AKHENATEN1. Historical context

Geography, topography and resources of Egypt and its neighbours

- Egypt was sharply divided into fertile land, (black land), and the desert, (Redland). There was minimal rainfall and farming was done by irrigation

- Agriculture and irrigation were made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile which despotised fertile soil on the black land

- Egypt was protected by natural barriers, a combination of sea, desert and land too Poor produce a rival power that could face Egypt when it was strong.

- By the time Akhenaten came to the throne, Nubia, Palestine and Syria had been added to the Egyptian empire by his predecessors.

- The resources available to Egypt Provided by its neighbours included:o Gold, cattle, ebony, ivory, feathers and animal skins from Nubiao Copper, lead and silver, precious stones from Palestine Syriao Incense, fragrant woods, animals, gold, ivory an ebony, animal skins from Punt

- Resources that derived from Egypt included:o Barley, wheat, vegetables, fruit, wood and wine, fish from the Nile Valleyo Fishing, fowling, farming, grazing, papyrus for sandals, paper, boats from Deltao Natron, amethyst, hard stone, wild game, minerals and gold from the desert

Historical overview of the eighteenth dynasty

- At the end of the middle kingdom, central government failed and many smaller units emerged. The new kingdom started when the country was reunified.

- The Hyksos who were rulers of Asiatic descent had entered the north and taken over Lower Egypt.

- Ahmose, a Theban prince, became the first king of the 18th dynasty when he attacked and expelled the Hyksos from the Delta region and united upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom. His military progress at once established and justified his reign.

- Ahmose’s successors conquered Nubia and areas of Syria Palestine which brought to Egypt both greater security and considerable wealth.

- The dynasty gave much of the credit for their achievements to the god Amun-re- The ability to defeat the forces of chaos and establish Maat or harmony was

expressed in a new icon of the king actively engaged in warfare. Kings portrayed themselves as warrior pharaohs.

- Thutmose III extended the Egyptian empire to its greatest extent, Amenhotep II defended these conquests and Thutmose IV secured them with diplomacy.

Overview of social, political, military and economic structures of the eighteenth dynasty

Social structure:

- Egyptian society in the new kingdom consisted of hereditary monarch with semi divine status whom all other classes served.

- Theoretically, all offices were filled on merit although family influence was often a strong but generally unacknowledged factor.

- The king and his family and highest officials were at the top of the social pyramid followed by lower ranking members of the government.

- It was difficult to move up the social ladder, however some men achieved this such as Ay who began as Akhenaten’s personal secretary but became pharaoh.

- Women in Egyptian society derived their social status from the men to whom they belonged.

- The role of women was the traditional expectation, a mother and wife. They played no role in government but higher-ranking women should serve as members of religious cults. Such as tie, wife of Amenhotep III who carried out important religious and diplomatic roles in her husband’s reign.

- Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti went on to play important roles as well.

Economy:

- Egypt’s prosperity was largely dependent on the efficient production and distribution of grain as the staple of the economy.

- The importance of the vizier and the high-ranking members of the civil administrations, including overseers and treasurers were due to their role in maintaining all the workings of the pharaoh.

Political and Military:

- The military was responsible for the creation and maintenance of the empire, also enjoyed the benefits of high social rank. The general Horemheb achieved such high status that he could take on the kingships after Aye’s death.

- A comfortable after-life however was also depended on the provision of a tomb which the king granted. Status which was measured by the rank achieved in the government could only be translated into eternity by the possession of a state approved resting place.

Role of the Amun and Amun priesthood

- Amun came to prominence in the middle kingdom and his named was linked with the sun god re. the centre worship took place in Thebes

- Amun’s importance and status were enhanced when the 17th dynasty princes extended their rule over all of Egypt. The 18th dynasty kings made him a national god.

- Amun-Re was attributed with fathering the king, giving the king his military victories and supporting his line. In return, Amun’s temples were lavishly supplied and provided with extensive lands.

- These temples gave high priests an important position. The wealth they administered was the kings’ command. He drew on and redistributed the god’s resources.

- However, there was a view that the priests could have threated the king and didn’t control the priests however this is not definite.

- The officials who took over half of Egypt at the end of the 20th dynasty were first army men who later acquired the title high priest of Amun suggesting political power derives from the army which the king commanded.

- When Tutankhamen restored Amun’s positions, the new priests were drawn from the ranks of important families. However, Horemheb came to the throne because he was a general not because he was a priest. He made new priests from the ranks of the army which remained the source of new pharaohs.

- Akhenaten impacted the role of the Amun cults as he closed their temples thus diminishing the priest’s jobs.

Roles of the king and relationship to the gods, especially Amun

- The king was descended from the gods and derived his legitimacy from their authority. He could be described as Montu or other gods but that implied he was like them. After the gods and goddesses, he was next.

- His task was to ensure Maat, the continuance of the stable prosperous and peaceful harmony set up by the gods.

- The king was the interface between the gods and mankind- On a more practical level, it was his responsibility to see that there were temples and

offerings for all the deities of Egypt. - He was also in charge of justice, security and taxation which preserved and paid for

the maintenance of Maat- In the 18th dynasty the cult of Amun enjoyed the pre-eminent positions of state cult.- For example, Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III claimed to be the divine child of

Amun in a series of reliefs on the walls of his temple dedicated to Amun at Luxor.- The relationship between the king and the Amun cult was thus an interdependent

one was the king promoted Amun as the state cult and appointed the chief priest who in turn supported the king.

Overview of religious beliefs, cults and practices of the eighteenth dynasty

- Egyptians worshipped multiple gods and goddesses. There were the greater gods such as re, Osiris, Ptah and Amun. Others had fewer possessions of temples such as Hathor and Isis.

- There were domestic gods like Bes and Taweret and gods associated with royalty, Horus and Maat. There were also purely local gods like Merytseger

- Major cult temples were not part of the public domain and ordinary people took part in the worship only at the great festivals when images of the gods were brought out.

- Cult temples ensured the relationship of the gods with Egypt and the king and the general population

- The offerings made in the temples formed part of the wages of government employees. The goods were laid before the god who took what he wanted. What was left was handed out. Nothing was left to rot; the Egyptians were practical people

- Some gods were combined for example Amun-re and re-harakhty and this process was called syncretism.

- Apart from the domestic gods who were worshipped in the home, the theory is that the king was the intermediary between the people and the gods.

- The religious practices of the people are reflected in many ways: shrines in the home, amulet worn on the body, ancestor worship in tombs chapels, participation in religious festivals, offerings at shrines outside the main temples.

- 18t dynasty kings promoted Amun-re to national prominence. Two later religious developments came to the fore, solar religion and personal piety

- Solar religion was the emphasis of the role of the sun god Re as unique and personal piety was the development of a personal relationship to the gods.

2. Background and rise to prominence

Family background and evidence for early years

- Akhenaten was the second son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, the great royal wife. He became king because of the death of Thutmose, his elder brother and heir to the throne.

