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Meghan Burrows

Professor Lisa Hayward-Wyzik

ENG249: World Literature II

4.28.14

Culture in the Global Community: Understanding Cultural Norms

Introduction

We live in an ever-shifting global community, filled with a plethora of different cultures

and the people who exist within them. Exposure to literature (especially from a multitude of

different nations and historic situations) can impact our understanding of the cultural norms we

grew up with by opening our mind to new ideas. This is important because literature can take us

beyond our personal experiences to show us the experiences of others at different times in

history—and in different cultures, too. As a result, the “cultural norms” we know may not be so

“normal” in other societies. Likewise, situations in other cultures that may seem normal to us

may not be “normal” to them. Ultimately, in order to gain a better understanding of the world

(both in literature and in a real-world setting), we have to be open to learning about what is

considered normal (and not normal) in other cultures.

Three themes that we looked at this semester that explore how literature affects the global

community (and our perception of cultural norms) are post-colonization, the immigrant

experience, and heritage (family and commitment). These themes in particular can convey a

greater meaning of how we understand cultures. For example: growing up in elementary school,

most of us were taught that the Pilgrims were on friendly terms with Native Americans. When

we look at the Pilgrims (or Puritans) and Native Americans, we often think about post-

colonization, the immigrant experience, and heritage. Not only are these subjects important to

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look at in order to understand how the Pilgrims and Natives got along, but they are also

important because they help us look at understanding cultural norms. To us, this understanding

(that the Pilgrims and Natives got along) became a cultural norm because of our previous

understanding of these themes. However, as we grew up and became exposed to more intelligent

literature, we learned that this was not actually the case—that the Native Americans were

actually struggling with us for decades before being forced off their land and slaughtered.

Overall, literature impacts our understanding of these “real” cultural norms by opening our mind

to new ideas—and by exploring these themes mentioned beforehand, we can get a true

understanding of cultural norms through our exposure to global literature.

Olaudah Equiano

One prominent piece of literature (from the British Romantic era) that explores cultural

norms in the global community is The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (Or

Gustavus Vassa, The African). Published in 1789, it was written by Olaudah Equiano as an

autobiography of his life as a slave. The narrative starts when he is kidnapped from his West

African, “Ibo” village at the age of eleven and sold into the slave trade (Lowell 276). The

narrative follows his life as he travels the world and is traded from master to master, ending

when he “proves his usefulness and purchases back his freedom” before returning (on his own

free will) to England (Lowell 280). He took on the English name “Gustavus Vassa” (Olaudah

was his African name) and eventually married, traveling around Great Britain as a writer and

outspoken abolitionist (Lowell 284) Historical records point to Equiano as actually being born in

the United States, “but the narrative is still considered an important piece of literature due to its

in-depth exploration of African American slave-trade culture (Lowell 291).

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Equiano’s work addresses post-colonization as a cultural norm when he talks about his

childhood. Despite evidence that he was actually born in South Carolina and not in Africa, the

fact that he writes about the experience of being kidnapped is still important. “Olaudah’s capture

as it is written is reminiscent of what would actually happen during a slave raid on a village”

(Lowell 247). Equiano writes about the experience in his autobiography in detail: “I and my dear

sister were left to mind the house, two men and a woman got over our walls, and in a moment

seized us both... without giving us time to cry out, or make resistance, they stopped our mouths,

and ran off with us into the nearest wood” (Equiano 24). While this result of post-colonization in

West Africa may seem horrifying to us, this was just a cultural norm in this period. Africans

lived in constant fear of being captured, and when they were, it was not at all a surprise.

Equiano also talks about his immigrant experience in gruesome detail. After his

kidnapping, he is separated from his sister and put on a slave ship going across the Middle

Passage. “The Middle Passage was a stage of the triangular trade route across the Atlantic in

which millions of people from Africa were shipped to the New World... ships departed Europe

for African markets with manufactured goods, which were then traded for purchased (or

kidnapped) Africans. They were then transported across the Atlantic as slaves” (Lowell 239).

Equiano’s experience was also a cultural norm in spite of how horrifying it may be to us now:

“I now saw myself deprived of all chance of returning to my native country, or

even the least glimpse of hope of gaining the shore, which I now considered as

friendly... The stench of the hold while we were on the coast was so intolerably

loathsome, that it was dangerous to remain there for any time... the closeness of

the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship, which was

so crowded that each had scarcely room to turn himself, almost suffocated us.

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This produced copious perspirations, so that the air soon became unfit for

respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness among

the slaves, of which many died, thus falling victims to the improvident avarice, as

I may call it, of their purchasers. This wretched situation was again aggravated by

the galling of the chains... and the filth of the necessary tubs, into which the

children often fell, and were almost suffocated. The shrieks of the women, and the

groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable.”

