Chemistry Review

1. The important of water

Water is one of nature's most important gifts to mankind. Essential to life, a person's survival depends on drinking water. Water is one of the most essential elements to good health -- it is necessary for the digestion and absorption of food; helps maintain proper muscle tone; supplies oxygen and nutrients to the cells; rids the body of wastes; and serves as a natural air conditioning system.

2. How to read a graduate cylinder

Read the scale at the bottom of the curved part of the liquid

3. Water distribution both fresh and salt

Ocean water (97.2%) Fresh water (2.8%)

4. Distillation

The separation of liquid substances according to their differing boiling points

5. Uses of water in the U.S.

Nation- Steam/electric (48%) East- Steam/electric (78%)

South- Steam/electric (63%) Midwest- Steam/electric (57%)

West- Irrigation/agricultural (77%) Alaska- Mining (77%)

Hawaii- Irrigation/agricultural (57%)

6. Direct vs. Indirect water use

Direct use: drinking water, bathing, washing dishes

Indirect use: using products that are made from water or with water

7. Best ways to conserve water

A. Don’t let the water run while you brush your teeth and you could save up to 4 gallons a minute. That’s 200 gallons a week for a family of four.

B. By reusing your shower towel multiple times, it will cut down on the amount of laundry you will produce.

C. Run your washing machine and dishwasher only when they are full and you could save 1000 gallons a month.

8. Subatomic particles, changes and locations

Subatomic particles are the smaller particles composing nucleons and atoms

Can be reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom

An electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured

9. The water cycle

Repetitive processes of rainfall (or other precipitation), run-off, evaporation, and condensation that circulate water within Earth’s crust and atmosphere; also called the hydrologic cycle

10. Ions, cation and anion, finding the correct charge

Anion- A negatively charged ion(－)

Cation- A positively charged ion(＋)

Ions- An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge

11. Atoms, atomic number and mass number

Atom- The smallest particle possessing the properties of an element

Atomic number- The number of protons in an atom; this value distinguishes atoms of different elements

Mass number- The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of a particular isotope

12. How do phase changes occur? (i.e. liquid to gas)

When a liquid is heated beyond its boiling point it converts to gas

13. Basic metric conversions

A quantity expressed in one set of units is multiplied to convert to another set of units

14. Density

The mass per unit volume of a given material (g/cm3)

15. Writing formulas

16. Classification of matter

17. Polar molecules, water

Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge ( ) near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges ( ) near the hydrogen atoms.

18. Saturated, super and unsaturated

Saturated- A solution in which the solvent has dissolved as much solute as it can retain stably at a specified temperature

Supersaturated- A solution containing a higher concentration of solute than a saturated solution at a specified temperature

Unsaturated- A solution containing a lower concentration of solute than a saturated solution contains at a specified temperature

19. Solubility graphs

20. pH scale, neutral

21. Gas solubility in water

Ar – Argon CH4 – Methane C2H4 – Ethylene C2H6- Ethane CO - Carbon Monoxide CO2 - Carbon Dioxide Cl2 - Chlorine Gas H2 - Hydrogen Gas H2S - Hydrogen Sulfide He – Helium N2 – Nitrogen NH3 – Ammonia O2 – Oxygen SO2 - Sulfur Dioxide

22. Why is fluoride in drinking water?

Because water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities

23. Allotropes of carbon

24. Recycling

Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to virgin production

25. Law of conservation of matter

Matter is neither created nor destroyed in any chemistry reaction or physical change

26. Subscripts vs. Coefficients Balancing equation

27. Atom inventories: counting the number of atoms in a formula or equation

28. Metal Activity series (lab)

29. Reactants vs. products

Reactants- Starting material in a chemical reaction

Products- Substance formed in a chemical reaction

30. Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation- Any process in which one or more electrons can be considered as lost by a chemical species

Reduction- Any process in which one or more electrons can be considered as gained by a chemical species

31. Group vs. Families on the Periodic Table

Group (Periodic Table) - A vertical column of elements in the periodic table; also called a family; group members share similar properties