- Akhenaten had at least five sisters- There is no firm evidence concerning Akhenaten’s early life but certain assumptions

have been made - He spent some of his early years in Memphis, the capital until the last decade of his

father’s reign- He was educated at Heliopolis, centre of the worship of the sun god, reflected in his

early title of ‘first prophet of harakhty’ and his later religious beliefs.- He later built a temple for the Aten there and some of his officials from Heliopolis- He spent time at Malkata states the wine came from ‘the estate of the true king son

Amenhotep’- He was already married to Nefertiti when he came to throne - Possible co-regency with Amenhotep III of up to 12 years has been suggested due to

the third pylon at Karnak where a relief shows the figures of two kings.

Marriages: Queens and consorts

Nefertiti

- Nefertiti who came from a no royal background was Akhenaten’s great royal wife- Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters- Nefertiti had a major role in worship of the Aten and may have shared some of

Akhenaten’s political power, both early in his reign and possibly as the co-regent Smenkhare in the later years.

- There are many theories as to who Nefertiti is for exampleo Nefertiti was the name given to Todukhepa, a Miamian princess betrothed to

Amenhotep III who was married to Akhenaten following his father’s death.o Nefertiti was a daughter of Amenhotep III by a lesser wife, either an Egyptian

or a foreign princesso Nefertiti was descended from Ahmose-Nefertiti a prominent queen of the

early 18th dynasty. Evidence cited in her title ‘the heiress’o Nefertiti was the daughter of ay, brother of queen tie. His title ‘gods father’ is

considered by some to mean father-in-low-of the king’. Ay’s wife, Tey was Nefertiti wet nurse.

Kiya

- It has been suggested that Kiya was of Mitanni or Nubian origin. Although not the great royal wife, she had a special title, “greatly beloved wife’.

- She is known from a block found at the site of Hermopolis located across the Nile from Akhetaten.

- Her status is showed by reliefs of her worshipping the Aten at Akhetaten. The north palace and structures in the great palace and Maruaten were dedicated to her.

- Some scholar’s identity Kiya as the mother of Tutankhamen but evidence from Hermopolis also points to her being the mother of Akhenaten’s daughter Meritaten Tashery and Ankhesenpa Tashery.

- Some believe Ay was Kiya’s father.

Other wives

- Meritaten, Meketaten and Ankhesenpaaten are suggested wives of Akhenaten’s. Others including Todukhepa of the Mitanni were inherited from his father

- Akhenaten’s harem of diplomatic wives included a cassite princess.

3. Career

Titles and changes to his royal image over time

- Every pharaoh had given great names or titles, one of which was his personal or birth name.

- When Akhenaten came to throne, he automatically assumed four other royal names, the most important being the throne name.

- The changes in Akhenaten’s religious policy were reflected through the change of his titles.

- References to the god Amun, his temple at Karnak and the capital Thebes in the year 1 of his reign are replaced in year 5 by references to the Aten and the new capital Akhetaten.

- Akhenaten’s original titles avoided reference to the pharaohs traditional military role perhaps as he did not intend his focus on military hence he is emphasising his building at Karnak to emphasise this as a priority of his

- His new titles clearly indicate that Akhenaten’s priorities were to worship his god the Aten and not the Amun

Changes to his titles

Name Year 1 Title Year 5 titleHorus name Strong bull Beloved of the AtenGolden Horus name One who lifts the crowns

in ThebesOne who proclaims the Aten

Two ladies name Great kingship in the temple of Karnak

Great of kingship in Akhetaten

Prenomen Perfect are the manifestations of re

Perfect are the manifestations of Re

Nomen Amenhotep god ruler of Thebes

Akhenaten (useful to the Aten)

Explanations for the changes in Akhenaten’s image

- Akhenaten was really a woman: The French scholar Eugene Lefebvre thought that the feminine nature of Akhenaten’s physique together with the fact that he was occasionally depicted wearing a long clinging robe indicated that the king was really a woman. A colossal statue from east Karnak gave substance to this claim however modern archaeologist has suggested it may have been Nefertiti

- Akhenaten suffered from a physical disorder: In 1927, the anatomist Elliot Grafton smith suggested that the king’s apparent physical abnormalities point to a severe disorder of the endocrine system called “Froehlich’s syndrome”, as it causes a distribution of fat in the regions of breast and thighs.

- Akhenaten suffered from ‘Marfan syndrome’: A genetic disorder diagnosed by Alywn Burriage. Symptoms include tall slender statue elongated fingers and toes and abnormally elongated skull among other.

- Akhenaten’s artistic innovation: The way he chose to represent himself may reflect the revolutionary nature of his reign and his desire to make a break with the traditions of the past. Akhenaten’s emphasises the devotion to Maat. He may have asked his sculptors to depict him in an unconventional way. Bek Akhenaten’s chief sculptor has recorded reliefs from Aswan and Hermopolis that he was the “apprentice whom his majesty taught”

Changes to his royal image

Traditional royal iconography Images of Amenhotep IVEarly representations

The change in his imageas Akhenaten

- A pharaoh was usually shown wearing the royal nemes headdress, the kaht or bag headdress, or pharaonic crowns all bearing the uraeus, a protective device in the form of a spitting cobra

- A false beard was added, short kilt and a bull’s tail

- Pharaoh often carried the crook and flail

- Also depicted as a fine specimen of manhood either seated on his throne or striding purposefully forward

- Pharaoh was also commonly shown as a sphinx, a military symbol reflecting his role as both conqueror and protector of Egypt the ‘warrior pharaoh’

- The earliest representations of the new king came from the Amun temple at Karnak

- Karnak pylon shows Amenhotep IV in traditional style worshipping the falcon headed re harakhty also traditionally depicted wearing the Aten or sun disc on his head

- Also from Karnak, unfinished relief which shows the new pharaoh in the ‘smiting the enemy’ pose.

- This feature of pharaohs iconography dates from well before the old kingdom and depicts the pharaoh preparing to dash out brains of his enemies with a stone headed mace.

- Evidence suggests that at the beginning of his reign, Akhenaten was following the standard mode of pharaonic representation.

- - Re-harakhty in falcon-headed form has the name The Aten’ but is not in a cartouche- The decoration of the monuments Amenhotep IV built at east Karnak in the early years of his reign featured a dramatic change in royal iconography.- Formerly depicted in the traditional 18th dynasty manner now the kings long thin head, support by an elongated neck, featured a face with almond eyes and fleshy lips.- His body had swelling breasts, broad hips, plump thighs and long spindly legs.- Two juxtaposed scenes in the tomb of the vizier at Thebes show these changes occurred suddenly. One shows Amenhotep IV as a seated pharaoh represented in the traditional style while the other shows the pharaoh and Nefertiti standing a t a window of appearance giving gifts to the tomb owner beneath the rays of the Aten.

