Unit 1 – Later Middle Ages, Renaissance, and New Monarchs and Expansion AP European History Later Middle Ages The Black Death (1347) Causes: Bubonic plague was carried by fleas on Asian black rats and brought to Europe on ships returning

from Asia Overcrowding in cities and homes facilitated the spread of the disease Many aristocratic families slept in one room and many prosperous peasant families slept in one bed for

warmth; less prosperous peasants were even worse off Poor sanitation in cities: garbage-filled streets, human excrement, and dead animals Widespread malnutrition prior to the plague led to poor health (e.g. lower immune systems) that made

people more susceptible to the disease 25% harvests in early 14th century were poor as torrential rains destroyed wheat, oats, and hay crops;

some instances of cannibalism occurred Poor hygiene also played a significant role Many people believed (correctly) that their water was contaminated and feared taking baths Plague doctors often wore attire, such as seen above, with the beak stuffed with spices or herbs to

protect the doctor from the disease. Results: Loss of 1/3 of European population (mostly in cities) In some cities, such as Florence, nearly ½ the population died Economy in towns suffered significantly (while the countryside was less affected by the plague The plague accelerated an economic decline that had been in effect since the early 14th century In some areas workers enjoyed higher wages as the supply of workers was depleted Impact on the peasantry Serfdom ended in many areas in western Europe Peasant revolts in England and France increased (had originally been in response to taxation during

the Hundred Years’ War) First enclosure of fields in Britain occurred as landowners needed better agricultural production with

fewer farm hands; largely done for sheep herding Best of the clergy died (staying behind to help the sick) Jews were often blamed for the plague and thus persecuted Continued the age-old phenomenon of anti-Semitism in Europe Literature and art reflected pessimism Dance of Death (Danse Macabre): dancing skeletons danced among the living, reminding viewers of the

prevalence of death. Northern Europe developed a morbid fascination with death that was later reflected in the art of the

Northern Renaissance. Population did not reach pre-plague level until the mid-16th century. Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) Cause: English crown lay claim to the duchy of Aquitaine in France French king confiscated that territory from English control The War Most of the war was fought intermittently in France and in the Low Countries By 1415, the major battles had been won by England and Paris itself was now threatened Aside from loss of territory, France was threatened by the rise of a new state in its eastern territory,

Burgundy, that allied with England Joan of Arc French peasant girl claimed she heard voices of saints and persuaded the king to allow her to be with

the troops. In 1429 led the French army to victory at Orléans during a crucial stage of the war The French heir to the throne was crowned as a result, and the government was thus strengthened Joan was later captured by the English and burned at the stake in 1431 Results: France permanently removed England from France (except for tiny region of Calais) The struggles of war began the modernization of state building in France and England (“New

Monarchs”) Peasant Revolts

Causes: taxation during Hundred Years’ War, desire for higher wages, hostility toward aristocracy, and higher expectations among the peasantry.

Revolts increased in frequency after the Black Death English Peasant Revolt (1381) Largest revolt, as many as 100,000 involved Jacquerie in France (late 14th-early 15th c.) Peasants not as successful as English peasants in gaining some changes Results: Revolts crushed End of serfdom in England c. 1550 Crisis in the Catholic Church Background Western and central European society was dominated by the Catholic Church since the fall of the

Roman Empire. Religious authorities in many regions were more powerful than secular authorities Popes, at times, were the most powerful political figures in all of Europe The Middle Ages were characterized by religious unity under the Catholic Church Meanwhile, the Greek Orthodox Church (Eastern Orthodox Church) was dominant in the Byzantine

Empire in the modern-day Balkans and parts of eastern Europe, including Russia. There was little cooperation between the Catholic and Orthodox churches Early Critics of the church Marsiglio de Padua: Defender of Peace Claimed the church should be subordinate to the state Believed the church should be governed by a council of laity and priests superior to the pope. John Wyclif (c.1330-1384) Believed the church should only follow Scripture This view foreshadowed Martin Luther’s reformation in the early 16th century Wrote an English translation of Bible His later followers were called Lollards John Hus (c.1369-1415): ideas very similar to Wyclif Led a nationalist movement in Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) Captured by authorities and burned at the stake for his heretical and political views Hussites: followers of Hus, staged large rebellions in the 14th century. Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377) 1305, a struggle between the pope and the French king led to the election of a French pope who set up

his leadership in Avignon, France 7 successive popes resided at Avignon, France This situation damaged papal prestige (esp. in England & Germany) since popes were believed to be

unduly influenced by French kings Rome’s economy, meanwhile, was damaged significantly Great Schism (c. 1377-1417) Further conflict occurred in 1377 with election of two popes—one in Rome, one in France—neither of

whom recognized the other. Further hurt prestige of church Conciliar Movement (1409-1418): Ended the Great Schism Sought to reform the Church by creating a council of cardinals that would be more powerful than the

pope Failed as a movement; the newly elected Pope Martin V ensured that papal power still remained

supreme Fall of the Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire had been the dominant power in southeastern Europe for nearly a thousand

years. It began as the Eastern Roman Empire and lasted long after the Roman Empire in the west

disappeared. The Greek Orthodox Church (or Eastern Orthodox Church) was dominant in the Byzantine Empire. 1453, the Ottoman Empire took Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire and its last

major stronghold.

Many scholars fled Byzantium to western Europe to escape Turkish rule. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul The Ottoman Empire spread northeastward into Europe, taking control of the Balkans and eventually

threatening the central European regions of Hungary and Austria. Nationalist literature of the Later Middle Ages Rise in the use of the vernacular (national languages) Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), The Divine Comedy (1321) (also considered an early Renaissance figure) Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400): Canterbury Tales – portrayed English life Francois Villon (1431-1463): Grand Testament (1461) – greatest poet of Medieval France Portrayed ordinary French life with humor and emotion. Life in Later Middle Ages Marriage: avg. age for men = mid-20s; women = 16-18 Divorce was unheard of in Catholic countries Economic reasons were most important for marriage (love not paramount until the 18th-19th

centuries) Prostitution existed in cities (customers were often young middle-class men who didn’t marry until