32. Halogens, Noble Gases, Alkali metals, transition metals

Halogens- The group of elements consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine

Noble Gases- An unreactive element belonging to the last (right-most) group on the periodic table

Alkali metals- The group of elements consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium

Transition metals- The 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table

33. Metals vs. nonmetals, location on the periodic table and properties of each

Metals- A material possessing properties such as luster, ductility, conductivity, and malleability

Nonmetals- A material possessing properties such as brittleness, lack of luster, and nonconductivity; nonmetals are often insulators

34. Dimitri Mendeleev

Published a periodic table that atoms of different elements have different mass

35. How is the modern periodic table arranged?

By increasing atomic number

36. Chemical vs. Physical properties

Chemical properties are properties of an element or compound in chemical reactions

Physical properties are properties of an element or compound that can be observed without a chemical reaction of the substance

37. Petroleum

Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface.

38. Crude oil

Petroleum pumped from underground

39. Hydrocarbons

A molecule reaction that adds hydrogen atoms to an organic molecule

40. Renewable

A resource that can be replenished by natural processes over the time frame of human experience

41. Nonrenewable resources

A resource in limited supply that cannot be replenished by natural processes over the time frame of human experience

42. Petroleum reserves

109 Barrels Percent North America 54 5.3 Central and South America 96 9.3 Western Europe 17 1.7 Eastern Europe 58 5.7 Africa 77 7.4 Middle East 686 66.4 Central Asia, Far East, and

Oceania 44 4.2

43. Petroleum consumption

103 Barrels per day Percent North America 23843 30.5 Central and South America 5238 6.7 Western Europe 14698 18.8 Eastern Europe 5257 6.7 Africa 2675 3.4 Middle East 5043 6.5 Central Asia, Far East, and

Oceania 21452 27.4

44. Fractional Distillation

A process of separating a mixture into its components by boiling and condensing the components

45. What are isomers?

A molecule that has the same formula as another molecule and differs from it only by the arrangement of atoms or bonds

46. Boiling points for hydrocarbons

47. Fractions

A. A mixture of petroleum-based substances with similar boiling points and other properties

B. One of the distillate portions collected during distillation

48. Intermolecular forces

Forces of attraction among molecules

49. First 10 hydrocarbons

Methane - 1 carbonEthane - 2 carbons'sPropane - 3 carbon'sButane - 4 carbons'sPentane - 5 carbon's Hexane - 6 carbon'sHeptane - 7 carbon'sOctane - 8 carbon'sNonane - 9 carbon's Decane - 10 carbon's

50. Boiling point trends in hydrocarbon

51. Organic compounds

An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon

52. Carbon chain

Carbon atoms chemically linked to one another, forming a chainlike molecular structure

53. Electron shells

An electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom nucleus

54. Nucleus

The dense, positivity charged central region of an atom that contains protons and neutrons

55. Covalent bond

A linkage between two atoms involving the sharing of one pair (single bond), two pairs (double bond), or three pairs (triple bond) of electrons

56. Valence electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom; these relatively loosely held electrons often participate in bonding with other atoms or molecules

57. Single, double and triple covalent

Single covalent bond- 1 pair of electrons shared by 2 atoms

Double covalent bond- 2 pairs of shared electrons

Triple covalent bond- 3 pairs of shared electrons

58. Electron- dot structure

Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule

59. Structural formula

A graphical representation of a molecular structure, showing how the atoms are arranged

60. Alkanes

Any of a group of hydrocarbons that have carbon atoms in chains linked by single bonds and that have the general formula C n H 2n + 2 . Alkanes can be either gaseous, liquid, or solid

61. Tetrahedron

The tetrahedron shape is seen in nature in covalent bonds of molecules. All sp3-hybridized atoms are surrounded by atoms lying in each corner of a tetrahedron

62. Molecular formula

A formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements present in one molecule of a specific compound

63. Condensed formula

Formula of a molecule where symbols of atoms are listed as they appear in the molecule's structure with bond dashes omitted or limited

64. Straight chain

A chain of atoms in a molecule, usually carbon atoms, that is neither branched nor formed into a ring

65. Branched chain

An open chain of atoms with one or more side chains attached to it

66. Structural isomers

A form of isomerism in which molecules with the same molecular formula have bonded together in different orders, as opposed to stereoisomerism

67. Boiling points of isomers

The more branching, the lower the boiling point

68. Climate effect on fuel mixtures

Winter gasoline mixture or cold weather needs to be less dense, with lower molecular-weight hydrocarbons for higher volatility. The volatility needs to be appropriate for the climate.