Early building program including east Karnak

Early in Akhenaten’s reign, while still known as Amenhotep IV, he introduced a new enterprising building program at east Karnak. He commanded for the quarrying of stone to develop four new buildings dedicated to the Aten outside the Temenos wall of Karnak temple, the traditional locality of the god Amun. These buildings were known as Gem pa-Aten (The Aten is found), Rewed – Menu (enduring in monuments), Teni- Menu (exalted in monuments) and Hewet-benben (mansion of the benben stone). Further innovations in construction allowed Akhenaten’s monuments to be developed under an effective time frame with the use of talatat blocks, sand stone and sunk-relief decorations; designs that were incised into the stone instead of raised slightly, a form never used by earlier pharaohs.

The Gem pa-Aten was the largest and most likely first to be erected. It was located to the east and comprised of a roofed colonnade surrounded by a rectangular court 26,000sq metre in area. It was supported by square piers in front of which were colossal statues of Akhenaten holding his flail. The wall of the colonnade was decorated with scenes of Akhenaten’s Sed festival. The complex included a palace featuring a ceremonial window of appearance at which the king received visitors or disturbed rewards to his followers. The definite function of this building is ambiguous however the lavishness of this building reveals a sense of importance to Akhenaten.

The Rewed- Menu was decorated with the king making offerings in roofless kiosks. A common thought of interest is the repetitive portrayal of armed troops and police running beside Akhenaten’s chariot or bowing low in the presence of the pharaoh however, the equivocal nature of this building does not make its function absolute.

Teni-Menu shows the least number of features in indicating the role of this building. There are no inscriptions that indicate the function how its wall decoration shows the royal domestic apartments and activities that took place there for example, baking bread and storing wine.

The Hewet-benben was an unusual building as it was possibly built with an obelisk or some other depiction of the benben, focus of the sun cult at Heliopolis. Like the building of the gem pa-Aten, it consisted of a roofless colonnade of square piers decorated with scenes of Nefertiti and her daughters making offerings to the Aten. It’s suggested that because Akhenaten is not accompanying her in this scene, it may indicate that this temple was reserved for Nefertiti’s personal worship of the Aten.

These Aten temples signified a challenge to traditional architecture in the sense that these buildings were open to the sky and sun, in contrast to the roofed, dark chambers of the Amun sanctuaries. It was believed that this design was supposed to be the closest form of worship to the Aten. Despite the four buildings constructed in favour of the Aten, it wasn’t enough for Akhenaten, thus transferring his capital to the city of Akhetaten, highlighting Akhenaten’s drive to establish the monotheistic belief of the Aten.

Transfer of capital to Akhenaten: political and religious motives

After the king altered his name from Amenhotep to Akhetaten, he initiated his first steps into establishing a new capital known as Akhetaten. Akhenaten’s abolishment of the worship of multiple gods and reverting to the worship of one god the Aten, is significant in the sense that this was an action that had never been propelled by any previous pharaohs. Religious motives for Akhenaten’s monotheistic practice derive from the belief that his father the Aten had ordered him to do so. Political motives have also been considered by suggesting that Akhenaten introduced this as a reaction to the increasing power of the Amun priests.

By year 9 of Akhenaten’s reign, the capital of Egypt was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten, marked at a place halfway between Thebes and Memphis with no previous settlement ultimately assuring the success of the Aten worship. Akhetaten was built on a barren plain with the agricultural land located on the western bank of the Nile, assuring a substantial agricultural population. Akhenaten redirected the estates and income of the priesthoods of traditional cults to build his new city and supply lavish offerings for the temples of Aten; a task given to his workers diverted from Deir el medina. A new class of courtiers were developed to regulate this property. Akhenaten established the boundaries of the new city by infusing the carving of stele onto the rocks bordering the site. They comprised of carvings divulging the kings founding of the city and a vignette portraying the royal family worshipping the Aten. The relocation of the capital to Akhetaten manifests Akhenaten’s ambition and drive in establishing the cult of the Aten.

Akhenaten’s motive in abandoning the city of Thebes and embracing the cult of Aten is open for interpretation regarding possible political, religious or regicide motives. The religious motive interpreted by historian Redford grounds that the establishment of the Akhetaten city and the Aten cult was commanded by the Aten as “it was the sun-disc, my father that (made the proposal) concerning Akhetaten, no official proposed it nor any man in the entire land”. The Aten desired a clean slate with no allegiance to other gods hence he had to have his own city in dedication to him like other traditional gods however, the layout had to differ to complement this new form of worship hence the building layout of Akhetaten differed from traditional cities. It was believed that Akhenaten had noticed on one of his river journeys how the morning sun, rising over a break formed the hieroglyph for ‘horizon’ thus formulating significance in the sense that he named his city Akhetaten meaning horizon of the Aten.

According to historian Van Dijk, it’s believed that Akhenaten’s possible political motive derives from increasing power of the Amun priests thus Akhenaten interpreted this as a threat to royal authority. By Akhenaten establishing a new city in dedication to one god, it would challenge the Amun priests thus minimising their power. Dijk evidence to support this theory is that “even before the move to Akhetaten some of the revenues of established

cults had been diverted to the cult of the Aten” emphasising Akhenaten’s objective in eradicating the worship of Amun and rising the Aten to prominence.

In Nicholas reeve’s perspective, it’s suggested that Akhenaten’s life might have been threatened thus forcing him into a position to introduce the monotheistic worship of the Aten so he could abandon Thebes thus vanquishing any possible attempt of regicide. Reeves refers to a Stele text that illuminates Akhenaten’s outrage at some event as it was believed to reflect “his subsequent persecution of the Theban god … suggesting a grudge of considerable magnitude”. Akhenaten’s machinations in directing his cult to a new city may have allowed him to “cleverly and decisively outflank the opposition “thus situating him in safer grounds.

There is no explicit agreement by the modern historians about Akhenaten’s motives for the transfer of the capital as Akhenaten has left a sense of ambiguity in his intent to relocate his Aten cult to Akhetaten. The unusual aspects of introducing the worship of a single god may also be difficult for historians to interpret as this was not practiced by earlier or future pharaohs.

Akhenaten: Function and Layout of the city

Akhenaten, founded in year 5 and built over the following three, was the new religious and political capital for the remainder of Akhenaten’s reign. By year 9 the full court had taken up residence there housing a population of 20,000 to 50,000 people, and all buildings developments were complete. Akhetaten comprised of palaces, administrative headquarters, houses of courtiers and artisans, a worker’s village, military barracks, archives office and temples. Most of his buildings were expeditiously erected of plastered mud brick. The west bank of the river allowed the city to be supplied with a substantial amount of food. In the cliffs to the east of the city, tombs were prepared for the royal family and nobility.

