. R eadings traced by the

high speed level-recorder de�nitely prove the fallacy of this contention and show

that the amplitude of the vibrato is the main factor in intensity regulation.

I f the vibrato is irregular, too slow, has too great a pitch change, or

O f all the misconceptions about the human voice, even in the writings

of famous musical critics, and some scientists, the confusion between

vibrato and tremolo is one of the most strik ing. The vibrato is a vital

concomitant of good singing. The tremolo is a lamentable fault.

W hat is the nature of the tremolo? I t consists primarily of a �utter on

constriction, i.e., a �utter of the tongue. O nly a throaty singer has a

tremolo. S uch a singer, especially if he persists in doing a great deal of

soft singing, will progressively increase the tension on the constrictor

muscles. A s he continues to abuse his voice, this tetanic �uttering may

spread from the tongue, which will be seen to move in and out with

the tremolo action, to the j aw, which will also come into sympathetic

tetanic action.

This tetanic movement which causes the tremolo is generally of higher

freq uency than is the vibrato movement and, according to our more

recent work , has a freq uency of 7 to 11 �utters per second. The absolute

tremolo is without intensity variation. (S ee F ig. 35.)

* Lf

y i

F ig. 35— A H igh S peed Level-recorder Tracing of an A bsolute

Tremolo— Badly Produced V oice

Note that no intensity variation is indicated.

The vibrato shows an intensity characteristic which is absent in the

tremolo.

I nasmuch as the muscles of the thorax are not involved in the tremolo

action, one would ex pect the intensity variation to be absent, as indicated

in these oscillograms.

The tremolo is ex tremely common, and is a most inj urious technical

fault. Teachers who " build on the soft," " place the voice in the head,"

neglect the lower register with women and the falsetto with men, and

those who force their pupils to �atten and groove the tongue and hold it

pressed against the lower teeth, will (provided that the pupil is con-

scientious) very often induce this inj urious tetanic vibration of the

epiglottis, tongue and �nally the j aw.

The vibrato consists of a periodically applied nerve impulse to all

muscles used in phonation, while the tremolo is merely an inj urious,

tetanic �uttering of the walls of the resonance cavities. O f course, where

there is a tremolo, tension on the constrictor muscles of the throat always

occurs, so that the mouth becomes the resonator of the tone, and pharyn-

geal resonance adj ustment is impossible. The tremolo occurs eq ually

with soft and loud tones, while the vibrato appears only at M.P. for the

given voice and then augments as the intensity increases.

171

R emember that when the vibrato is absent, the q uality of the tone

is always unpleasant. The training of the vibrato is, therefore, of the

utmost importance.

The tremolo action occurs only when the throat is closed, i.e., when

the technic is throaty. The true vibrato is in e�ect a �uctuation on open-

ing tension and occurs only when opening tension has been established.

This means that an advanced stage in the technical development has

been reached. A t this stage the tremolo has necessarily been eliminated.

The teacher must not attempt to develop the vibrato before this stage

has been reached. I f any attempt is made to develop a vibrato from an

absolute tremolo, the e�ect will be merely to engender an unpleasant

wobble in the voice.

There is, however, a type of vocal movement which is between the

vibrato and the tremolo, despite the fact that the true vibrato and the

absolute tremolo are entirely di�erent phenomena. This " tremolo vibrato"

movement is far more vigorous than the insipid tongue tremolo of the

typical radio singer." F or this reason it is often possible to change the

former into a true vibrato. This process is often q uite a simple one. A s

soon as pharyngeal resonance adj ustment has been established, the

teacher should, in most cases, be able to co-ordinate, without much di�-

culty, the muscular actions of the thorax , larynx and tongue in their

proper phase and amplitude relations for the true vibrato. The hundred

percent light, soft tremolo must always be entirely eliminated and the

tongue action reversed, before any serious attempt can be made to de-

velop a true vibrato.