69. Energy tracing of materials

Tracing the history of energy used to produce a given product

70. Fossil fuels

A natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms (plant or animal)

71. Potential energy vs. Kinetic energy:

|_ associated w/ position |_ associated with motion

72. General formula for an alkane?

Linear (general formula CnH2n + 2)

Branched (general formula CnH2n + 2, n > 3)

Cyclic (general formula CnH2n, n > 2)

73. Chemical energy

Energy stored in the chemical bonds of substances

74. Thermal energy

The energy a material possesses due to its temperature (heat)

75. Carbon Monoxide

A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas which is slightly lighter than air; highly toxic to humans and animals

76. Exothermic and endothermic reactions, be able to identify by graph

Exothermic reaction- a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light or heat

Endothermic reaction- A chemical reaction accompanied by the absorption of heat

77. Potential energy diagrams

78. Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only be transformed from one state to another

79. Energy efficiency

Percentage of total energy input to a machine or equipment that is consumed in useful work and not wasted as useless heat

80. Specific heat capacity

The quantity of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a material by 1ºC

81. Heat formula

a) Heat me leased (J) → (KJ)

Heat = (mass water) (Δt change in temp.) (specific heat of water)

b) Heat of Combustion

Heat ÷ (mass of hydrocarbon) (J) ÷ (g) = J/g (kJ/g)

c) Molar Heat of Combustion

(Heat of Combustion) × Molar mass of hydrocarbon = kJ/mol

82. Heat of Combustion

The energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions

83. Cracking

The process by which hydrocarbon molecules from petroleum are converted to smaller molecules, using thermal energy and a catalyst

84. Octane rating

A measure of the combustion quality of gasoline compared to the combustion quality of isooctane; the higher the number, the higher the octane rating

85. Oxygenated fuel:

A fuel with oxygen-containing additives, such as methanol, that increase the octane rating and reduce harmful emissions

86. Catalyst

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but is itself unchanged

87. MTBE

Methyl tertiary-butyl ether; an octane-boosting fuel additive; contaminates water

88. Hybrid vehicle

A vehicle that combines two or more power sources; the combination of gasoline and electric power is the most common

89. Biodiesel

An alternative fuel or fuel additive for diesel engines made from various materials such as new or recycled vegetable oils and animal fats

90. Polymer

A molecule composed of very large numbers of identical repeating units

91. Monomer

A compound whose molecules can react to form the repeating units of a polymer

92. Petrochemical

Any organic compound produced from petroleum or natural gas

93. Branched polymer

A polymer formed by reactions that create numerous side chains rather than linear chains

94. Cross-linking

Polymer chains interconnected by chemical bonds; causes polymer rigidity

95. Saturated hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon consisting of molecules in which each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms

96. Alkenes

Hydrocarbons containing one or more double covalent bonds

97. Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon molecules containing one or more double or triple bonds

98. Biomolecules:

Large organic molecules found in living systems

99. US Energy consumption 1850-2000

100. Oil shale / tar sands:

Sedimentary rock containing a material (kerogen) that can be converted to crude oil

101. Hydropower:

Hydro-electric power; the generation of electricity by using the motive power of water

102. Wind and geothermal energy

Wind energy-The generation of electricity by using the power of wind

Geothermal energy-Energy extracted from hot water or steam from Earth’s crust

103. Compressed natural gas

Natural gas condensed under high pressures (160-240 atm) and stored in metal cylinders; CNG can serve as a substitute for gasoline or diesel fuel.