The main public buildings being religious, administrative or military buildings were in the central city. Within the main city was the great palace, consisting of state apartments built of stone with vast pillared halls and courts also holding colossal statues of the king and queen. A bridge over the royal road connected the king’s house to the great palace. Along the royal road near the place was the great Aten temple; an unroofed courtyard surrounding the main buildings of Per-Hai and the Gem-Aten and contained hundreds of offering tables. Scenes of the rituals conducted within the temple are shown in some of the official’s tombs. A clear indication from this building facilitates the importance of this building in the city as it was the centre for worship of the Aten. Across the royal road, the king’s house which was most likely used for private family life. Administrative buildings were reflected though the records office where the Amarna letters were found and east to that were the military buildings such as barracks for police and the military quarters.

The northern city held some of the city’s upper-class residents such as the courtiers where they lived in villas boarding the royal road. The Northern riverside palace which modern

excavator Barry Kemp considered the main residence of the royal family to be located here. The north palace was an isolate structure known for its beautiful wall paintings of life in the marshes. It’s now believed to have been the residence of the queen Kiya as her names were subsequently changed when Meritaten occupied the palace.

The northern and southern suburbs occupied houses, wells, workshops and a series of villages. However, the northern suburbs happened to be designed mostly for lower class citizens whilst the southern suburbs occupied upper class citizens. The workshop of the sculptor Thutmose who produced many royal portraits was in the southern suburb.

The southern palace also known as Maru-Aten was the precinct of Maru-Aten. It had two adjacent walled enclosures containing pavilions and small shrines called sunshades all surrounded by gardens and ponds. The sunshades were dedicated to various royal women.

The workers village lay in the desert to the east of the city surrounded by a wall. It consisted of 73 small houses all the same size and almost identical in layout, housing the tomb makers. Outside the wall was a chapel for the workers use. Occupation of the village seems to have continued into the reign of Tutankhamen.

Despite the effort Akhenaten implemented in establishing a new capital to the Aten god, it did not endure throughout time as Akhetaten was abandoned about twenty years after the end of Akhenaten’s reign. Later pharaohs carried out a systematic destruction of the site removing many of the buildings blocks for reuse at other sites such as Thermopolis. Akhetaten culminated as the inability to worship Aten without Akhenaten drove people away from this religion thus people reverted to traditional gods in a polytheistic belief.

Religious policy: reforms, nature, importance and impact of Aten worship

Religious reforms

- Akhenaten’s religious policy become more exclusive as his reign progressed. However, between years 1-4, other gods were shown on Akhenaten relief, scenes of Akhenaten in traditional new kingdom form offering to the falcon headed god re-harakhty suggests he continued to worship traditional gods as the beginning of his reign

- Atenism was introduced gradually up-to year 4 as he still mentions other gods such as harakhty and Shu without persecution of belief in them. However, his desire for acceptance enabled him to gradually introduce Aten worship so inhabitants weren’t shocked by these new reforms.

- In year 5-8 he slowly diminishes other gods and by year 9-12, Amun’s name has been concealed off the monuments and a new version of Aten’s name “living disc, ruler of the two horizons rejoicing in the horizon”

- His slower introduction of the Aten allowed him time to build buildings and temples in honour of the Aten.

- Formally changing the Aten’s name glorifies and elevates the Aten. Announcing the state religious policy supports the belief of one god

- Akhenaten only referred to his father as Nemba’atre then Amenhotep after year 8 because he wanted to avoid using the god name Amun, that way he could efficiently elevate the name of the Aten.

- Akhenaten began a persecution of Amun between years 9-12 to make a clear message that there is no tolerance for the worship of the Amun thus forcing inhabitants to only worship the Aten.

- The persecution of Amun would have impacted the Amun priests and the priests of other traditional gods and temples leads to reduction of power and status. Also impacted craftsmen who made idols of the different gods worshipped would have lost their businesses. The individuals who fathomed personal piety would also be impacted as personal piety was no longer permitted.

The nature of the Aten

- The hymns to the Aten found in Ay’s tomb scenes and inscription found in five Amarna tombs at Akhenaten shed light on the nature of the Aten

- The hymn stresses the power of Aten as a universal creator god. It reveals the uniqueness of the Aten. The hymn evokes a strong contrast between the brightness and beauty of the Aten shining on his creation. The hymn also makes fervent that only Akhenaten can know the Aten. Akhenaten alone in the mediator between the god and his creations in practice. Only Akhenaten could worship the Aten; all prayers and offerings to the Aten had to be made through Akhenaten. In this new religious, Akhenaten and Nefertiti are the central figures.

Aten worship

- To worship Aten, it had to be done through Akhenaten. Evidence shows the shrines of private houses, temples and tombs had all replaced statues and images of old gods with scenes of the royal family and prayers were no directed to Akhenaten. In all these scenes, the sun-disc of Aten shines down on the royal family, also records queen Tiye’s visit to Akhenaten encompassed by rays.

- Recent Amarna excavations have revealed shrines to the royal family in hones but small limestone stela with representations of traditional gods. This indicates that both traditional cults and the new ones were represented.

- However, the Aten worship was not popular with the ordinary Egyptians as after Akhenaten’s death, the Aten worship did not continue

- The temples were orientated to the sun and open to the light without enclosed sections. The broken lintel of the pylons and other features were designed to create as little shadow as possible

- The focus of worship was the altar on a platform open to the light

- Two minor officials reflect the worship of the Aten initiating as their private letters indicate the “Aten is the bestower of all blessings”

Importance and impact of the Aten worship

- Ockinga believes that the worship of the Aten had a major motive in raising the status of the king. This status had declined since the end of the old kingdom when the king was no longer seen as a god but as the son of the god

- Akhenaten stressed he was the son of the Aten and that he and the Aten were co-regents, the Aten being the senior partner. The titles and name of the Aten were often kingly rather than godly forms.

- Ockinga does not believe Akhenaten needed to fear the priests of Amun for the following reasons

o He outranked them; the king was the ultimate priestso He appointed parts and could also dispose themo He showed in his reign he could close their temples and wipe out the gods

name- Krauss believes the worship of the Aten was exclusive at Akhenaten, a city set up for

that purpose thus challenging the belief that it was a widespread religious policy. In Thebes the gods were attacked but other cities, Ptah, Osiris and others continued

- Reeves suggests that the constant presence of the army in Amarna reliefs indicates that it was by ruthless oppression that Akhenaten maintained his religious reforms.

- Kemp notes the presence of amulets of traditional religion at Amarna and that after the death of Akhenaten, the workmen built chapels to traditional deities.

- Jan Assman believes it was a time of “religious intolerance persecution and police control”. He uses evidence from dissident literature, texts mainly from the Ramesside period including hymns, exercises on school manuscripts and tomb and temple inscription which express joy and relief at the reappearance of Amun and the ability to renew relationship with him. Assman sees renewed personal piety in the Ramesside period as a direct response to Akhenaten’s attempt to monopolise a personal relationship with god.

