Topic 1 - Minerals

Minerals - Introduction

Rocks contain naturally occurring, non-living substances called _____________

Minerals are rare and are either:

_________________ (made of 1 type of atom) or

_________________ (combinations of bonded atoms)

Minerals are not only found in rocks, but they are also found in your body, and dissolved

in water (like iron and potassium)

Identifying Minerals

Colour and Streak

Some minerals can be identified by looking at the

______________ of the surface.

One Mineral may have several colours

When two different minerals appear to have the same

colour, _______________can be used to show the

colour of the ________________ form of the mineral

Hardness

Fredrick Mohs was a German scientist from the early

1800’s

He developed a ________________ of ten minerals

to show _________________

Talc is the softest mineral – similar to pencil lead

Diamond is the hardest mineral – used on surgical scalpels, razor blades and drill bits

Shape & Crystals

__________________are the building

blocks of minerals

They are natural structures with flat

______________, straight edges

Most minerals will grow into huge

crystal formations

Luster

Luster is the ___________________of a surface, or the way it reflects or absorbs light.

Luster is split between __________________ and non-metallic

Cleavage & Fracture

_______________________ is when minerals split along the flat surfaces of the crystals

Fracture is when minerals break along uneven surfaces

Mica has cleavage because it breaks in smooth flat sheets

Chemical Properties

Some minerals will react with substances like ____________________

Calcium carbonate (aka chalk) reacts with acids and produces a new gas, so it bubbles

Another chemical property is that metals corrode when exposed to oxygen in the air.

This is called rust, or oxidization

Transparency

Minerals can also be identified by the amount of light they let through. They can be:

Transparent – see through

______________ – shadowy

______________ – no light passes through

Density

Density relates to how many ____________________are in a

given amount of a mineral.

If there are a lot, the mineral will seem quite

________________________compared to a less dense

mineral which can seem light.

Some lava rock is so light that it can ___________________.

This contributes to the formation of volcanic islands like Hawaii

Topic 2 – Rocks & the Rock Cycle

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rock forms when hot magma or lava cool and solidify

_____________________ is melted rock found below the Earth's crust

Rocks made of magma are _____________________ igneous rocks

Lava is molten rock that is on the earths surface (after volcano)

Rocks made of lava are _______________________igneous rocks

Cooling magma and lava will create crystals

The size of the ____________________ depends on how fast the rock cools

The slower it cools, the larger the crystals

Sedimentary Rocks

_____________ is small loose pieces of material like

rocks, minerals, and organic matter

Sediment forms into sedimentary rock over time.

Sedimentary rock is made up of layers of

___________________ sediment, cemented together

over time

The cementation happens when certain minerals

dissolve in water and bind the sediment when it dries.

75% of the rock on the Earth’s surface is sedimentary

Visible layers of sedimentary rock are called

_____________________

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks are those that

have ___________________ form

because of heat and pressure that

have been applied to the parent

material.

Identifying Rocks

Rocks and rock types can be identified by the minerals found in them as well as by their appearance.

TOPIC 3 – Erosion & Weathering

Weathering

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks and minerals into sediment

_________________

Chemical

_________________

Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering is the ____________________break up of rocks.

Gravity causes rocks to fall

Fast moving streams smooth out rocks with sediment

Temperature changes can cause ___________________

Frost __________________ is a special type of mechanical weathering that

happens with freezing and thawing

Chemical Weathering

Natural chemicals, can be dissolved in water and react in the chemical

_________________ of rocks and minerals

Acids naturally in rain will react with calcium carbonate (_____________) in limestone,

found in places like the Rocky Mountains, and weather away the rocks.

Biological Weathering

Biological weathering is the physical or

chemical breakdown of rocks and

minerals by living _________________.

Plants, Animals, Bacteria, Fungus

Erosion

Erosion is the __________________ of rock and

mineral grains from one place to another

Sedimentation is the building up of rocks and

minerals

Glaciers, gravity, wind and water are the main

causes of _______________________

When different layers of Sedimentary rock wear away interesting _________________

can be made

Erosion – Glaciers

Glaciers are ice formed by compaction of snow over time

Gravity causes glaciers to move

Rocks in glaciers scrape the ground leaving __________________ where rock is eroded

____________________ are piles of rock created by glacial movement

Lateral Moraines are formed on either side of a moving glacier

End moraines are formed as a glacier moves forward, and are left as it recedes (melts)

__________________ are large pieces of rock that are left behind by moving glaciers.

Erosion – Water

Moving water is one of the most powerful forms of __________________

It can cause fast changes in a flood or slow changes in a stream

Topic 4 – The Moving Crust

The Moving Crust

The _________________is the top

layer of the Earth.

It also includes the minerals in the

rocks below it.

The Mantle

The Earth’s mantle is made up of a

_______________ rock layer

Plastic means it is melted and gooey, but not completely liquid

The mantle can flow, but very slowly.

The Core

The Core of Earth is very hot – around 6000oC

The outer core is liquid ____________ and

nickel around 5500oC

The intense heat and pressure have made the

inner core a ________________ ball

Continental Drift

The shape of land is constantly ____________

Alfred Wegener was one of the first scientists

to question _______________movement

He formed the Theory of Continental Drift

Evidence – Technology

Sonar uses sound wave to make measurements

Sonar identified the _____________________ Ridge

Magnetometers detect the direction and strength of a magnetic field

The magnetic field of the crust in the Atlantic sometimes pointed south, instead of north these are called _______________________ strips

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Technology showed that the Earth’s crust is moving

The crust is made up of plates of rock that fit like puzzle pieces

_____verging plate are coming together

_____verging plates are moving apart

Subduction

Subduction zones are where plates are diverging.