later) Work: Agricultural cycles and church ritual closely linked Small % of men were artisans in towns; protected by guilds Serfdom reduced in many areas Recreation Aristocracy – jousting tournaments Common people—archery, wrestling, bull-baiting, bear-baiting; alcoholism rampant Laity increasingly managed parish lands Scholasticism: Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) Scholasticism became the cornerstone of late-medieval philosophy Aquinas attempted to reconcile faith and reason by using logic to support Christian doctrine Sought to reconcile Aristotle’s scientific ideas with Christianity Scholasticism dominated Catholic philosophy for centuries Challenged severely by Renaissance humanists in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries Renaissance Background The Renaissance is considered the beginning of modern European History. Renaissance (c. 1300-1600) Occurred first in Italy c. 1300 and lasted until the mid-16th century Renaissance spread to Northern Europe around 1450 In England, the Renaissance did not begin until the 16th century and lasted until the early 17th

century. (e.g. Shakespeare) Origins of Renaissance: 19th-century historian Jacob Burckhardt claimed the Renaissance period

stood in distinct contrast to the Middle Ages. Renaissance culture applied almost exclusively to the upper classes. Upper classes had the luxury of time to spend learning the classics. Peasantry was largely illiterate and Renaissance ideas had little impact on common people. Working classes and small merchants were far too preoccupied with the concerns of daily life. Rise of the Italian City-States Northern Italian cities developed international trade: Genoa, Venice, Milan Signori (despots) or oligarchies (rule of merchant aristocracies) controlled much of Italy by 1300 Commenda: Contract between merchant and “merchant-adventurer” who agreed to take goods to

distant locations and return with the proceeds (for 1/3 of profits) As a result, Italy became more urban: more towns and cities with significant populations than

anywhere else in Europe at this time Politics among the Italian City-States Competition among city-states meant that Italy did not unify politically. In effect, an early balance-of-power pattern emerged where weaker states would ally with other states

to prevent a single state from dominating the peninsula

Political disunity of the Italian city-states led to their downfall in late-15th and early16th centuries when French & Spanish armies invaded Italy.

Condottieri: mercenary generals of private armies who were hired by cities for military purposes Major city-states and figures Republic of Florence (included Republic of Genoa) Center of the Renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries. Dominated by the Medici family Cosimo de’ Medici (1389-1464): allied with other powerful families of Florence and became unofficial

ruler of the republic Most powerful of the Medici rulers Lorenzo de’ Medici (the “Magnificent”) (1449-92): significant patron of the arts (son of Cosimo) Duchy of Milan – ruled by Sforza family after 1450 Milan was a major enemy of Venice and Florence until the Peace of Lodi (1454) created a relative 40-

year period of peace in northern Italy The peace was, in part, a response to concerns over the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople a year

earlier. Created a stable balance of power for a time Rome, the Papal States: popes served both as religious and political leaders; controlled much of central

Italy Venice, Venetian Republic Longest lasting of the Italian states (did not succumb to foreign powers until Napoleon conquered it in

the early 1800s) Greatest maritime power in Italy and one of the world’s great naval and trading powers during the

14th and 15th centuries.

Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Included southern Italian region of Naples and the island of Sicily Only Italian city-state to officially have a “king” Controlled by France between 1266-1435 Controlled by Spain after 1435 Decline of the Italian city-states French invasions began in 1494 (“First Italian War”) Milan’s despot, Ludovico “the Moor,” encouraged French King Charles VIII to invade Naples, the

traditional enemy of Milan. This was the beginning of foreign invasions throughout the Italian peninsula. Florence When Florence attempted to appease France during its invasion in 1494, it led to the overthrow of the

Medici family. Although the Medici family returned to power several years later, Florence by then was severely

weakened. Girolamo Savonarola became the unofficial leader of Florence between 1494 and 1498. Pledged to rid Florence of its decadence and corruption In effect, oversaw a theocracy in Florence He had earlier predicted the French invasions due to paganism and moral decay in the Italian city-

states); became a puppet of the French When France was removed from Italy in 1498, Savonarola was imprisoned and then burned at the

stake. Italy became a battleground in a series of power struggles between Spain and France Spanish fears of a French-Italian alliance resulted in Spain’s alliance with Venice, the Papal States, and

the Holy Roman Empire Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) The Prince (1513) The quintessential political treatise of the 16th century Observed the political leadership of Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI) who had ambitions of

uniting Italy under his control Stated that politically, “the ends justifies the means” Stated that for rulers, “it was better to be feared than to be loved”

Rulers had to be practical and cunning, in addition to being aggressive and ruthless At times rulers should behave like a lion (aggressive and powerful) and at other times like a fox

(cunning and practical) The Prince continued to influence European rulers for centuries. Sack of Rome in 1527 by armies of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (who was also king of Spain)

symbolized the end of the Renaissance in Italy Humanism: Characteristics Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) in philosophy, literature and art Sought to reconcile pagan writings with Christian thought Strong belief in individualism and the great potential of human beings (in contrast to the Middle Ages

where humans were seen as small, wicked and inconsequential and should focus solely on earning salvation)

Virtú: “the quality of being a man”; idea of excelling in all of one’s pursuits Believed the key to a good life was Reason and Nature Focused first on studying ancient languages: Initially, Latin of ancient Rome was the main focus. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, Greek came to be studied rigorously as well By 1500, virtually all of the significant ancient Roman and Greek texts that have been rediscovered,

were translated and printed Largely rejected Aristotelian views and medieval scholasticism in favor of: Roman authors such as Cicero, Livy, Virgil, and Quintilian Greek writings, especially those of Plato early Christian writers, especially the New Testament This occurred predominantly in northern Europe and became a cornerstone of the Northern

Renaissance Believed in a liberal arts educational program that included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics

and moral philosophy Civic Humanism: idea that education should prepare leaders who would be active in civic affairs Some of the most important humanists also were important political leaders. Often, humanism was more secular and lay dominated; however, most humanists remained deeply

Christian, both in Italy and in Northern Europe Petrarch (1304-1374)—the “father of humanism” Considered the first modern writer In his writings, literature was no longer subordinate to religion Claimed that the Middle Ages (the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of

the Renaissance) were the “Dark Ages” He was perhaps the first to use critical textual analysis to ancient texts. Especially influenced by Cicero Wrote his famous poetry in the Italian vernacular (as did Dante earlier in his Divine Comedy). Boccaccio (1313-1375) Compiled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology Decameron is his most famous work Consisted of 100 earthy tales that comprise a social commentary of 14th century Italy Aimed to impart wisdom of human character and behavior (especially sexual and economic

misbehavior). Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) First to use the term “humanism” Among the most important of the civic humanists Served as a chancellor in Florence Wrote a history of Florence, perhaps the first modern history, and wrote a narrative using primary

source documents and the division of historical periods Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) Foremost expert on the Latin language: Elegances of the Latin Language (1444) On the False Donation of Constantine (1444) Exposed the Donation of Constantine as an 8th century fraud, using textual criticism

The Church had claimed it was granted vast territories by the 4th-century Roman emperor Constantine.