- Akhenaten also altered afterlife beliefs and funerary customs as the traditional Osirian beliefs and practices were abandoned. Previously Egyptians had hoped for an afterlife however according to Jan Assman their focus was now directed to ‘the here and now’. The prayers for survival in the afterlife were now addressed to Akhenaten himself instead of Osiris hence the tomb of ay petitions Akhenaten for a life prolonged by thy favour”.

Artistic innovations and development: representations of the Aten, Akhenaten and the royal family; the natural world

- The portrayal of Akhenaten and his kingdom during his reign is one of the more striking changes instituted regarding his artistic innovation.

- Amarna art was not a sudden phenomenon but rather it developed out of traditional techniques. Amarna artists and sculptors worked in innovative ways that previous pharaohs never have

- the intimacy of human relationships was rarely depicted in traditional art but Akhenaten extremes are presented through the affection shown between the royal couple in reliefs and scenes from the royal tombs.

- Amarna artists reflected subjects of liveliness and naturalism and were free to experiment with from their perspective of art.

- Akhenaten seemed most responsible for the introduction of these styles as an inscription on a Stela from Aswan indicates that Bek one of Akhenaten sculptors was personally instructed by the king.

- Most of Amarna art took a hold of religious themes as Akhenaten’s adoption of Aten as his sole god required a change in iconography.

- Iconography was traditionally depicted as re-harakhty however during Akhenaten’s reign the Aten had taken on the form that maintained throughout the rest of his reign.

- The extremes Akhenaten presents through his Amarna shows the extent of his changes however they achieved a level of success as future pharaohs such as Rameses II continued to use his form of art depicted through the influence of the window of appearances.

- Akhenaten himself was portrayed exaggerated with a large, elongated head, long neck, pouting lips, prominent breast, drooping belly and very feminine. It’s believed he presented himself this way to make a statement about his title “living in truth” but maybe had himself depicted in this form to incorporate both male and female aspects of the creator.

- A religious icon was the royal procession with the king and his family in their chariots attended by retainers and bodyguards running alongside in a bowed position which suggested serving the purpose of the king’s movement with the sun-disc.

Foreign policy: Syria-Palestine, Nubia

- The nature and effectiveness of Akhenaten foreign policy is a controversial aspect of his reign. It should not be said that Akhenaten ‘lost’ the empire, as Nubia and Palestine were unaffected by the growing Hittite power, however events took place which suggest that Egyptian power was being eroded in Syria.

- The traditional view held is that Akhenaten was a pacifist, a typical pharaoh who abandoned warfare and too involved in his religious reforms, resulting in a reign that

was a political and economic disaster however reinterpretations of Amarna letters and further study of sources suggests there may be altering interpretations.

- The Hittites attacked the Mitanni, then their vassals, which undermined Egyptian power in the north

- Amurru could grow strong at the expense of other Egyptian vassals, an eventually made an alliance with the Hittites.

- Kadesh also allied themselves with the Hittites. This area was never effectively regained for Egypt, not even by following pharaohs.

- Byblos was attacked but remained an Egyptian vassal.- The Hittites did not fight directly with the Egyptian until the end of the reign of

Tutankhamen or after his death, according to Hittite records- The Amarna letters records much tension among Egyptians vassals who constantly

appealed to the king for aid

Syria-Palestine

- Akhenaten’s has long been blamed for losing Egypt’s sphere of influence In the Syria-Palestine reign

- However, it is argued that Akhenaten was sensitive to Egypt’s interests and monitored the balance of power in the near east. Evidence comes from new interpretations of the Amarna letters of the diplomatic correspondence between the pharaoh and his near eastern neighbours found in the archives.

- In the early years of Akhenaten’s reign his armies appear to have campaigned against the Apiru outlaw bands of Palestine, some of whom the king settled in Nubia

- Akhenaten was the first pharaoh to adopt the similar policy of resettling Nubian rebels in Palestine.

- Akhenaten is known to have fought at least one war against the Hittites, the rapidly growing power in the region.

- Talatat from east Karnak reveal a war or battle fought against Hittite and other Asiatic soldiers.

- Reliefs depict Egyptians besieging cities, while Akhenaten himself is shown riding in his chariot and killing prisoners.

- A.R Schulman believes that the war must have taken place within the five years of Akhenaten’s reign, the period when the temple was decorated and could have involved the retaking of cities captured by Abdi-Ashrita of amurru. This victory is recorded by Rid-Addi of Byblos, who writes prolifically in the Amarna letters.

- His letters record repeated requests for Akhenaten to come to his aid against Aziru of amurru who was taking advantage of Hittite destabilisation in the region to increase his own territory.

- Over-emphasis on the complaints of this vassal king has encouraged the view that Akhenaten neglected his empire.

- Aziru of amurru was eventually summoned to Egypt to answer the complaints and was detained for a long period of time. On his return, his subsequent defection (joined them) to the Hittites indicates the difficulty Egypt encountered in maintaining control over the distant parts of its sphere of interest in Syria-Palestine particularly in the face of aggressive Hittite expansion. This is indicating that Akhenaten took a considered interest in the middle east

- Historian Murnade believes that Akhenaten’s actions were cautious and tries to refrain from conflicted situations.

- Murnade believes Akhenaten’s priority was to maintain diplomatic ties to avid warfare in the near east just as his father did. He also married a Mitannian princess like his father did. He maintained correspondence within Egyptian vassals and engaged in limited military as expansion was not possible at the time.

Nubia

- Akhenaten built a town in Sesebi in Nubia originally dedicated to Amun but re-dedicated to the Aten. He also built another town called gem pa-Aten, like the temple at east Karnak.

- The viceroy of Kush, thutmose was sent to Nubia in year 12 of Akhenaten’s reign because there was a rebellion and it was recorded on the Stela at Buhen. The viceroy’s tomb biography records that the campaign was intended to punish the local Nubians for the theft of grain. The capture of 145 Nubians and 361 head of cattle are records as well as the impaling of eight other rebels.

Trade

- There is no evidence that trade was disrupted during this period. - The Amarna letters indicate that the tribute levied on vassal states, which had been

continued to be paid. - Archaeologist evidence, especially the remains of ancient shipwrecks such as the Ulu

Burin wreck off the coast of southern Turkey, points to a well-established trading network between Egypt and her eastern Mediterranean and Aegean neighbours.

- Deliveries of goods were accepted from Kharu (Asia), and with Kush (Nubia) as well as Libya and the Aegean. Whether these goods were diplomatic gifts, or tributes, Egypt was maintaining economic links with its neighbours.