(Equiano 54)

Like anyone going through the immigrant experience, Equiano also suffered feelings of

alienation and grief at the loss of his family and heritage. During his trip on the slave ship

through the Middle Passage, Equiano saw first-hand how other families are affected as well.

“Are the dearest friends and relations now rendered more dear by their separation from their

kindered, still to be parted from each other... with the small comfort of being together, and

mingling their suffering and sorrows” (Equiano 57). However, from a cultural standpoint, this is

an entirely new experience to readers. In our culture, it is not a norm for us to worry about being

separated from our families in such a cruel manner.

Family and heritage are also an important cultural aspect of Equiano’s life, which helps

us segway into the cultural importance of heritage (family and commitment). Equiano frequently

mentions his sister throughout his biography, as she is the only member of his family who he

knows has also been kidnapped. He runs into her again later in his life in the United States,

during a slave auction in the Midwest. Despite Equiano’s short-lived happiness, the meeting is

brief as she is abruptly sold and carted away—her actual fate after this encounter is unknown.

Families were sacred to slaves because of the constant risk of being separated. “Enslaved people

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lived in fear of the perpetual possibility of separation through the sale of one or more family

members... the fear of separation haunted adults who knew how likely it was to happen, and

young children, innocently unaware of the possibilities, learned quickly of the pain that such

separations could cost” (Lowell 223). Family and heritage were important to slaves because of

the constant risk of those connections being broken by sales, and as horrible as that may seem, it

was just another cultural norm.

Mary Rowlandson

Mary Rowlandson’s English-American autobiography, A Narrative of the Captivity and

Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, retells the events of “King Phillip’s War” from Mary’s

perspective as she and her three children are taken captive by Native Americans. “King Philip’s

War, sometimes called the First Indian War, was an armed conflict between the Native American

and English colonist inhabitants of present-day New England from 1675 through 1678” (Rossi

25). The narrative begins when Mary’s home settlement of Lancaster, Massachusetts is attacked

on King Philip’s orders (King Philip being the English name given to the Native American

leader, “Metacomet”). It ends with her safe return to her husband in Boston eleven weeks later.

Her youngest daughter is killed during the ordeal and Mary is not reunited with her remaining

children until three years later.

Post-colonization is an important element in this piece. Mary Rowlandson was born in

1637 in Somersetshire, England before her family left for Salem in the Massachusetts Bay

Colony in 1650. She later moved to Lancaster in 1653, on the Massachusetts frontier, with her

children and husband Reverend Joseph Rowlandson in 1656. The area was the post-colonized

location of “what used to be Narragansett territory,” and at sunrise on February 10th, 1675,

Lancaster came under attack (Rossi 36). “At length they came and beset our own house, and

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quickly it was the dolefulest day that ever mine eyes saw” (Rowlandson 15). The Narragansett

raiding party killed thirteen people, while at least twenty-four were taken captive, many of them

injured. Rowlandson and her three children, Joseph, Mary, and Sarah, were among those taken in

the raid. The impact of post-colonization in this literary setting is what causes this raid in the first

place, seeing how the Native Americans were so desperate to reclaim the territory lost to the

colonists.

The immigrant experience is also an important aspect of Rowlandson’s capture. When

she is taken in as a prisoner, she and the other survivors are moved like cattle across

Massachusetts over state lines, eventually traveling all the way up to Maine. All of this is done

during the dead middle of winter, which was incredibly harsh, cold, and difficult to survive at

that point in history. Mary was not ransomed for release until 1976 in May, more than a year

later. In that time, she was alienated from the life she knew and forced to work for an Indian

master and mistress.

“This morning I asked my master whether he would sell me to my husband. He

answered me “Nux,” which did much rejoice my spirit. My mistress, before we

went, was gone to the burial of a papoose, and returning, she found me sitting and

reading in my Bible; she snatched it hastily out of my hand, and threw it out of

doors. I ran out and catched it up, and put it into my pocket, and never let her see

it afterward. Then they packed up their things to be gone, and gave me my load. I

complained it was too heavy, whereupon she gave me a slap in the face, and bade

me go; I lifted up my heart to God, hoping the redemption was not far off; and the

rather because their insolency grew worse and worse.” (Rowlandson 83)

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Rowlandson’s experience echo’s that of a migrant worker from our culture. Although her

master and mistress eventually agreed to let her go, she was still treated poorly—just like may

migrant workers in today’s day and age. It is a completely new experience to what she would

have gone through as a normal housewife, and that transition is what makes this scenario a direct

reflection of the immigrant experience. Being treated that way might not have been a cultural

norm to Mary, but her experience may be considered a norm in other cultures.