W hen the voice is " dead" steady, the process of developing a vibrato

may or may not be a di�cult one. I n some cases, when the concept of

what constitutes a beautiful tone is lack ing, the process is ex tremely

arduous. W hen the pupil has been subj ected to inj urious teaching meth-

ods, he may have developed the habit of holding a steady tension on the

muscles of the thorax (especially on the ex piratory muscles) to such a

degree that he has become virtually muscle-bound. Under such circum-

stances, the process of engendering the concept of a free movement of

the muscles of the thorax is indeed di�cult. The very untalented beginner

is sometimes found in a muscle-bound condition. Under normal circum-

stances, however, where the pupil has a certain degree of talent for

singing, this vibrato concept is easily attained. A ctually the movement

of the diaphragm which actuates the vibrato is of very small amplitude,

but it can be de�nitely sensed.

A s soon as the necessary stage in the technical development has been

reached, it is absolutely essential that work on the vibrato should be

volves a vibration on a tension of the muscles of the thorax , which move-

ment— though slight— can actually be felt. W hen this shak e can be

performed vigorously and smoothly, it is often possible for the singer to

speed it up and thus change it into the semi-re�ex ed vibrato action.

S ometimes the vibrato may be developed from a slow wobble which is

actuated by the muscles of the thorax . I f the wobble is slow, the pitch

change is very wide. W hen it is speeded up to the desired freq uency

(6 per second), the pitch change should become normal (about a semi-

tone) and the sensation of the vibrato movement should be ex perienced.

F aulty methods of inspiration inhibit the vibrato action. This is par-

ticularly true of the pupil who in�ates his chest and brings tension to

bear on the muscles of the upper ribs. A proper inspiration is accom-

plished primarily through the in�ation of the lower part of the lungs,

which engenders tension on the muscles of the diaphragm and the lower

ribs. I t is these muscles which move for the vibrato. F or this reason

anyone who, through faulty teaching methods, or because of bad habit,

in�ates and raises his chest, must be carefully instructed in the proper

method of inspiration. I f the muscles of the thorax are held in tension

before the tone is attack ed, the vibrato action is inhibited. The vibrato

action must be initiated at the moment of attack and must persist as long

as the singer continues to phonate.

W hen a correct vibrato has been attained, the acq uisition of the ability

to encompass all speed work , legato singing, and even the trill, becomes

q uite a simple matter, which, in the last analysis, is dependent solely

upon the singer' s ear. By ear is meant the ability to conceive, as a single,

co-ordinated, muscle-controlling unit, groups of tones (musical phrases),

each tone with its own pitch, q uality, intensity and duration.

O ne of the most vicious practices of the singer whose technic is faulty,

is slurring. The underlying principle of singing is the production of musi-

cal tones, and more than this, musical �gures and phrases. A musical

�gure is a small group of notes. O ne or more of these groups comprise a

melody. The musical phrase (the end of the phrase is always mark ed

with a cadence) generally consists of a far wider group of notes. W hether

it be the single note or the group of notes forming the musical �gure

or the phrase, each note has in itself a de�nite pitch or freq uency, ex cept

for the vibrato variation. W hen playing the piano, one can only strik e

the k eys, and although it is possible to strik e a wrong k ey, it is not possible

to play between the k eys. I n other words, each time a k ey on a piano is

struck , a sound of �x ed pitch or freq uency is emitted, and this freq uency

cannot be progressively modi�ed, i.e., either sharped or �atted.

The singer, in company with the violinist, etc., is, unhappily, not in

the same fortunate circumstances as the pianist or the performer on any

other k eyed instrument. H e can slur. H e can at any moment, especially

when changing pitch, slide from one tone to the nex t instead of changing

the pitch without intermediate noises. I t is, of course, apparent, from

A ll badly taught singers slur, as do practically all beginners. Badly trained

singers, however, are generally the worst o�enders in this direction. I n

the case of a singer whose high tones are incorrectly produced and out

of resonance adj ustment, the struggle involved in the attempt to produce

these tones engenders, in his subconscious mind, a sense of fear, or

inhibition. S uch inhibition inevitably results in slurring. There is only one

way in which slurring can be eliminated— by means of the vibrato. Lack

of vibrato always causes slurring.