Evaluate the effectiveness of Akhenaten’s foreign policy

Akhenaten, unlike his predecessor, had an imbalance of priorities as he focused on his religious innovation that left foreign policy to suffer his neglect, and this led to wars and a deterioration of Egypt’s wealth and influence, particularly over the regions of Nubia and Syria-Palestine. In comparison to Amenhotep III’s reign, Akhenaten was neglectful in his foreign policy and did not make many decisions that benefitted Egypt’s relationships with its neighbours. While Akhenaten applied traditional foreign policy in Nubia,

constructing towns and running military campaigns, he did branch out his religious innovations to this neighbour. In Syria and Palestine Akhenaten began to lose control of some of the area due to the uprising of rebels, namely Aziru of Amurru and Habiru respectively, who sought to take a portion of both regions for themselves. Combining these elements of his foreign policy, they contribute to the poor state of Egypt’s relationships with its neighbours and the loss of wealth that was experienced in Egypt at the time.

Changes to afterlife beliefs and funerary customs: royal and non-royal tombs

- Akhenaten also altered afterlife beliefs and funerary customs as the traditional Osirian beliefs and practices were abandoned.

- Previously Egyptians had hoped for an afterlife however according to Jan Assman their focus was now directed to ‘the here and now’.

- The prayers for survival in the afterlife were now addressed to Akhenaten himself instead of Osiris hence the tomb of Ay petitions Akhenaten for a “life prolonged by thy favour”

Non- Royal tombs

- The Aten and Akhenaten replaced Osiris and Anubis- An afterlife was only possible through Akhenaten- Tombs displayed scenes of the owner being rewarded by the king at the window of

appearances- There is no evidence that ISIS and Nephthys were replaced as protective deities by

member of the tomb owner family- The book of the dead and older religious texts no longer appeared. All prayers were

addressed to Akhetaten and his god, sometimes as a hymn to the Aten.- The dead were not buried in the east instead of the west- The tomb was only for spending the night in there- Columns in the tomb were a sign of status. Ay had the most- There were no judgement scenes in tombs; the fate of the dead was in the hands of

the king instead of Osiris- The dead did not go to the underworld or the stars, but they stayed at Akhetaten

with the king and rose with the sun and went to the temple of the Aten to be fed at the numerous offering tables. There is some doubt as to where the officials of the king in other cities were to bed, but as the Ba was now free to fly, it could join the throng at Akhetaten.

Royal tombs

- Several tombs were commenced in the wadi, but only the kings tomb had substantial work done on it.

- The royal tombs show scenes of earthly life rather than scenes relating to the king’s journey to the afterlife, as shown in royal tombs in the valley of the kings

- Tombs at Akhetaten were similar in design and size to tombs in the valleys of the king, however they lack the usual curve and have a straight axis leading from the entrance to the start of the burial chamber. Possibly this way to allow the rays of the sun to enter.

- Previous royal tombs were made for one person. At Akhetaten tombs were more like family vaults with suits for family members.

- The royal family was depicted in tombs decoration worshipping the Aten. In mourning, and the king’s funeral

- Other tomb decorations depicted foreigners worshipping the Aten, scenes of nature, soldiers in several registers including chariots, horses with rare frontal view of face

- Isis and Nephthys were replaced by Nefertiti as protective deities at the corners of the king’s sarcophagus. A hawk protected the corners of the canopic chest

- Shabti’s holding ankhs, which Aldred claims reflected a return to traditional practice

Role of Nefertiti and the issue of the co-regency

- Nefertiti played an important part in Akhenaten’s reign as she was given high regard in Akhenaten’s religious, political and military activities.

- It’s often believed that it may have been influenced by his father Amenhotep III who also gave high regard to his wife, queen Tiy.

- Green suggests the Amarna women had a ‘unique role- along with a unique appearance”

Military involvement

- Nefertiti was the main wife of Akhenaten- She was often depicted in reliefs and paintings sitting side by side Akhenaten on

chariot rides and in certain images was even depicted driving the chariot herself.- Another relief both depicts Akhenaten and Nefertiti smiting the enemy which was

unusual for a pharaoh to present with his wife.

Religious involvement

- An Amarna inscription elevates her image as she is regarding as being “king’s great wife” revealing that she has religious responsibilities

- A building named the Hewet benben at east Karnak depicted reliefs of Nefertiti worshiping the Aten along with her daughters. It’s believed that the building could

have been dedicated to her thus emphasising her high status and importance amongst the Egyptian kingdom

- It was believed that she also influenced the ways in which burial practices were carried out as the replaced the four protective gods on the corners of the sarcophaguses thus revealing her strong influence upon religious involvement and powerful relationship with Akhenaten.

- She distributed favours from the windows of appearances - Prayers inscribed on stale and tombs reliefs show that People began to also send

prayers to Nefertiti along with Akhenaten and the Aten instead of the traditional god Osiris thus heightening her importance upon the Egyptian in habitants.

- She also changed her name from Nefertiti to Neferneferutaten which was written on two cartouches

Political involvement

- Amarna letters regard her as the “lady of the two lands”- She was depicted wearing a crown, something which pharaohs would only be

depicted as wearing- A colossal statue from east Karnak holding the pharaonic crook and flail is now

thought to present Nefertiti as the goddess of Tefnut.- She was always drawn on the same scale as Akhenaten and never shown as a

miniature behind her husband

Issues of co-regency

- Due to the supremacy she was allocated, Harris and Samson believe that she could’ve co-regened with Akhenaten, an act never taken by any other pharaoh. Theories suggest that he could have been influenced by his fathers increased power given to his wife or to ensure that the worship of the Aten was maintained through her power once he was gone.

- It’s even suggested that Nefertiti may have been Smenkhare, the following pharaoh to rule. However, by the end of Akhenaten’s reign her name began to be concealed on monuments possibly because of her worship of the Aten or maybe because she ruled as the following pharaoh promoting the Amun.

- Nicholas reeves who supports this theory argues further that the year 12 scenes from Huya and Meryre’s tombs recording an early stage in Nefertiti’s elevation during the co-regency. The scenes show Akhenaten virtually superimposed on Nefertiti possibly signifying their unity. They sit on adjacent thrones under a canopy receiving ambassadors and gifts from Nubia, Asia, Libya and Aegean.

- However, Redford argues this theory due to the “consistent difference in the writing of the epithet when applied to Smenkhare” from Nefertiti suggesting they were two different people.

Role of the royal family

- Although reliefs focus on Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their daughters, it is important to remember that other members of the extended family played influential roles in the Amarna years

Artistic

- The Amarna royal family is arguably recorder better than any other Egyptian royal family.

- In earlier times the artistic depiction of the royal family was limited to a formal representation of the king and his mother.

- However, Akhenaten chose to express the intimate relationships he shared with his family and their importance in his reign.