_________________ is when one plate slides underneath another.

Topic 5 - Earthquakes

Earthquakes Introduction

Earthquakes are caused by sudden movements in the __________________ plates.

Seismic is of or having to do with the movement of tectonic plates

Seismologists can use seismographs to measure the intensity of an earthquake

It is attached to the ___________________ to detect vibrations

___________________ is the process of a solid taking on fluid qualities, like quicksand

___________ are huge waves that happen when an earthquake occurs under the ocean

Avalanches or rock slides occur in mountains as a result of an earthquake

Richter Scale

Earthquakes are gauged on the _________________scale up to 10.

Less than 2 is not generally felt, above 8 totally destroys communities and

structures

Seismic Waves

Seismic ____________________ are the energy waves that travel outward from the source of the earthquake.

_________________ or p waves are fastest

Can go through solids, liquids and gases.

Compression vibrations before an actual earth quake.

___________________or s waves slower

Only pass through solids not liquids or gasses.

Surface waves are the slowest

Move like ripples - rolling motion, most ______________, created when p and s waves collide

Earthquake Location

The time between P and S wave can help locate the source of an earthquake

The source of an earthquake deep in the crust is called the _____________

The location directly above the focus is called the _______________________ of an earthquake

Aftershocks are actually smaller earthquakes from the same focus

Primary waves are bent or ____________________as they travel through the Earth

The area where they do not come through the other side of the earth is called a __________________ zone

Faults

Rock located where tectonic plates meet is under very high pressure

If the rock is bent or stretched enough the rock can break creating a fault

There are three types of fault movement between the _________________ plates

_______________ Faults

Tension or pulling action, which breaks rocks apart

__________________ Faults

Compressive , causing rock to bend break and buckle

_______________, Strike or Transform Faults

Shear forces causes slipping which and jagged edges break off

TOPIC 6 - Volcanoes

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust that release lava, steam and ash when they

erupt

The opening is called a _________________

When a volcano is inactive (not erupting), it is called ______________

Volcanoes can form with tectonic movement, as plates are melted pressure of the rock

builds up

Many volcanoes form around the Pacific

Ocean in the Subduction Zones

They form a circle around the Pacific

Ocean are called the

________________________

from the circle of volcanoes that

pour out red hot lava, fire and

steam

TOPIC 7 - Mountains

Mountain Formation

Most mountains are large masses of rock lifted due to ___________________

movement and or heating

The build-up of heat and pressure can cause folding and faulting

Sedimentary rock under slow, gradual pressure can

_____________or break

If there is enough heat the rock can be changed to

metamorphic rock

The upper part of folded rock is called the

_________________

The bottom is called the syncline

_______________________ faulting happens when rock is

too brittle to fold under heat and pressure

Fault block mountains are formed by thrust faulting that pushes older rock on top of

_____________________ rock

Movement of rock along a fault can be vertical or horizontal

It can be traced by the location of the ______________rock on both sides of the

fault

Basement rock is the bedrock below the mountain formation

Mountains are often formed by _____________________ Continental and Oceanic

plates

The Continental plate is lighter and rides over the Oceanic plate.

Topic 8 – FossilsFossils

Fossils are __________________ impressions in rock that tell us when, where, and how

organisms lived millions of years ago.

Organic remains, protected from scavengers, can become:

___________________________________

rock-like fossils

preserves the fossil with silica

___________________or impressions

carbon residue on rock surfaces can provide a carbonaceous film

Indents and impression can be left in clay and create moulds

_______________________ remains

may be preserved in tar, amber or peat bog.

_____________________ fossils

Evidence of animal activity, like worm holes, footprints, and burrows

Fossil Mold & Cast Formation

An animal dies and gets covered by sediment

The body decomposes, leaving a ______________, which is then filled with sediment

which hardens into rock

This makes a

___________

of the

original

animal.

Topic 9 – Geologic Time

Dating – Superposition

The principle of superposition states that in ___________________ layers of rock, the oldest layers are always on the bottom and the youngest layers are always on the top.

As new layers of sedimentary rock form, the strata can be identified.

Dating – Relative

Geologists use a technique called relative dating to ________________ events

The relative age of the rock is determined by its position within the strata.

Fossils found in a layer can help to identify the age of the rock.

If the fossil was on the Earth for a short time and widespread then it is called an ____________ fossil.

Half Life

Over billions of years, some elements will change into other elements

In 4.5 billion years, half of a mass of _________________will change into lead - which will not change

The uranium is called the parent __________________.

This time period is called the half-life of uranium

Radiometric Dating is measuring the amounts of change in a sample to calculate the absolute age of the rock

Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating uses carbon-14, a rare form of carbon, as its parent material

All _____________________ use carbon-14 to build cells and tissue.

The carbon-14 changes to nitrogen gas when the animal dies with a half-life of 5730 years

The amount of carbon-14 left in the tissue allows scientists to determine the age of the remains

Time Scales

The geological time scale is a division of Earth's ___________________ into smaller units based on the existence of different life forms

The largest divisions are called eons, _____________ split into eras, eras split into periods