The slur may be de�ned as a smooth slide in freq uency, whereas, when

the technic is correct, changes of pitch are accomplished by means of the

vibrato mechanism which enables the singer to climb up or down the scale

in steps.

During phonation, whether on one tone or over a series of tones, the

beat of the vibrato should continue uninterrupted, unless a consonant

intervenes. I t is this vibrato movement which allows the voice to move

from tone to tone without slurring, stopping or j erk ing. The transition

from one tone to another must tak e place in the space of one vibrato.

During the " o�" phase of the vibrato, the laryngeal and pharyngeal mus-

cles are relatively relax ed, and the nex t " on" impulse allows the vocal

cords to tak e the ex act tension for the nex t tone while the muscles which

actuate the tongue tak e on their tension, and " position" the resonance

system for the nex t tone in all its characteristics. A s the singer moves up

a rising musical �gure, the vibrato impulse which raises the pitch and

intensity must be augmented.

I t is possible to obtain ex act adj ustments and avoid slurring only when

this movement on the vibrato is inculcated. The ex act shaping of the

resonance cavities depends upon the mental concept of pitch, timbre

and intensity, and the muscles can only respond to this concept if they

are in what might be termed a " �uid" condition. The vibrato maintains

all the muscles used in phonation in this " �uid," or moving, condition.

O ne of the most vital phases of singing is perfection of time and

rhythm. W hen the voice is produced properly, the regularity of the vibrato

is nearly mechanically perfect. H ence, the singer with a proper vibrato

becomes a sort of human metronome. E ach note in a musical phrase has

a certain time spot. The minimum length of time a well-produced tone

can be held is one vibrato— about a six th of a second. I t can also be

held any length of time which is a whole number times one vibrato. I t

cannot be held for part of one vibrato. The time between tones is �x ed

irrespective of the tempo— it is one vibrato. Thus, in singing a musical

phrase, each note in the music, according to its value, is held for one,

he has no time-gauge for the value of each tone, and he will, therefore,

inevitably slur, because he is uncertain as to the ex act moment at which

he is to change the pitch.

I t is transparent that, if a singer slurs from one tone to another, the

resonance adj ustment must be faulty for one or both of the tones. I f he

were to hold the adj ustment for the �rst tone, the second tone, which

should have a di�erent adj ustment, would be out of adj ustment. Generally

speak ing, however, the singer who slurs will not hold the adj ustment of

the lower tone, but will actually go into constriction as he pushes or forces

his voice up the scale.

The trill also is dependent upon the vibrato action. I t is virtually a

speeded-up, ex aggerated vibrato, which has been re�ex ed— " re�ex ed"

because, while the speed of the vibrato can, within certain limits, be

regulated, the speed of the trill is �x ed for a given voice. I t is probable

that both the laryngeal and the pharyngeal movements are greater in

proportion to the movement of the thorax for the trill than for the vibrato.

Unfortunately, imitations of vibrato runs and trills can be made with

the tremolo. The resultant e�ect is a sq ueak y, little run-up for the scale,

and a tremor for the trill.

O ne point regarding vibrato and tremolo must be emphasized.

V irtually every pupil starts with either some form of tremolo, or with

a " dead-steady" tone. O nly a well-produced voice has a true vibrato.

W hen the " dead-steady" tone, which is always more or less throaty,

has been completely " opened up," the vibrato nearly always appears

spontaneously. I f it does not do so, it is a relatively simple matter

for the pupil to bring it into action. A ctually there is seldom, if ever,

any di�culty with the vibrato with voices which have been really

" opened up."