Valla also pointed out errors in the Latin Vulgate (the authorized version of the Bible for the Catholic Church)

Ironically, Valla’s work gave challengers of Church authority ammunition, even though he remained a devoted Catholic and even served as a secretary under Pope Nicholas V.

Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) One of the most influential humanist philosophers of the 15th century Founded the Platonic Academy at the behest of Cosimo de’ Medici in the 1460s This served to spread the works and philosophy of Plato throughout much of Europe Translated Plato’s works into Latin, giving modern Europeans access to these works for the first time. Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Member of the Platonic Academy Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) Perhaps the most famous Renaissance work on the nature of humankind. Humans were created by God and therefore given tremendous potential for greatness, and even union

with God if they desired it. However, humans could, through neglect, also choose a negative course. Thus, humans had free will to be great or fail Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529) – The Book of the Courtier (1528) Perhaps most important work on Renaissance education Specified qualities necessary to be a true gentleman including physical and intellectual abilities and

leading an active life Rejected crude contemporary social habits (e.g. spitting on the floor, eating without utensils, wiping

one’s nose with one’s sleeve, etc.) Described the ideal of a “Renaissance man” who was well-versed in the Greek and Roman classics, an

accomplished warrior, could play music, dance, and had a modest but confident personal demeanor. This contrasted with the medieval view of being a master in only one area. virtú: the quality of being a great man in whatever noble pursuit Printing press: Johann Gutenberg (c. 1400-1468) One of most important inventions in human history. Gutenberg’s development of movable type made possible the spread of humanistic literature to rest of

Europe with astonishing speed. No longer would copies of works need to be done by hand, individually. 1457-58, published the first printed Bible in the city of Mainz, Germany Facilitated the phenomenal spread of the Reformation. Italian Renaissance Art Patronage Florence was the leader in Renaissance art especially in the quattrocento (1400s) Giorgio Vasari (1511-74): The Lives of the Artists Contemporary Renaissance art historian who left much valuable information about Renaissance artists

and their works. Massive patronage for the arts came from wealthy merchant-families (such as the Medicis) who

commissioned countless works from the great artists. In essence, the wealth of Florence was mirrored by the superb artistic output of the Renaissance A good example is Donatello’s David which stood in the Medici courtyard during the wedding of

Lorenzo de Medici. In Milan, the Sforza’s commissioned such works as Leonardo’s The Last Supper Patronage also came from local churches who increasingly saw Renaissance art as a means of glorifying

God. Some notable examples include: Brunelleschi’s Il Duomo built for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral Ghiberti’s two sets of doors for the baptistery opposite Il Duomo Michelangelo’s David was originally commissioned for the cathedral (but was too heavy and thus

placed elsewhere). Rome became the center of Renaissance art in the 1500s (cinquecento)

With the decline of Florence in the late-15th century, Renaissance dominance shifted to Rome. Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492-1503): most notorious of the Renaissance popes; spent huge sums on art

patronage (e.g. Bramante’s Tempietto) A few of the notable works commissioned by the Church in this period include Michelangelo’s dome atop St. Peter’s Cathedral, his paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and

the sculpture Pieta that is located within the cathedral Raphael’s The School of Athens (a fresco painting inside the papal apartments) Bramante’s Tempietto, a small church that is a masterpiece in classical architecture; and his floor plan

for a newly rebuilt St. Peter’s cathedral. (Much of his plans were altered after his death) New artistic techniques Painting perspective: 3-D effects on a 2-dimensional surface Medieval works, in contrast, looked flat and two-dimensional chiaroscuro: use of dark and light colors to create the illusion of depth Faces of subjects expressed unique individual characteristics (embodied Renaissance ideal of

“individualism”) Also, more emotion was shown on human faces In contrast, medieval paintings tended to be more stylized in their portrayal of human faces (i.e. more

generic) sfumato developed by Leonardo; a technique of blurring or softening sharp outlines Sculpture Renaissance sculpture was often free-standing, designed to be seen in the round Heavily influenced by ancient Greek and Roman sculpture Contrast with medieval sculpture that largely was done in relief Many sculptures glorified the human body and many portrayed nude figures (like works in ancient

Greece and Rome) Like Renaissance painting, many Renaissance sculptures glorified the individual Architecture Utilized ancient Greek and Roman forms such as Greek temple architecture (with triangular

pediments), Greek columns, Roman arches and domes (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome) Simplicity, symmetry and balance. Contrasted sharply with the highly-ornamented gothic style of the middle ages of pointed arches (as

evidenced in numerous medieval cathedrals) Florentine Renaissance Artists Giotto (1266-1336) – considered perhaps the first Renaissance painter; use of chiaroscuro Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) Il Duomo (1420-34) atop Santa Maria del Fiore is his masterpiece; it was the largest dome in Europe at

the time of its construction Considered the “father” of perspective (although Alberti wrote the first treatise on the subject) Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), architect of several famous cathedrals. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) – sculptor Won a contest in 1403 against Brunelleschi that earned him the commission to sculpt the bronze doors

for Florentine baptistery His two sets of bronze doors (1424 and 1452) are a masterpiece of sculpture Michelangelo called his 2nd set of bronze doors the “gates of paradise” Donatello (1386-1466) – sculptor His bronze statue of David (1408-09) was the first since antiquity First Renaissance artist to utilize a nude figure in sculpture Masaccio (1401-1428) painter Perhaps first Renaissance painter to portray real, nude human figures in 3-D Expulsion of Adam and Eve (1427): fresco shows tremendous emotion; both figures are nude Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) – painter: Birth of Venus (c. 1485-86) The painting is a good example of humanism as the subject is Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Venus’ stands in contrapposto, with more weight on one leg than the other. This is also humanistic as contrapposto was used frequently by ancient Greek and Roman sculptors “High Renaissance”: centered in Rome (16th century)