Her family and heritage are also important to Rowlandson. No matter what happens to

her throughout the narrative, her loyalty to her faith (a major part of her heritage) and her

children (her family) is unwavering. She is constantly thinking about her husband and children,

and she keeps God and religion close to her, too. “Here I parted from my daughter Mary (whom I

never saw again till I saw her in Dorchester, returned from captivity)... heart-aching thoughts

here I had about my poor children, who were scattered up and down among the wild beasts of the

forest... many and many a time have I sat down and wept sweetly over this Scripture”

(Rowlandson 53). Her family and heritage are defined and expressed as the two most important

things she has to hang onto. Throughout her captivity, they are the only things that keep her

going. From a cultural standpoint, this can be considered a cultural norm to us as well. However,

the circumstances of her finally realizing how much they mean to her are not normal at all. While

threats of Native American attacks were common, being held prisoner away from your family

and heritage was not.

James Fenimore Cooper

The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 (1826) is a historical (fiction) novel by

James Fenimore Cooper. It is the second book of the Leatherstocking Tales pentalogy and the

most well-known. The story is set in 1757, during the French and Indian War (the Seven Years’

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War), when France and Great Britain battled for control of North America. During this war, the

French depended on its Native American allies to help fight the more numerous British colonists

in the Northeast frontier areas. The novel was one of the most popular in English in its time,

although nowadays it is usually defined by its narrative flaws (Mark Twain absolutely hated it).

Unlike Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative, The Last of the Mohicans paints Native

Americans in a much more positive light—which, during the time period the story takes places,

was not a cultural norm.

Post-colonization affects the Native Americans in The Last of the Mohicans the same

way it does in Mary Rowlandson’s narrative. However, it also has the added bonus of

“recruiting” willing Native Americans into the post-colonial lifestyle. Hawkeye, the white

frontiersman who becomes an escort to the Munro sisters Cora and Alice, is good friends and

allies with Chingachgook and Uncas. Chingachgook is last chief of the Mohican tribe and his

son, Uncas, is “the last of the Mohicans” respectively. Despite Hawkeye’s “people” invading

their homeland, Uncas and Chingachgook are incredibly loyal to him in the post-colonial setting.

In turn, Hawkeye feels unwavering loyalty back. When Uncas is killed and later put to rest at the

end of the novel, Hawkeye expresses his kinship for Uncas to Chingachgook.

“No, no,” cried Hawkeye, who had been gazing with a yearning look at the

features of his friend, with something like his own self-command, but whose

philosophy could endure no longer... “The gifts of our colors may be different, but

God has so placed us on a journey of the same path... if I forget the lad, who has

so often fou’t and at my side in war, and slept at my side in peace, may He who

made all of us—forget me.” (Cooper 249)

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Essentially, Hawkeye announces that even God may “forget him” if their loyalty to one

another was not true. Given the time period, the friendship between a white man and a Native

American could only come about in a post-colonial setting. That having been said, their

friendship is not the only example of post-colonization in The Last of the Mohicans. Cora, one of

the daughters of Colonel Munro, also has a mother who is mulatto. In other words, she is

“descended, remotely” from slaves (Cooper 43). In terms of post-colonization and cultural

norms, having children of mixed race was incredibly uncommon and taboo (whereas it is very

common nowadays). “Children of mixed race during this time period were often not even

considered full people, and they were referred as whatever “lesser” race was in their blood”

(Rossi 114). Although we would never consider people of mixed race “lesser” than anyone else

today, this was just another cultural norm for that time in history.

The immigrant experience also plays a significant role. Like Rowlandson, Cora and Alice

also experience a departure from their cultural norms by going out into the wild as they are

escorted by Hawkeye, Uncas, and Chingachgook. The characters are also constantly moving,

going between other Indian territories. “Forests in the midst of Indian territory were considered

especially dangerous, and they presented the colonists with a constant looming risk of attack

from Natives and wildlife (Rossi 35). To the colonists and other settlers, they went through the

immigrant experience just trying to survive in the New World. Although we do not have that

same shared cultural experience now, being constantly afraid of the unknown was a major

cultural norm.

Heritage and family are also very important in The Last of the Mohicans. Upon Uncas’

and Cora’s deaths where they are buried together, Hawkeye and Chingachgook mourn their loss

together—especially over the loss of Uncas, the “last of the Mohicans.” Although both men

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come from distinctly different heritages, their family ties are still powerful despite their separate

races. “Chingachgook grasped [Hawkeye’s] hands... and in that attitude of friendship, these two

sturdy and intrepid woodsmen bowed their heads together, while scalding tears fell to their feet,

watering the grave of Uncas like drops of falling rain” (Cooper 259). The theme of heritage and

family is defined as universal no matter what race you are, and while this may be a cultural norm

now, it was not back when the novel was written.

Bharati Mukherjee

Mukherjee’s novel, Desirable Daughters, also looks at cultural norms from another

society. The novel follows the diverging paths taken by three “Calcutta-born” Bengali sisters.