E limination of Tremolo

The elimination of the tremolo is, then, one of the �rst problems

to be work ed out in training the voice. The tremolo generally

emanates from a lack of development of the genio-glossus muscle

and ex cessive tension on the antagonistic tongue muscles, also from

relax ation of the genio-hyoid muscle, from a tetanic q uiver of the

j aw, or from a combination of these causes. The tongue instrument

and the lifting of the hyoid bone are of great value in check ing the

tremolo, but where it is seated in the j aw, the complete opening of

this member should eliminate it. Tremolo is nearly always associated

with the lock , or middle, position of the j aw, although it can occur

when the j aw is closed, or nearly closed.

175

V iolent Tremolos

S ometimes the tremolo action is so pronounced that it involves

the entire suspension of the larynx . Under such circumstances all

the manipulations which can be employed should be brought to

bear on the elimination of this shock ing wobble, which may have

a pitch ex cursion of a �fth or even more.

There is also a violent tremolo which seems to be seated in the

larynx and is probably a result of ex cessive tension on the thyro-

arytenoid muscles. This tremolo is the result of a virulent form of

muscular mix ed registration and is eliminated as soon as pure regis-

tration has been established.

Q uality, V oice Movement and R eproduction

I n regard to singing on the radio and for the records and movies,

there is not very much to be said here. Power is not a factor in

reproduction, because the amount of energy delivered to the am-

pli�er depends upon the setting of the input control, which is

regulated according to the loudness of the singer' s voice. W e are,

therefore, only reproducing pitch, vowel, movement and, of course,

consonants.

Q uality, i.e., pleasant or unpleasant q uality, does not depend

primarily upon the spectrum, but rather upon pitch and intensity

movements in time. I t is possible that changes of spectrum may occur

during the vibrato cycle, but further research is necessary before

anything more can be said on this subj ect. The fact remains, how-

ever, that if the movement is regular, of the proper freq uency, i.e.,

six a second, and of the proper amplitude for the intensity, and if

the middle pitch of the vibrato is constant (i.e., the pitch is cen-

tered properly) the q uality is pleasing. Now, unfortunately, a gentle

tremolo is very regular and, provided that the voice is not pushed,

the middle pitch of this movement may be relatively constant. This

is why the radio crooner sounds rather nice, provided that he never

attempts to sing out loud. O f course, if he does try to do so, the

laryngeal muscles do not hold and the arytenoid cartilages " give,"

with the result that the pitch starts to wander, and the q uality

becomes de�nitely unpleasant.

176

Di�erence of V ibrato from Tremolo

The singer whose voice is throaty and has a tremolo maintains

this �utter in his voice all the time he is singing. I t is more or less

constant over his entire— very limited— intensity range. The singer

whose voice is produced properly, however, has virtually no move-

ment at pianissimo. A s he swells the tone, the vibrato starts to

appear. A t M.F . it is about a semitone. A t fortissimo it may be as

much as a whole tone. F or all normal, full, free singing the pitch

ex cursion of the vibrato is almost ex actly a semitone, while the

intensity ex cursion is from three to �ve decibels. F or ex tremely loud

e�ects the pitch ex cursion may be as much as three semitones. (S ee

F ig. 33.)

V ibrato in R eproduction

W ith the old acoustical method of recording, when there was no

ampli�er and no input control, the singer had to regulate the loud-

ness himself by moving into or away from the horn. Because the

intensity range which could be recorded was very limited, it was

necessary for him to become highly pro�cient in these movements.

Nevertheless, this procedure made it impossible for the vibrato to

be reproduced faithfully.

I n order that the amplitude of the vibrato may be faithfully repro-

duced, it is essential that the intensity should not be monitored.

Thus, if the singer moved closer to the horn for a soft tone, the

reproduced sound was far louder in the intensity scale than he was

actually singing. H ence, every time he moved towards the horn,

the tone which was reproduced had too little vibrato for its in-

tensity. I nversely, when he moved away from the horn, the intensity

was very much reduced. Therefore, the amplitude of the vibrato

was too wide for the loudness of the tone when it was reproduced.