The worldly “Renaissance Popes”—Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X—provided tremendous patronage to the arts

Characteristics: classical balance, harmony, restraint Bramante (14) – architect His Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio) marked the beginning of the High Renaissance in Rome (1502)

when Alexander VI appointed him to build a sanctuary that allegedly marked the spot where Peter was crucified

Principal architect of the rebuilt St. Peter’s cathedral, although some of his plans were altered after his death (e.g. by Michelangelo)

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) The quintessential “Renaissance Man” Painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, writer, scientist Mona Lisa (1503-1507) Considered one of the great masterpieces in all of art history Leonardo developed the technique of sfumato, a haze that softens the edges of objects in the painting. Last Supper (1498) – fresco (paint on wet plaster) Raphael Santi (1483-1520) – painter Created numerous “Madonna and Child” paintings School of Athens (1510-11) is a quintessential example of humanism Greco-Roman architecture is prominent Plato & Aristotle are in the center of the painting Sculptures are painted in contrapposto stance Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) Painting: ceiling of the Sistine Chapel Sculpture: David (1501-04): Humanistic marble sculpture—glorifies the human body; contrapposto stance; facial

features are individualistic and emotional Pieta (1499): Mary holding limp body of Christ considered perhaps the most perfect marble sculpture

ever made Architecture: Designed the enormous dome atop St. Peter’s Cathedral in the Vatican (still the largest

dome in present-day Europe) David Pieta Venice: Titian (c. 1485-1576) Greatest painter of the Venetian school Use of vivid color and movement, in contrast to more subtle colors and static figures of the Florentine

style Mannerism Characteristics: Reaction against the Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color High Renaissance had taken art to perfection; there was little that could be done to improve it; thus,

mannerists rebelled against it Works often used unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or otherwise exaggerated Tintoretto (1518-94) Venetian painter Used elongated figure proportions, twisted poses, and compression of space El Greco (1541-1614) Greek artist who did most of his greatest work in Spain Perhaps the greatest of the Mannerists with his use of elongated figures and unnatural pigments Burial of Count Orgaz (1586-88) and Toledo (1597) are two important examples of his work The Northern Renaissance Christian Humanism: Emphasis on early Church writings that provided answers on how to improve society and reform the

Church Less emphasis on pagan works from ancient Greece and Rome (although these works were widely read

and enjoyed by Christian Humanists)

Renaissance Many historians today see more continuity between the Northern and Italian Renaissance than

contrasts. Drew on Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible and the writings of the Church Fathers. Emphasized education and power of human intellect to bring about institutional change and moral

improvement. Writings led to criticism of the church thus leading to the Reformation Erasmus (1466-1536) Most famous and celebrated of all northern humanists Master of the Greek language; one of Europe’s foremost authorities Made new translations of the Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament to create ‘purer’ editions. He was the first humanist to earn a living by writing—an extremely impressive achievement. In Praise of Folly (1513) Best-seller (only the Bible sold more by 1550) Written in Latin; thus is was not intended for mass consumption Erasmus was a devout Catholic who sought to reform the Church, not destroy it. Satirized people’s worldly ambitions, including the clergy. Criticized immorality and hypocrisy of Church leaders and the clergy The book inspired renewed calls for reform, and influenced Martin Luther. Thus, some contemporaries claimed that “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched” regarding the

reformation Thomas More (1478-1536) Prime example of a civic humanist; he rose to the highest government position of any humanist Lord Chancellor to King Henry VIII in England Utopia (1516): More’s humanistic masterpiece Mixes civic humanism with religious ideals to describe a perfect (utopian) society located on an

imaginary island More sees the accumulation of property as a root cause for society’s ills; a few have it—most don’t In order to achieve harmony and order people have to be willing to sacrifice their individual rights for

the common good. War, poverty, religious intolerance, and other problems of the early 16th century do not exist. Jacques Lefevre d’Etables (1454-1536) Leading French humanist and good example of how Northern Christian humanists focused on early

Church writings. Produced 5 versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative version of the Bible. A devout Catholic, he was later seen as an enemy of the Church and was condemned for heresy Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517): Spanish humanist who reformed the Spanish clergy and church so that many of the Church abuses that

were highlighted during the Reformation did not necessarily apply to Spain Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition (serves as an example of how not all humanists were

necessarily tolerant of heretical views). Complutensian Polyglot Bible: Placed Hebrew, Greek, and Latin versions of the Bible in parallel

columns. Yet another example of how Northern humanists focused on early Church writings and the accuracy of

Biblical translations. François Rabelais (1494-1553) His secular writings portrayed his confidence in human nature and reflected Renaissance tastes Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532-1542) A folk epic and comic masterpiece that satirized French society Attacked clerical education and monastic orders; championed secular learning Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) Developed the essay form The essay became a vehicle for testing new ideas Skepticism Doubt that true knowledge could be obtained Believed that the skeptic must be cautious, critical and suspend judgment.

Thus, one must be tolerant of others’ views William Shakespeare (1564-1616) – Elizabethan era Greatest of the English Renaissance authors His works reflected the Renaissance ideas of classical Greek and Roman culture, individualism and

humanism Wrote comedies, tragedies, histories and sonnets Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616): Don Quixote (1605-15) Among the greatest pieces of Spanish literature Critical of excessive religious idealism chivalric romance Northern Renaissance Art Flemish style: Low Countries produced especially important artists Characteristics Heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance More detail throughout paintings (especially the background) than the Italian Renaissance Use of oil paints (in contrast to Italian Renaissance that used tempera) More emotional than the Italian style Works often preoccupied with death Jan Van Eyck – (c. 1339- c. 1441) Flemish painter Most famous and innovative Flemish painter of the 15th century Perfected oil painting Naturalistic wood panel paintings used much religious symbolism. Employed incredible detail in his works Masterpiece: Ghent Altarpiece (1432) Arnolfini and his Wife (1434) is perhaps his most famous work. Bosch (c. 1450-1516) -- Netherlands Master of symbolism and fantasy His art often looks surrealistic (like Dali of the 20th century) and focused often on death and the

torments of Hell. Works reflect confusion and anguish that people felt in the Later Middle Ages (e.g. Black Death) Death and the Miser (c. 1490) Depicts the dance of death theme (danse macabre) of the Black Plague

era. Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569) Not influenced much by the Italian Renaissance Focused on lives of ordinary people (e.g. Peasant Dance (1568), Peasant Wedding (c. 1568), and The