- This appears to have been inspired by both personal and religious motives. It could be argued that it was an aspect of Akhenaten’s theme of “living in truth

Diplomatic

- Queen Tiy played a significant diplomatic role in her husband’s reign conducting correspondence with the Mittanian king, Tushratta. One letter written after Amenhotep III death asks her to use her influence with her son to smooth relations with the new pharaoh. Tushratta’s daughter, joined Akhenaten’s harem on the death of Amenhotep III

- Another example of the diplomatic role of queens is the problematic evidence of a letter written by an Amarna queen to the Hittite king requesting a marriage alliance with his son. Whether this was Nefertiti or Ankhesenamun, it remains that an Egyptian queen felt politically powerful enough to attempt to arrange an alliance with a neighbouring power.

Dynastic

- Akhenaten’s daughters played a clear dynastic role. Akhenaten attempted to secure the succession by engendering a male heir with one of more of his own daughters.

- This was not an uncommon practice however he was unsuccessful apparent by his later succession of Tutankhamun, most probably a son by the lesser wife Kiya.

- Nefertiti – giving her power – so she could maintain the dynasty of the Aten

Religious

- The religious policy played by Akhenaten’s parents may have influenced him in the development of his new religious.

- Nefertiti’s role in the religious changes were significant and can be traced to the very early years of the reign, while the daughters formed a part of a divine triad with their parents

- The mothers, wives and daughters associated with Akhenaten played a role in the worship of the Aten, symbolising the female element of the cult

- The six daughters of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, plus the secondary queen Kiya, queen Tiy and her youngest daughter Baketaten, are all featured in the inscriptions.

- Kiya, the second wife of Akhenaten seems to have her name associated with both the early and late forms of the Aten. Also, her status is indicated by the sun -shade temple that Akhenaten built for her in the maru0aten, as well as chapels for her cult near the great Aten temple and her opulent funerary equipment.

- The daughters of Akhenaten had sun-shade shrines in their own names; appear singly and together close to the god; were part of the loving family worshipping by the king’s courtiers; and their chariots form part of the royal procession

4. Evaluation

Impact and influence on his time & Assessment of his life and reign

In regarding Akhenaten’s 17-year reign as being a success of failure varies greatly as it is measured by his impact and contribution to new kingdom Egypt. Some may view his impacts and contributions being limited to religion and foreign affairs and art whilst others may disregard him entirely or believe he influenced every aspect of life in new kingdom Egypt.

One of the most prominent changes Akhenaten contributed to his time was the monotheistic worship of one god, the sun god the Aten. He introduced the worship of the Aten gradually up to year 4, as scenes depict evidence of Akhenaten in traditional new kingdom form offering to the traditional falcon headed god re-harakhty. However, his desire for acceptance by the Egyptians positioned him to approach the issue in this way so the inhabitants were not shocked by his reforms, ultimately leading to monotheistic belief in the Aten. By year 9-12, the traditional god Amun was concealed off the monuments whilst a new version of the Aten’s name was introduced “living disc, ruler of the two horizons rejoicing in the horizon”. Two minor officials reflect the worship of the Aten initiating as their private letters indicate the “Aten is the bestower of all blessings”. In Akhenaten’s hymn to the Aten it regarded him as being ‘the creator of all who lights the land with his disc’. The persecution of Amun and traditional gods would have impacted the priest hoods and the temples of these gods as it would have reduced their power and status. Akhenaten was successful in reducing their power but it can be argued due to its inability to be sustained.

Akhenaten also altered afterlife beliefs and funerary customs as the traditional Osirian beliefs and practices were abandoned. Previously Egyptians had hoped for an afterlife however according to Jan Assman their focus was now directed to ‘the here and now’. The prayers for survival in the afterlife were now addressed to Akhenaten himself instead of Osiris hence the tomb of ay petitions Akhenaten for a life prolonged by thy favour”. A major change that derived from this religious reform that would have influenced the lives of the inhabitants are those who fathomed personal piety as it was no longer permitted and everyone had to worship Akhenaten to fulfil their spiritual desires with the Aten. Recent Amarna excavations support this belief as shrines to the royal family had been revealed in homes, however small stele with representations of traditional gods had also evolved thus indicating that despite Akhenaten’s introduction of the belief of the Aten, it was not fully committed to as the inhabitants we’re still attached to traditional goods thus suggesting that his religious reforms were not a complete success.

The portrayal of Akhenaten and his kingdom during his reign is one of the more striking changes instituted in regard to his artistic innovation. Amarna art was not a sudden phenomenon but rather it developed out of traditional techniques. Amarna artists and sculptors worked in innovative ways that previous pharaohs never have, for example the

intimacy of human relationships was rarely depicted in traditional art but Akhenaten extremes are presented through the affection shown between the royal couple in reliefs and scenes from the royal tombs. Amarna artists reflected subjects of liveliness and naturalism and were free to experiment with from and perspective in their art. Akhenaten seemed most responsible for the introduction of these styles as an inscription on a Stela from Aswan indicates that Bek one of Akhenaten sculptors was personally instructed by the king.

Most of Amarna art took a hold of religious themes as Akhenaten’s adoption of Aten as his sole god required a change in iconography. Iconography was traditionally depicted as re-harakhty however during Akhenaten’s reign the Aten had taken on the form that maintained throughout the rest of his reign. The extremes Akhenaten presents through his Amarna shows the extent of his changes however they achieved a level of success as future pharaohs such as Rameses II continued on to use his form of art depicted through the influence of the window of appearances.

Early in Akhenaten’s reign, while still known as Amenhotep IV, he introduced a new enterprising building program at east Karnak. He commanded for the quarrying of stone to develop four new buildings dedicated to the Aten outside the Temenos wall of Karnak temple, the traditional locality of the god Amun. These buildings were known as Gem pa-Aten (The Aten is found),Rewed – Menu (enduring in monuments) , Teni- Menu (exalted in monuments) and Hewet Benben (mansion of the benben stone). Further innovations in construction allowed Akhenaten’s monuments to be developed under an effective time frame with the use of talatat blocks, sand stone and sunk-relief decorations; designs that were incised into the stone instead of raised slightly, a form never used by earlier pharaohs. These Aten temples signified a challenge to traditional architecture in the sense that these buildings were open to the sky and sun, in contrast to the roofed, dark chambers of the Amun sanctuaries. Despite the four buildings constructed in favour of the Aten, it wasn’t enough for Akhenaten, thus transferring his capital to the city of Akhetaten, highlighting Akhenaten’s drive to establish the monotheistic belief of the Aten.

The capital of Egypt was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten, marked at a place halfway between Thebes and Memphis known as Akhetaten, with no previous settlement ultimately assuring the success of the Aten worship. Akhenaten redirected the estates and income of the priesthoods of traditional cults to build his new city and supply lavish offerings for the temples of Aten. The Akhetaten capital was a success within Akhenaten reign as it endured for a further 20 years after his death.