I t was, of course, impossible for him to avoid these movements,

towards and away from the horn, because if he had remained sta-

tionary, and far enough away from it not to overcut the groove for

his loudest tones, the soft tones would have been entirely submerged

by surface noise, and therefore inaudible.

The old records, therefore, do not show the proper amplitude

of the vibrato for the intensity being sung. This e�ect was aggra-

vated because of the ex tremely high surface noise. F urthermore,

the softer tones were then, inevitably far too loud in comparison

with the louder ones. F or this reason, the records of the voices of

the great singers of the past often show what seems to be too little

movement for the relative intensity of the tone being sung. This

177

is especially true of women and is strik ingly ex empli�ed on the

records of E mmy Destinn, probably the greatest woman singer ever

heard.

Great V oices R elatively S teady

A great voice is generally far steadier than a throaty one, and a

perceptible vibrato movement occurs only when the intensity rises

above pianissimo. V irtually every singer today has much too much

movement, and this is especially true at low intensity. The basic

tone should not be a wobble. W hen the technic is good, it is �rm and

the pitch is absolutely de�ned.

These facts must be borne in mind when listening to the record-

ings of the great singers of the past, because these records were all

made by the old acoustical method. Their voices are apt to sound

rather dead. This was most emphatically not true in life— then-

vibrato control was ex cellent. I n listening to these records, the dis-

tortion of the vibrato, as well as the failure to reproduce the higher

freq uencies, and the irregular speed of the turntable in the record-

ing mechanism, must be tak en into account. Nevertheless, the in-

telligent listener should be able to detect the incredible di�erence

between the voices of such singers as C aruso, Destinn, Melba, K irk by

Lunn, S ammarco, etc., and those of the best singers of today.

The reader should listen, for ex ample, for the precision of intona-

tion, the perfection of attack , the continuity of the musical line, the

de�nition of intensity for each tone in a musical phrase, the vibrato-

regulated intensity control, the legitimate, open pianissimo, the

rhythmic phrasing and the �ow and movement of the voice from tone

to tone. The most strik ing di�erence lies perhaps in the lack of slur

control, all runs can be made legitimately and without di�culty.

The singer who uses a throaty tremolo should not be allowed to

attempt runs until she has learned how to sing.

Pianissimo S inging

There has been a great deal of discussion about pianissimo sing-

ing. No pupil should sing softly until pharyngeal resonance adj ust-

ment is completely established. There is nothing so technically

destructive as illegitimate, soft singing. The throaty singer can

sq ueeze o� the tone with his neck and tongue muscles with con-

summate ease. I t is far easier for him to sing a soft than a loud tone.

The inverse is true when the voice is " opened up" — not throaty.

This is not only because the control of intensity should be a function

of the laryngeal muscles, not of the neck and tongue muscles, but

also because there is virtually no vibrato in a soft tone, and a tone

sung without the muscular release of the vibrato action demands a

de�nitely augmented muscular e�ort and control. I n decreasing the

intensity the balance of arytenoid to thyroid tension becomes

greater and the glottis opens slightly, so that the breath ex pulsion

becomes higher.* I n order that the breath pressure may be main-

tained against a less closed valve (glottis), the tension on the breath-

ing muscles must be augmented. F urthermore, because the

veys many intensely poignant interpretive e�ects. I t is, however,

something of a tour de force. The e�ort req uired to sing an entire

song pianissimo is at least as great as it would be to sing it trans-

posed up four semitones. E ven the greatest singer is unlik ely to

be able to maintain this level of tension throughout a recital.

C onstriction Particularly Destructive to Great V oices

I t is well to point out that the result is far more deadly when a

great, really " open," voice than when a partly " open" voice goes

into constriction. H ighly developed, opening muscles are balanced

by developed antagonistic muscles. F or this reason, when an " open"

voice produces a throaty tone, it is ex tremely throaty. This is why

a great voice is so very rapidly destroyed by incompetent teaching.