Battle Between Carnival and Lent (1559) Germany Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) Foremost northern Renaissance artist. Master of the woodcut (“Knight, Death, and Devil”) First northerner artist to master Italian Renaissance techniques of proportion, perspective, & modeling Some notable works include St. Jerome; Knight Death, and Devil; Four Apostles Painted numerous self-portraits Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543): Premier portrait artist of his era: painted Erasmus, More, numerous portraits of King Henry VIII and

also his family members The Ambassadors (1533) encompasses some of the major themes of the era: exploration, religious

discord, preoccupation with death (the skull in the foreground) and the rising tide of international relations in an age of expansion

Renaissance Fugger family in Germany, especially Jacob Fugger (1459-1525) was significant in patronizing art of

the Northern Renaissance Fortune was the result of international banking (much like the Medici family in Florence) omen during the Renaissance era Wealthy women

Querelles des Femmes (“The Problem of Women”): A new debate emerged over the proper role of women in society (starting with Christine de Pisan in the 14th century); the debate continued for six hundred years.

Women enjoyed increased access to education However, lost some status compared to women in the Middle Ages; women functioned now as

“ornaments” to their middle-class or upper-class husbands Women were to make themselves pleasing to the man (Castiglione)-- only applied to the upper classes Sexual double-standard: women were to remain chaste until marriage; men were permitted to “sow

their wild oats.” Important Renaissance noblewomen at court in education and culture Christine de Pisan (1363?-1434?): The City of Ladies (1405); The Book of Three Virtues Chronicle of accomplishments of great women of history Renaissance woman’s survival manual Perhaps Europe’s first feminist Extremely well-educated in France Isabella d’Este (1474-1539): “First Lady” of the Renaissance Set an example for women to break away from their traditional roles as mere ornaments to their

husbands Ruled Mantua after her husband died She and her siblings were well educated Big patron of the arts Founded a school for young women Wrote over 2000 letters that provide a window into politics and courtly life at that time. Artemesia Gentileschi (1593-1652) (considered a Baroque painter) Perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era. First woman to paint historical and religious scenes: e.g. her series of “Judith” paintings Female artists at this time were largely consigned to portrait painting & imitative poses Peasant and lower-class women Status did not change much compared to Middle Ages Marriage European Family Pattern Nuclear family (poor people tended to be unable to support extended families) Wealthier people (and some landowning peasants) tended to have extended families Based on economic considerations; not love Parents played a large role when property was involved Dowries were extremely important in wealthy families; also important in common families Women tended to play a more significant role in the economy in Northern Europe. Average age for women: less than 20 (for men it was mid-late 20s) Class issues: rich tend to marry earlier than middle classes, and poor tend to marry earlier too, or not

to marry at all. In Italy, the age gap between husbands and wives was much larger than in Northern Europe Increased infanticide and abandonment (among the poor) Increase of foundling hospitals (2/3 of abandoned babies were girls) Low rate of illegitimate births Dramatic population growth until 1650 Divorce available in certain areas (still very limited) compared to Middle Ages where divorce was non-

existent This was largely due to a modest increase in divorce in Reformation countries Rape not considered a serious crime More prostitution than in Middle Ages Important Female Rulers Caterina Sforza in Milan Isabella I: Unified Spain along with her husband Ferdinand. Mary Tudor: Ruled England (1553-1558) Elizabeth I: Ruled England (1558-1603) Catherine de Mèdicis: Ruled France as regent from 1559 to 1589

Joan Kelly (historian): Did Women have a Renaissance? (1977) Kelly asserts that middle class (bourgeois) women especially suffered a marked decline in their status

along with that of noble women during the Italian Renaissance Middle class women were exclusively relegated to the private sphere while men monopolized political

and economic issues in the public sphere. Sexual chastity was essential for both women of the nobility and the bourgeoisie; a double-standard

existed as chastity was not expected of men Medieval feudalism permitted homage to female vassals but in Renaissance Italy feudalism came to be

replaced by powerful city-states. Thus, the political power of women in many cases vanished. Noble women thus experienced a state of almost universal dependence on her family and husband Non-military education by tutors for young noblemen (and women) had often been done by females in

the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance female tutors were replaced with male humanistic tutors or boarding schools

(that emphasized patriarchal and misogynous bias), thus reducing the educational influence of women. New Monarchs, Exploration & 16th Century Society “New” Monarchs: c.1460-1520 Consolidated power and created the foundation for Europe’s first modern nation-states in France,

England and Spain. This evolution had begun in the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, monarchies had grown weaker in eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. However, New Monarchies never achieved absolute power; absolutism did not emerge effectively until

the 17th century (e.g. Louis XIV in France). New Monarchies also were not nation-states (in the modern sense) since populations did not necessarily

feel that they belonged to a “nation” Identity tended to be much more local or regional. The modern notion of nationalism did not emerge until the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Characteristics of New Monarchies Reduced the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles),

and the hiring of mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies The advent of gunpowder (that resulted in the production of muskets and cannon) increased the

vulnerability of noble armies and their knights However, many nobles in return for their support of the king gained titles and offices and served in the

royal court or as royal officials Reduced the political power of the clergy The medieval notion of the Church being supreme to the state was replaced in belief and practice Created more efficient bureaucracies Enabled the “New Monarchs” to begin centralizing control of their realms Increased the political influence of the bourgeoisie (at the expense of the nobility) In return, the bourgeoisie brought in much needed revenues to the Crown. This was more so in France than in Spain. Increased the public (national) debt by taking out loans from merchant-bankers. Opposition to monarchial power Nobles resented the decline of political influence Clergy members saw the pope as their leader, not the monarch Independent towns resisted more centralized monarchial control France Political and economic recovery began after the Hundred Years’ War. England was expelled from France. Defeat of the duchy of Burgundy in 1477 removed the threat of a new state in the eastern part of

France. Rise of the Valois line of monarchs Louis XI “Spider King” (r. 1461-83): Created a large royal army Dealt ruthlessly with nobles, individually, and within the Estates General Increased taxes Exerted power over the clergy

Actively encouraged economic growth Promoted new industries such as silk weaving Encouraged foreign merchants and craftsmen to immigrate to France Entered into commercial treaties with England, Portugal and the Hanseatic League