The story focuses on a conflict between American and Indian cultural values, as well as

feminism views in a society that does not value women. One sister lives a comfortable life in a

residential Mumbai neighborhood keeping herself busy with household chores, another one of

the sisters ends up New Jersey among other “elite” migrant Indians, and the third ends up in San

Francisco leading a more casual life. Ultimately, all three sisters come into a mutual struggle

dealing with their Bengali heritage and lifestyle—whether or not they individually chose to

accept it or move on with their lives is an entirely different matter.

Post-colonization is an important element in the story, as well as the Bengali Indian

culture in general. “The Bengali people are the primary ethnic group native to the region of

Bengal, which is politically divided between Bangladesh and India... the region was colonized by

the British “Raj” (Hindi for “rule”) under Queen Victoria in 1858, after the Great Rebellion of

1857 and subsequent transfer administrative power from the British East India Company to the

Crown by Parliament” (Sartori 25). The daughters’ parents were often criticized by society

because of their “love” for the English, despite the fact that Britain colonized them in a way that

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many Indians found unfair. In a way, India’s dislike for Brian is something we can relate to—

America was colonized and abused the same way India and the Bengali people were, and it was

only through post-colonization that this dislike became a cultural norm from a global

perspective.

The sisters each have a distinct immigrant experience. This is especially true in Didi’s

case when she eventually leaves for the United States. However, when Didi eventually settles in

New Jersey, she revels in being able to separate herself from her Bengali heritage and mingle in

American culture rather than feel alienated in a new setting. “Immigrants came to America to

escape poverty, religious and political persecutions back in their countries, and to seek a better

life with greater opportunities... America was a country full of freedom and opportunities that

one could use to start a fresh new life” (Sartori 34). Of all three of the sisters, Didi had the most

accurate immigrant experience in terms of coming to the United States to seek better

opportunities. This was absolutely a cultural norm back when many people were immigrating to

the United States, whereas it is not so much now. This immigrant experience is important in

terms of Didi re-discovering her heritage later on.

Heritage, family, and commitment also play an important role in the sisters’ lives. In

particular, Didi struggles with loyalty to her heritage when she leaves for the United States and

tries to separate herself from her Bengali traditions. “It was wonderful returning to my native

language, rediscovering that mocking tone just shy of aggression. I liked the person I became

when I spoke it” (Mukherjee 176). Tara, another one of the sisters, also continually struggles

with “honoring” and staying committed to the traditional values of her family’s longstanding

heritage. This is especially true when she moves to San Francisco and starts to “distance” herself

from the world she felt so trapped in. However, unlike Didi, Tara manages to stay segregated.

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Either one of these scenarios could be considered a cultural norm. On one hand, Didi sticks to

the norm of staying with her heritage. On the other hand, Tara merges herself with American

cultural norms by sticking with American culture.

Course Outcomes & Drawing Conclusions

In terms of the course outcomes, looking at cultural norms in literature has a distinct

impact on literary expression. When it comes to cultural contact in several specific, historical

situations, this essay has covered African American slavery, post-colonial America and Native

American history, and Bengali culture. The cultural contact in these situations is very much

unlike what we would experience today in the United States, as each of these “cultures” has

major issues and concepts that are no longer “cultural norms.”

Literatures of world cultures (like the prior mentioned texts) are important to

understanding cultural norms, regardless as to whether or not they are still even “relevant” in

today’s day and age. In order to understand what is considered normal in our own culture, we

first need to look at other cultures around the world. “A norm is a group-held belief about how

members in a society should behave in a particular context... norms are informal understandings

that govern society’s behaviors, and the behaviors may be transmitted and maintained within

small subgroups of society” (Rossi 14). Overall, we live in a constantly shifting global

community filled with different cultures and all different people who exist within them.

Exposure to literature (especially from a multitude of different cultures and historic situations)

does impact our understanding of the cultural norms we grew up with by opening our mind to

new ideas. The idea of cultural norms we grew up with might not necessarily be true for other

cultures, but literature impacts our understanding of these norms by opening our mind to new

ideas—which is why literature is so important from a global perspective.

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Works Cited

Cooper, James Fenimore. The Last of the Mohicans. New York: Washington Square Press, 1957.

Print.

Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus

Vassa, The African. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. Print.

Lowell, Sarah. Reading Famous World Literature: History and Themes. Austin: Old Penn Press,

2010. Print.

Mukherjee, Bharati. Desirable Daughters. New York City: Hyperion, 2003. Print.

Rossi, Ann. Cultures Collide: Native American and Europeans, 1492-1700. New York:

Albatross Publishers, 2009. Print.

Rowlandson, Mary. A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson.

New York: Dodo Press, 1682. Print.

Sartori, Andrew. Bengal in Global Concept History: Culturalism in the Age of Capital. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press. 2008. Print.