Teachers of today who " shut o�" their pupil' s voices deliberately,

unk nowingly can destroy great, contemporary, natural voices before

they have had time to develop. O nly mediocre voices survive such

training. I f C aruso' s voice had gone into constriction it would have

been completely eliminated. I f E mmy Destinn had fallen into the

hands of a teacher who eliminated her lower register and made her

" focus" her voice in the " masq ue" she never would have sung at all.

C ontrol of I ntensity

The fully-trained voice can sing at virtually any level of intensity,

and can gradually swell the tone from pianissimo to fortissimo and

then decresendo to pianissimo again on a perfectly even line with-

out any transition of q uality, and without, at any time, going into con-

striction. The singers of today generally have a loud voice (not very

loud) and a mezza voce, which is merely a trick of sq ueak ing, in

absolute constriction, in a more or less mix ed register. These two

methods of production are unrelated and such singers are unable

to swell the tone without a pronounced q uality transition. They

never sing a legitimate, pianissimo tone. They merely " chok e the

tone o�" with their tongues and neck s. This, most emphatically, is

not singing pianissimo. Many of the most successful singers of today

go through entire recitals with this neck -controlled, mezza-voce

technic. Let it be emphasized again: I t is a fact that it is impossible

for anyone to sing a legitimate pianissimo tone unless he can sing

an absolutely open fortissimo tone, at least four semitones higher.

The comment of a critic who states that a singer' s mezza voce is

beautiful, but that he forces his voice when he sings loudly is absurd.

H is mezza voce must be completely throaty. The loud tones, derived

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from this technic, are obj ectionable to the ear because the registra-

tion becomes very mix ed and the throatiness becomes apparent,

even to the uninitiated, at the higher intensity level.

W hen the voice is " opened up" and registered properly, it is not

di�cult for the pupil to produce pianissimo tones. A ll he has to

learn to do is to stop the vibrato and " hold," or work , harder, in-

creasing the work by about the same amount that would be de-

manded for the production of a tone four semitones higher than

the one he is singing.

Legitimate control of intensity depends, then, upon pure, devel-

oped, balanced registration, ability to " hold" pharyngeal resonance

adj ustment at all intensities, and upon control over the amplitude

of the vibrato.

F alsetto and V ibrato (Male)

Because the falsetto, in the man' s voice, is pianissimo, or softer,

over most of his singing range, the vibrato should always be vir-

tually absent from this register. I t should always be sung without

any movement at all below about high B. Thus, in " going through

the falsetto," the falsetto tone should be sung �rmly without any

movement whatever, ex cept for the very high tones. Most beginners

sing their falsetto tones with a de�nite tremolo action. This tremolo

must be eliminated, or the lower-register tone, derived from such

a falsetto tone, will be throaty and will have a very pronounced

tremolo. A ll mix ed-falsetto singers use a de�nite, and often a pro-

nounced, tremolo action at all times, or a " dead" steady tone. The

tremolo mak es a mix ed-falsetto tone sound more lik e a real tone,

especially in reproduction. A properly-produced falsetto tone below

high D does not sound lik e real singing when it is unco-ordinated

with the lower register. W hen it does, it is throaty, has a tremolo

and is not legitimate singing at all. Under such conditions it is

always mix ed and has an irritatingly e�eminate sound.

F alsetto and V ibrato (F emale)

The woman' s falsetto should have no movement for the low

tones, but because she sings an octave higher than a man, she will

sing legitimately in the falsetto register at about middle B, at M.P.

Therefore, at this pitch, some vibrato is desirable. A bove this pitch

a de�nite vibrato should be present and its amplitude should depend

upon the loudness of the tone. I t should not be too pronounced,

unless a very full tone is sung, and such a tone would not be sung

in the falsetto below about F #, on the top line of the treble clef.

16 1

A gain— most voices have far too much movement. O ur principal

problem with regard to movement lies in the elimination of tremolo

and in the cutting down of ex cessive vibrato. I n most cases the

vibrato appears more or less automatically as soon as real " opening"

tension has been established.

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