Francis I (r. 1515-1547): Condordat of Bologna (1516): The king of France now had power to appoint bishops to the Gallican

(French) Church. Represented a major blow to papal influence in France Yet, French control over these appointments was one reason why France did not become Protestant

during the Reformation taille: Francis instituted a direct head tax on all land and property Enabled the French gov’t to expand its budget on such things as a larger army England: after 100 Years’ War War of the Roses (between 1455-1477) Two noble families, the House of York and the House of Lancaster fought a civil war to gain the crown. Yorkists were victorious and gave rise to the Tudor dynasty (which would rule England until 1603). Henry VII (r. 1489-1509): Reduced the influence of the nobility, in part, through the Star Chamber (secret trials) Nobles were tried without a jury, could not confront witnesses, and were often tortured Nobles were not allowed to have private armies with their own insignias However, the English parliament continued to gain power in its struggle with the crown. Standard governmental procedures of law and taxation were developed. Thus, the Tudors did not have the power over taxation that the Valois’ enjoyed in France Spain Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (r. 1474-1504): unified Spain 1492, Reconquista Goal was to remove the last of the Moors and the Jews and Christianize Spain Last Muslim stronghold of Grenada surrendered Loss of Jews and Moors resulted in a significant decline in the Spanish middle-class Between 30,000 to 60,000 Jews expelled hermandades: alliances of cities to oppose nobles Helped bring cities in line with royal authority Obtained from the papacy the right to make major ecclesiastical appointments in Spain.

Spanish Inquisition: (conceived by Isabella) Monarchy enforced the authority of the national (Catholic) church Tomás de Torquemada, a Dominican monk, oversaw the Inquisition. The Inquisition targeted conversos: Jews who had converted to Christianity but were now suspected of

backsliding into Judaism Thus began a wave of anti-Semitism in certain parts of Europe In Portugal, 4,000 Jews who refused to leave were massacred in 1506. Germany began systematically persecuting Jews in 1509. Cardinal Ximenes by 1500 had succeeded in getting rid of the abuses and opposition to reform in the

Church (something that did not happen in most other countries). Thus, Spain, like France, did not turn Protestant during the Reformation. The Hapsburg Empire (Holy Roman Empire) The Holy Roman Empire (HRE) consisted of about 300 semi-autonomous German states. Each state had its own foreign policy and wars sometimes occurred between states. The center of Hapsburg power was in Austria and other hereditary states nearby. New Monarchs, Exploration & 16th Century Society The HRE was NOT a “New Monarchy” The emperor did not have centralized control, was an elected monarchy, could not levy taxes or raise

armies outside of his own hereditary lands (largely around Austria) Hapsburg kings were never able to gain control of the numerous German states, duchies and

principalities in the Holy Roman Empire that had enjoyed their own independence.

Maximilian I (r. 1493-1519): gained territory in eastern France via his marriage to Mary of Burgundy Sparked a fierce dynastic struggle between the French Valois dynasty and the Hapsburgs that would last

until 1559. Charles V: (r. 1519-1556) most powerful ruler in Europe in the 16th century As Holy Roman Emperor, he controlled the Austrian Hapsburg lands while he ruled the Spanish Empire

at the height of its power. His armies sacked Rome in 1527 that symbolically ended the Renaissance in Italy Hapsburg-Valois Wars (c. 1519-1559): HRE was locked in a dynastic struggle with Francis I for control of

Burgundy and territories in Italy. Charles V sought to prevent spread of Protestant Reformation in Germany throughout his reign. The Commercial Revolution (c. 1500-1700) Causes Roots in the Middle Ages (e.g. Hanseatic League) Population growth: 70 million in 1500; 90 million in 1600; thus, more consumers existed “Price revolution”: (long slow upward trend in prices) Increased food prices, increased volume of money, and the influx of gold & silver Increased prices meant increase in supply of goods States and emerging empires sought to increase their economic power Rise in capitalism (laissez-faire): entrepreneurs invested money in their own businesses or other business

ventures. The middle class (bourgeoisie) led the way. Features Banking The Fuggers in Germany and the Medicis in Italy were among the leading bankers in Europe. Funded countless economic activities Antwerp in Flanders became the banking and commercial center of Europe in the 16th century. Amsterdam became the financial center in the 17th century after the successful Dutch Revolt against

Spain. The Hanseatic League evolved from within the German states in the Middle Ages that eventually

controlled trade in much of northern Europe well into the 16th century. The League was a mercantile association of numerous cities and towns. Chartered companies: state provided monopolies in certain areas (e.g. British East India Co. and the

Dutch East India Co.) These chartered companies became, in effect, a state within a state with large fleets of ships and military

power. Joint-stock companies: investors pooled resources for a common purpose (forerunner of the modern

corporation). One of the early prime examples of capitalism. Stock markets emerged: e.g., the bourse in Antwerp Investors financed a company by purchasing shares of stock; as the value of the company grew so did the

value of the stock, and thus the investors’ profit. First Enclosure movement in England: Wealthy landowners enclosed their lands to improve sheep

herding and thus the supply of wool for the production of textiles. The “putting-out” Industry emerged in the countryside for the production of cloth. Some farmers, displaced by enclosures, supplemented their income by producing textiles at home. New industries: cloth production, mining, printing, book trade, shipbuilding, cannons & muskets New consumer goods: sugar (most important), rice, and tea Sugar production resulted in an enormous slave trade in the Atlantic New Monarchs, Exploration & 16th Century Society Mercantilism developed in the 17th century. Goal: Nations sought a self-sufficient economy Strategy: create a favorable balance of trade where one’s country exported far more than it imported. “Bullionism”: A country should acquire as much gold and silver as possible. A favorable balance of trade was necessary to keep a country’s supply of gold from flowing to a

competing country. Significance:

Slow transition from a European society that was almost completely rural and isolated, to a society that was more developed with the emergence of towns.