Throughout times, Akhenaten was accused of being a pacifist resulting in a reign that was a political and economic disaster. However, Akhenaten managed to sustain some traditional foreign policy measures such as constructing towns and conducting military campaigns. This is reflected through his action of building town Selebi originally dedicated to Amun but re-dedicated to the Aten. He also managed to build another town called gem pa –Aten reflecting the temple at east Karnak. The viceroy of Kush [Thutmose] was sent to Nubia in

year 12 of Akhetaten reign due to a rebellion as depicted on the stele at Buhen. The viceroy’s tomb biography records that the campaign was intended to punish the local Nubians for the theft of grain which led to the capture of 145 Nubians and impaling of eighty other rebels. This was a success of Akhenaten as a commemorative scarab describes Akhenaten “with great way cry, possessed of a mighty reputation”. This ultimately shows that Akhenaten was effective and successful in regard to foreign policies as he showed no signs of a pacifist but rather portrayed calmness and dynamicity.

Akhenaten’s actions in Syria-Palestine were aligned to the reinterpretations of the Amarna letter which show him to be sensitive to Egypt’s interests by monitoring the balance of power in the near east. Akhenaten as a participant in the battle against the Hittites, it is supported by reliefs depicting him riding in his chariot and killing prisoners. Akhenaten’s actions have been extremely cautious and appear to try and refrain from conflicting situations. Akhenaten’s priority was to maintain diplomatic ties to avoid warfare in the near east just as his father did.

No evidence suggests trade was disrupted during this period, as Amarna letters indicate that tributes continued to be paid. The ancient shipwrecks of ‘ulu burum’ points to a well-established trade work between Egypt and their eastern Mediterranean neighbours. Mycenaean pottery excavated at the site of Akhenaten also suggests that trade with Mycenae was maintained. Maintained correspondence with Egyptian vassals and engaged in limited military as expansion was not possible thus revealing the effectiveness of Akhenaten’s success in foreign policies.

Whilst Akhenaten aimed to give the Aten religious dominance during his reign, it did not continue after his death as future pharaohs such as Horemheb and Tutankhamun destroyed his name and monuments. Whilst his city of Akhetaten endured for 20 years after his death, the Aten religion did not last after his death, as the Amun centred religion was immediately restored thus revealing the failure of his religious reform.

Legacy

- Akhenaten was the product of a context of change, which did not stop after his death. His actions helped decide future directions, sometimes positively, sometimes negatively

Art and architecture

- Art retained some of the influence of the mature Amarna style according to freed, in the depiction of women and children and the distinctive Amarna tummy

- Artists still created large, single register scenes like those on the outside of Medinat Habu

- Architectural features such as the window of appearances were built into the place of Ramesses III. Floral capitals, inlaid faience and broken lintels continued to be features of art and architecture

Funerary practices

- Funerary customs for bones changed, and daily life scenes were replaced with a greater concentration on religious themes. This is said to reflect religious anxiety as a result of Akhenaten’s actions.

- There was a resurgence of interest in Osiris, particularly as an aspect of the dark, netherworld which had been so comprehensively ignored by Akhenaten. the “enigmatic book of the netherworld’ a new interpretation of the kingdom of the dead appears in Tutankhamun’s tomb.

Literature

- Harpers songs, which stress enjoyment of the present and the uncertainty of the future, became a new genre after the Amarna period (although they claim to be older). They express scepticism about all religious beliefs concerning the afterlife

- Language changes continued. Ramesside writings both in structure and vocabulary were much closer to the spoken tongue then earlier new kingdom texts

Religion

- Amun, although restored, did not regain the high status he had previously enjoyed. He came much more the god of the common man, the poor and the oppressed

- Monotheism was not explored again, although development continued. It is possible that Hebrew religion drew inspiration from this period

- Pantheism, the idea that all the gods were aspects of the divine, and that a single godhead encompassed the variety of deities, became popular as an alternative to monotheism as a way of progressing from polytheism in the Ramesside period.

- Religious change, according to Assman, was clarified in its aims by the Amarna experiment which defined what was not wanted.

- Shed and the saviour, a personal god of rescue and protection who appeared after the Amarna period is perhaps the best example of the growing popularity of person piety and the anxiety Akhenaten’s reign provoked at all levels of society

- Solar religion flourished and reached new heights- The Aten remained as a god in the short term and was probably not officially

attacked; his temple in Memphis existed in the reign of set I. his worship faded when temples were re-assigned to other gods

- The mosaic distinction, the idea that other people’s religion is not merely different but wrong, which Assman believes was a long-term product of the Amarna foreigner, other religions and some gods, such as Seth in much later periods.

- Hyksos rule, according to Assman, was re-interpreted in the light of the Amarna experience to reflect greater religious destruction

- Reeves believes the descriptions of the horrors of enemy actions are remembered events from Akhenaten’s reign.

- Thebes remained a religious capital and the valley of the kings remained the royal burial place until the end of the 20th dynasty. However , like Amun, it did not entirely recover.

Ancient and modern images and Interpretations of Akhenaten

Ancient interpretations

- Tutankhamun speaks of the time of Akhenaten as a period of ‘sickness’ and widespread neglect of the gods so that they deserted Egypt

- Ay as king, in his restoration stela speaks of the period of Akhenaten as one of ‘evil’ that saw the ‘destruction of right’

- Horemheb added ‘corruption’ to the list of ills of the Amarna period- In the Ramesside era, Akhenaten was described as Sebiu, ‘the rebel’ and Kharu, ‘the

criminal’ and was left off the official kings list at Abydos. References to him included the label ‘the heretic of Akhenaten’

Modern interpretations

- Weigall interpreted Akhenaten in in the light of his own values. Kiya and the Amarna letters were at this time both unknown and this helped to foster a positive interpretation. Weigall saw the worship of the Aten as being close to Christianity and spoke of the ‘sanctity’ of marriage and family life. He believed that there were ‘simple and homely’ qualities in the reign and that it was ‘worthy of admiration’

- Breasted called him ‘a brave soul’ and ‘the world’s first individual’- Sir Mortimer wheeler wrote of ‘this remarkable man’ who broke the Egyptian

tradition. ‘if he dreamed rather than ruled, that is a part of the marvel’- Redford describes Akhenaten as ‘ugly’ and a ‘poor judge of character’, ‘not gifted as

an administrator’ and ‘effete’ although with some ‘ability as a poet’ and a ‘flair for

art, sculpture and design’. His reign was ‘intolerable’ and ‘totalitarian’ and the religion ‘Akhenaten championed was in the trustiest sense of the word atheism’

- Cyril Aldred in Akhenaten, king of Egypt (1998) offers a more positive assessment than Redford. While acknowledged Akhenaten’s neglect of statecraft and its consequences, he sees him as an essentially human man, inspired by a genuinely religious vision. According to Aldred, the artistic and poetic feeling of Amarna art and tests like the great hymn to the Aten portray a ‘good ruler who loves mankind’.

- Hornung describes Akhenaten as ‘the first modern human being’ and ‘even today a very contemporary figure who can scarcely be denied respect and sympathy’. However, he also calls him ‘perhaps the first fundamentalist in history’