104. Fuel-cell power

Energy from a device for directly converting chemical energy into electrical energy by chemically combining a fuel (such as hydrogen gas) with oxygen gas; (no combustion)

105. Atmosphere

The gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, composed of four layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere

106. Troposphere

The layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth’s surface where most clouds and weather are located

107. Gases in the atmosphere

Nitrogen, argon, neon, carbon dioxide, oxygen, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen

108. Pressure vs. altitude

Pressure Altitude Pressure Altitude

109. Gas behavior

110. Pressure

Equals force applied per unit area; in SI, pressure is expressed in pascals (Pa)

111. Atmospheric pressure: how is it measured

Can be measured as height of a column of mercury

112. Barometer

A device that measures atmospheric pressure

113. Solid/liquid/gas (models)

114. Kinetic Molecular Theory

All the particles have motion

115. Boyles Law

The pressure and volume of a gas sample at constant temperature are inversely proportional; PV= k

116. Charles law

The volume of a gas sample at constant pressure is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature; V= kT

117. Electromagnetic radiation

Radiation ranging from low-energy radio waves to high-energy X-rays and gamma rays; includes visible light

118. Photon

An energy bundle of electromagnetic radiation that travels at the speed of light

119. Frequency

The number of waves that pass a given point each second; in other words, the rate of oscillation; for electromagnetic radiation, the product of frequency and wavelength equals the speed of light

120. Wavelength

The distance between corresponding points of two consecutive waves; for electromagnetic radiation, the product of frequency and wavelength equals the speed of light

121. Solar spectrum

122. Infrared radiation

Electromagnetic radiation just beyond the red (low-energy) end of the visible spectrum

123. Visible radiation

Electromagnetic radiation that the human eye can detect; visible radiation has wavelengths from about 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)

124. Ultraviolet radiation

Electromagnetic radiation just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum; overexposure to this radiation can cause skin damage

125. Greenhouse gases

Atmospheric substances that absorb infrared radiation, such as CO2, N2O, and CH4

126. Greenhouse effect

The trapping and returning of infrared radiation to Earth’s surface by atmospheric substances such as water and carbon dioxide

127. Temperature and radiation

There are times the temperature of the lower troposphere increases with height, which is of course opposed to the general trend in the troposphere for warm air to be located below cooler air

128. Reflectivity

The proportion of radiation that a material reflects rather than absorbs

129. Specific Heat capacity

The quantity of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a material by 1℃; the expression commonly has units of J/ (g ℃)

130. Carbon cycle

The movement of carbon atoms within Earth’s ecosystems, from carbon storage as plant and animal matter, through release as carbon dioxide due to cellular respiration, combustion, and decay, to reacquisition by plants

131. Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some microorganisms use solar energy to convert water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates (stored chemical energy)

132. Respiration

The sum total of the physical and chemical process in an organism by which oxygen is conveyed to tissues and cells, and carbon dioxide and water are given off.

133. Carbon reservoirs

Carbon-storing natural feature that exchanges carbon (a forest or land mass)

134. Carbon processes

135. Factors affecting CO2 levels

Automobiles, burning coal, burning natural gas, population, clearing forests

136. Limiting reactant

The starting substance that is used up first in a chemical reaction

137. Incomplete combustion

The partial burning of a fuel; the incomplete combustion of carbon, for example, produces carbon monoxide rather than carbon dioxide

138. Global climate change

Increased carbon levels from human activity are affecting the climate around the world

139. CO2 level trends

The amount of CO2 is increasing rapidly because of human activity, burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests, and population growth

140. Acid rain

Fog, sleet, snow, or rain with a pH lower than about 5.6 due to dissolved gases

141. Acid vs. base

Acids can be in solid, liquid, or gas form. Bases are slippery and usually solid. Acids and bases neutralize each other.

142. Hydroxide and Hydronium ions

The hydroxide ion is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−

Hydronium ion is the aqueous cation H3O+, the type of oxonium ion produced by protonation of water.