Many serfs, mostly in Western Europe, improved their social position as a result. Emergence of more powerful nation states Wealth could be taxed Brought about the age of exploration as competing nations sought to create new empires overseas The “Price Revolution” Prices during the 16th century rose gradually The rising population of Europe increased demand for goods, thereby increasing prices Influx of gold and silver from the New World was one of the factors (but not the major factor) Inflation stimulated production as producers could get more money for their goods. Bourgeoisie acquired much of their wealth from trading and manufacturing; their social and political

status increased. Peasant farmers benefited when their surplus yields could be turned into cash crops. The nobility, whose income was fixed (based on feudal rents and fees), suffered a diminished standard of

living in the inflationary economy. The bourgeoisie grew in political and economic significance. First evident in the Italian city-states during the Renaissance Became the most powerful class in the Netherlands In France, grew in political power at the expense of the nobility Exerted increasing influence in English politics Increased standard of living (e.g. greater varieties of foods, spices, utensils), especially among the upper

and middle classes. The Age of Exploration and Conquest Causes for exploration “God, glory and gold” were the primary motives Christian Crusaders in the 11th & 14th centuries created European interest in Asia and the Middle East Rise of nation states (“New Monarchs”) resulted in competition for empires and trade Portugal and Spain sought to break the Italian monopoly on trade with Asia. Impact of Renaissance: search for knowledge Revival of Platonic studies, especially mathematics Awareness of living “at dawn of a new age” Invention of the printed book: resulted in the spread of accurate texts and maps Cartography advances improved navigation Martin Behaim: terrestrial globe, 1492 Waldseemuller’s world map (1507) Mercator’s map (ca. 1575) Technological advances facilitated sea travel Advances in astronomy helped in charting locations at sea Instruments Magnetic compass (ca. 1300): pointed to the magnetic north making it easier to determine direction. A number of instruments were used to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies. Quadrant (ca. 1450): used to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies Mariner’s astrolabe (ca. 1480): used to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies Cross staff (ca. 1550): used to find the latitude by measuring the altitude of the Pole Star above the

horizon Ships Portuguese caravel (ca. 1450) Lighter, faster ships than the Spanish Galleons and much better suited for exploration along the African

Coast Could sail into the wind Lateen sail and rope riggings Enabled sails to be quickly and efficiently maneuvered to take advantage of wind power Axial rudder (side rudder) Provided for improved change of direction Gunpowder and cannons

Provided protection against hostile ships and facilitated the domination of indigenous peoples in lands explored

Commercial revolution resulted in capitalist investments in overseas exploration Religious desire to convert pagan peoples in the New World served as an important impulse Portugal Motives for exploration Economic: sought an all-water route to Asia to tap the spice trade Religious: sought to find the mythical Prester John (a Christian king somewhere in the East) for an

alliance against the Muslims. Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): Financed numerous expeditions along the West African coastline in hopes of finding gold. Ushered in a new era of European exploration Bartholomew Dias (1450-1500): Rounded the southern tip of Africa in 1488 Vasco da Gama (1469-1525): Building on Dias’ route, he completed an all-water expedition to India in 1498. Brought back Indian goods creating a huge demand for these products in Europe Huge blow to Italian monopoly of trade with Asia. Was a cause of the economic and political decline of the Italian city-states Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) Explored Brazil: Perhaps the first European to realize that he had discovered a new continent in the New

World. He was not the first to sight South America, however (Cabral had done it a year or so earlier) “America” named after him when a German cartographer honored Vespucci’s false claim that he was the

first to sight the new continent. Brazil Portugal’s major colony in the New World Administrative structure was similar to that of Spain in the New World In the17th century, large numbers of slaves from Africa were imported for production of coffee and

cotton and most importantly, sugar (18th century) Significant racial mixture between whites, Amerindians and blacks resulted. Spain: Explorers Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Eager for Spain to compete with Portuguese expansion, Ferdinand and Isabella financed Columbus’

voyage. 1492, Columbus reached the Bahamas, believing he had reached the “Indies” somewhere west of India. His four expeditions charted most of the major islands in Caribbean as well as Honduras in Central

America. Monumental significance of Columbus’ expeditions was that it ushered in an era of European exploration

and domination of the New World Bartholomew de las Casas (1474-1566) Priest and former conquistador whose father had accompanied Columbus on his 2nd voyage. A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1552) Publicly criticized the ruthlessness with which Columbus and his successors treated the Amerindians. His writings helped spread the “black legend” in Protestant countries where Spain was accused of using

Christianity ostensibly for killing countless natives. In reality, Protestant countries, like England, were just as guilty of decimating Amerindian populations. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Spain sought to secure Columbus’ discoveries in the New World. Provisions: New World divided between Spain and Portugal (at the behest of Pope Leo V) Portugal was granted exclusive rights to the African slave trade (asiento). A north-south line was drawn down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean: Spain’s territory was west of the

line; Portugal’s was east Thus, Portugal retained Brazil and its claims to Africa while Spain received the rest of the Americas. Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517): Discovered the Pacific Ocean after crossing the Isthmus of Panama

in 1513.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): His ship was the first to circumnavigate the globe Charted the enormous size of the Pacific Ocean Spanish Conquistadores: began creating empires by conquering Indians Hernando Cortès (1485-1547): conquered the Aztecs in Mesoamerica by 1521. Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541): conquered the Inca Empire along the Andes mountains in modern-day

Peru in 1532. Spanish empire in the New World (“Golden Age of Spain”) Resembled more the “New Imperialism” of the late 19th and early 20th century by outright conquering

entire regions and subjugating their populations Mercantilist in philosophy from the early 16th century onward Colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country Mining of gold and silver was most important (the Crown got 1/5 of all precious metals); accounted for

25% of the crown’s total income 1545, opening of world’s richest silver mines at Potosí in Peru ushered in the “golden age” Spain shipped manufactured goods to America and discouraged native industries from taking root so to

avoid competition with Spanish merchants Structure Empire divided into four vice-royalties; each led by a viceroy. Audiencias: Board of 12 to 15 judges served as advisor to the viceroy and the highest judicial body. Encomienda system: Motive: Spanish government sought to reduce the savage exploitation of Amerindians in the Spanish empire. In reality, laws against exploitation were poorly enforced. System: Amerindians worked for an owner for certain number of days per week but retained other parcels of

land to work for themselves. Spain’s ability to forcibly utilize Amerindian labor was a major reason why the Spanish Empire imported few

slaves from Africa. Mestizos: Spaniards married Amerindian women creating children of mixed white and Native American descent. Relatively few Spanish women came to the New World during the 16th century. Creoles: Spaniards born in the New World to Spanish parents “Old Imperialism” in Africa and Asia Characterized by establishing posts and forts on coastal regions but not penetrating inland to conquer

entire regions or subjugate their populations In sharp contrast to Spanish imperialism in the New World Sharp contrast to the late 19th and early 20th century pattern of “New Imperialism” where entire nations

were conquered and exploited for the benefit of the European colonial powers. Portugal By 1495, Portugal had established forts and posts along the Guinea Coast and penetrated inland to the

Mali capital of Timbuktu in West Africa Da Gama set up trading posts in Goa and Calcutta (in India) Alphonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515) Laid the foundation for Portuguese imperialism in the 16th and 17th centuries Established strategy of making coastal regions (that had been won from the Muslims) a base to control

the Indian Ocean. Did not seek to create an empire by penetrating inland Established an empire in the Spice Islands (modern-day Indonesia) after 1510 Became governor of India between 1509-1515 Francis Xavier (1506-1552): led Jesuit missionaries to Asia where by 1550 thousands of natives had been

converted to Christianity in India, Indonesia, and Japan Dutch Republic (Netherlands) Dutch East India Company founded in 1602 and became the major force behind Dutch imperialism Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and other Spice Islands (Indonesia) By 1650, began challenging Spain in the New World and controlled much of the American and African

trade. France

Jacques Cartier (1491-1557): In search of the Northwest Passage, he explored the St. Lawrence River region of Canada

Quebec, France’s first settlement in the New World, not founded until 1608. England Came into exploration relatively late John Cabot (1425-1500): explored northeast coast of North America; Henry VII not interested in

colonization since no gold and silver was found First permanent settlement not founded until 1607 in Jamestown (Virginia) Tens of thousands of Englishmen came to the eastern coast of North America in the 17th & 18th centuries Far more English came to the New World than France, Spain and Portugal The Slave Trade (asiento) Portugal first introduced slavery in Brazil to farm the sugar plantations. After 1621, the Dutch West India Co. transported thousands of slaves to the New World. England’s Royal African Co. entered the slave trade in the late 17th century Facilitated a huge influx of African slaves into the Caribbean and North America. By 1800, blacks accounted for about 60% of Brazil’s population and about 20% of the U.S. population. An estimated 50 million Africans died or became slaves during 17th & 18th centuries Some black slaves went to Europe (e.g. Portugal) Blacks seen as exotic, highly prized in certain areas “American form” of slavery existed in Mediterranean sugar plantations The Columbian Exchange Both Europe and the New World were transformed as a result of the Age of Exploration and the

exchanges that occurred between the two regions For Europeans, the Columbian exchange resulted in improved diet, increased wealth, and the rise of

global empires For the Amerindians, the results were largely catastrophic Michel de Montaigne in the 1580s contrasted the greed and violence of the Europeans with the relatively

simple and harmonious Amerindians Bartólome de las Casas had in the 1540s criticized Spanish ruthlessness in the New World Disease Between 1492 (Columbus’ 1st expedition) and 1600 approximately 90% of the Amerindian population

perished. Amerindians lacked immunities to diseases inadvertently brought over by Europeans Smallpox was the biggest killer but other major diseases included measles, bubonic plague, influenza and

typhus. Syphilis was the most significant disease transmitted to Europeans by Amerindians, and it effected many

thousands of people back in Europe Diet For Europeans, the Columbian Exchange represented nothing short of a revolution in diet with the

importation of a variety of new plants The potato (from South America) became the most important new staple crop in Europe a few centuries

after Columbus’ discovery Other important foodstuffs included maize (corn) from Mesoamerica, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco,

beans, vanilla and chocolate Plants: Old World contributions to the New World included wheat, sugar, rice and coffee, although much

of these crops were grown by transplanted Europeans in the New World By 1600, Europe’s most important food crops were also being cultivated in Spanish America Livestock: Cows, pigs, goats, sheep, and chickens were brought to the New World where they eventually

became important new sources of protein for Amerindians Prior to the European invasion, Amerindians had no domestic animals larger than the llama and alpaca,

thus relatively scarce sources of protein Animals The European introduction of the horse had a profound impact on certain groups of Amerindians, such

as the Plains Indians in North America that developed a horse-based culture. Cows, pigs, sheep and goats were important as food sources The turkey was the most important meat source exchanged from the New World to Europe

Gold and silver extracted from the rich mines in Potosi, Peru and in Mesoamerica provided an influx of wealth to the Spanish Empire.

Life in the 16th and 17th centuries Social Hierarchy Countryside Manorial lords were at the top of the social ladder. Peasants constituted the largest percentage of the rural population; many owned land. Landless workers earned the lowest wages. Towns: Merchants (bourgeoisie) were among the wealthiest and most powerful. Artisans were skilled craftsmen such as weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters, masons, etc (often belonged to

guilds). Laborers did mostly low-skilled jobs for low wages Education or wealth became the means of moving up the social ladder (for the fortunate few). Demography “Long 16th century”: population growth grew steadily between 1450 & 1650 Population growth leveled by 1650 until about 1750 when it rose again (due to the agricultural revolution) Cities saw larger increase than the countryside Nuclear family structure for most families; patriarchal Life expectancy Avg. lifespan for men: 27 years Avg. lifespan for women: 25 years Witch Hunts 70,000-100,000 people killed between 1400 and 1700 Causes Popular belief in magic “Cunning folk” had been common in European villages for centuries: played a positive role in helping

villagers deal with tragedies such as plagues, famines, physical disabilities, and impotence Claims to power often by the elderly or impoverished, and especially, women The Catholic Church claimed that powers came from either God or the Devil Used witch hunts to gain control over village life in rural areas. Women were seen as “weaker vessels” and prone to temptation: constituted 80% of victims Most between age 45 and 60; unmarried Misogyny (hatred of women) may have played a role as Europe was a highly patriarchal society Most midwives were women; if babies died in childbirth midwives could be blamed Religious wars and divisions created a panic environment; scapegoating of “witches” ensued Leaders tried to gain loyalty of their people; appeared to be protecting them End of witch hunts Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries increasingly discredited superstition Advances in medicine and the advent of insurance companies enabled people to better take care of

themselves when calamities struck. Witch trials had become chaotic; accusers could become the accused (thus, using witch trials for political

gain could be very risky). Protestant Reformation emphasized God as the only spiritual force in the universe. Yet, witch trials did occur in great numbers in Protestant countries as well. Some literature of the 16th & 17th century implied that people had a large degree of control over their

own lives and did not need to rely on superstition.