143. STP Standard Temperature and Pressure

standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements, to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data

144. SOx and NOx emissions

SOx SO2 (g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3 (aq)

SO2 (g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4 (aq)

NOx NO2(g) + H2O(l) →HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)

145. Preventing acid rain

Reducing the release of nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere from industrial processes, transportation, and power plants

146. Molar concentration

The concentration determined by dividing the total moles of solute by the solution volume (expressed in liters)

147. Neutralization

Combining an acid and a base in amounts that result in the elimination of all excess acid or base

148. pH

measure of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution (7 is neutral)

149. ionization

the physical process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons or other ions

150. photons

Energy bundles of electromagnetic radiation that travel at the speed of light

151. Diluted vs. concentrated acid / base

152. Buffer

A substance or combination of dissolved substances capable of resisting changes in pH when limited quantities of either acid or base are added

153. Primary air pollutant

A contaminant that directly enters the atmosphere

154. Secondary air pollutant

A contaminant generated in the atmosphere by chemical reactions between primary air pollutants and natural components of air

155. Particulate pollution

Air contaminants made up of small particles suspended in the atmosphere

156. Synthetic substances and air pollutants

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) - are synthetic substances that have has a variety of industrial uses. It is believed that CFC's can also contribute to a "greenhouse effect" resulting in a warming of the earth.

Air pollution is the contamination of the air by harmful substances. These substances , called pollutants, can occur naturally or they can be produced by human activities.

157. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Synthetic substances previously used as aerosol propellants, cooling fluids, and cleaning solvents; can lead to stratospheric ozone destruction through production of chlorine radicals

158. Smog

A potentially hazardous combination of smoke and fog

159. Temperature inversion

An atmospheric condition where a cool air mass is trapped beneath a less-dense warm air mass; most frequently occurs in a valley or over a city

160. Photochemical smog

A potentially hazardous mixture of secondary pollutants formed by solar irradiation of certain primary pollutants in the presence of oxygen.

161. Electrostatic precipitation

A pollution-control method in which combustion waste products are electrically charged and then collected on plates of opposite electric charge

162. Mechanical filtering

A pollution-control method in which the combustion of waste products passes into filters that trap particles too large to pass through

163. Scrubbing

A pollution-control method involving an aqueous solution that removes particles and sulfur oxides from industrial combustion processes

164. Collision theory

For a reaction to occur, reactant molecules must collide in proper orientation with sufficient kinetic energy

165. Activation energy

The minimum energy required for the successful collision of reactant particles in a chemical reaction

166. Catalytic converter

The reaction chamber in an auto exhaust system designed to accelerate the conversion of potentially harmful exhaust gases to nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, and water vapor

167. Ozone shield

The protective layer of stratospheric ozone that absorbs intense solar ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to living organisms

168. Ozone thinning and location

Over 170 countries have joined the Montreal Protocol, which seeks to reduce CFCs. The hole in the ozone is over Antarctica

169. Air quality

Reducing pollutants such as carbon dioxide emissions will improve air quality

170. Peak time of day for NOx concentrations

12 at noon

171. Protostar

A large mass that forms by contraction out of the gas of a giant molecular cloud in the interstellar medium.

172. What is happening in a star?

Gas pressure pushing out = gravity pulling atoms in

173. Big Bang Theory

The popular theory that the universe originated from one big bang of molecular activity

174. Stars life cycles

Process by which a star undergoes a sequence of radical changes during its lifetime

175. Black Hole

Black holes are massive objects that have collapsed in on them, creating a gravitational suction so intense that their insides become cut off from the rest of the universe

176. Nuclear fission/ fusion

Hydrogen, helium, carbon are the three main fuels for fusion in stars

177. Spectroscopes and telescopes

A spectrometer is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials

A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light)

178. Gravity and equilibrium in stars

Equilibrium is a balance between gravity pulling atoms toward the center and gas pressure pushing heat and light away from the center

179. Alpha, beta radiation

Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper

Beta radiation, consisting of electrons or positrons, is halted by an aluminum plate