A Guide to Academic Skills for MA(Ed)

Students

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Contents

Section Page number

Introduction 2

Acknowledgements 3

1 Effective reading 4

2 Taking notes 10

3 Writing assignments 15

4 Writing a report/review 22

5 Grammar & punctuation 27

6 Process and linking words 41

7 How to reference (using Harvard) 47

8 Time management 59

9 Presentations 64

10 AppendicesI – Assessing Needs and ImpactII – Common Problems in AssignmentsIII – What We Look For in Assessing and

Grading Assignments

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Introduction

You may feel a little daunted at returning to academia with its requirement to produce ‘academic discourse’ in bursts of 4000 to 18000 words! We hope therefore that you find this booklet alleviates your worries to some extent at least. It has been developed to help support you in preparing and completing your MA(Ed) assignments.

While it aims to provide basic help and guidance, additional information can be obtained from the items listed at the end of each section, from your Student Handbook (yellow section) and from the Module Handbooks that you receive prior to starting each module.

The Royal Literary Fund also sponsors professional writers at the University of Chichester to help improve students’ writing skills, and they may be contacted on 01243 816187. Information sheets are normally available later in the autumn term.

Maureen Preece, a study skills advisor, can also provide help with essay writing and other study skills in one to one tutorials or advice sessions. She can be found in Room 7, Student Services at the Bognor Regis Campus and Room 103, Student Services at the Bishop Otter campus. She can be contacted on 01243 812143 or email mpreece@chi.ac.uk.

Maureen also runs Study Skills Workshops and these will be advertised on Portia and on all main and departmental notice boards at the University.

Should you need extra help on a particular subject you are welcome to contact our Subject Librarian, Norma Leigh, 01243 812082, n.leigh@chi.ac.uk. You can of course also ask for help from your current MA(Ed) tutor.

Whenever you see this symbol it relates to another section of the booklet that might prove useful.

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Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Ruth Twiss and Maureen Preece for allowing us to adapt their General Guide on Study Skills, for the benefit of students joining the MA(Ed) programme, and for the valuable work that they do on behalf of all students at the University of Chichester.

MA(Ed) Tutor Team

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Effective Reading

______________________________________________________________

(To increase understanding of the subject and topic – background information )

Why read?

(To support your arguments – evidence, quotes, detailed information ) (For pleasure )

Always ask yourself this question before starting to read, “What’s the purpose of reading this piece of text?”

to get a general idea? - Use skimming technique

to get specific facts? - Use scanning technique

for a deep understanding? - Use detailed reading technique

What should I do before I start reading?

Know what you’re looking forWhat questions are you trying to answer? Questions set by someone else or your own made-up ones, to keep you focused, for example:

Why am I reading this?

What do I hope to get out of it?

Do you know what you need to read?Use your Reading List carefully, ask your module tutor or subject librarian to help you here.

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Selecting the information

You don’t always have to read the WHOLE book!

Look at the Contents and Index pages (use skimming and scanning). Contents are always at the beginning and give a broad overview of what is in the book, whilst the Index is always at the back. Here you can identify specific topics, authors, and key words.

By doing this, you will be able to identify quickly which parts of the book you need to read. Put different coloured post-its/markers in relevant pages, each colour matching a different topic/theme/argument.

(Cottrell, S. 1999)

What will help my reading?

Select certain sections of the page/chapter (scanning)Look at headings and sub-headings, and the first sentence of each paragraph. This sentence usually introduces a new idea/topic and is called the topic sentence. The last sentence often sums the topic up. The middle sections should provide evidence/examples to reinforce the main idea in the paragraph.

Read the first and last paragraph of a chapter/book. (Skimming, scanning and some detailed reading). This can give you a mini-summary of the main ideas discussed in the text.

Don’t forget to look at diagrams/graphs and any other illustrations. This involves using all three techniques.

WARNING – if you’re struggling at this “browsing” stage, put the book down, it may be better to find a book that’s more user friendly for you, (unless it’s a compulsory text).

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What else can I do?

A “map” of the main ideas

(Cottrell, S. 1999)

This shows how everything fits together. Use different coloured

arrows to link the ideas.

Predicting what might come next and what conclusions will be reached – it helps keep your attention.

Summing up in your own words what you’ve read.

Thinking about and questioning the arguments and conclusions.

Making notes about important points you’ve highlighted, not just highlighting them!

This is called ACTIVE reading

Find the information that most relates to your assignment!(An obvious but sometimes overlooked point.) Which themes came up in MA(Ed) sessions?

Look at your module handbook. It will remind you of the overview of aims of the course.

Look for most recent information – in Journals and “New Titles” lists.

Read abstracts for summaries.

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Is your source reliable? Is it a well-known one? Does it have a good bibliography?

Use your word-count as a guide to how much to read. Decide roughly how many major themes you may include and then about how many words you can give to each major theme, remembering to set aside a certain number for the Introduction and the Conclusion.

Look at the Contents and Index pages.

Critical Reading Skills

What is critical reading? An important skill at Masters level!

It means weighing up any arguments and evidence For and Against.

To do this, try the following:

Stand back from the information – try and be objective

Does each fact follow logically from the one that went before?

Look for any flaws in either the reasoning, the evidence or the way conclusions are arrived at

Examine the same issue from the point of view of other theorists or writers

Try and work out why different people have come to different conclusions

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Imagine you’re a judge in a Court of Law - be detached and consider the evidence

(Cottrell, S. 1999)

Then argue why one set of conclusions/opinions is preferable to another

Watch out for the way language or statistics may be used to encourage the reader to accept what may be questionable statements

Look for any hidden assumptions or agendas or bias

(Adapted from S. Cottrell, 1999)

A few general TIPS when reading:

Read in natural light where possible

Enlarge text if necessary, this can make it easier on the eyes

Take regular breaks, don’t feel you need to read for long periods

Use a guide to help you keep your place (blank piece of paper or ruler above or below text or by margin)

Blurring/moving words? Use coloured overlay sheets and place over text, (try different colours)

Vary between reading aloud and silent reading

Vary your reading style – skim /scan / detailed reading

Look for the topic sentence in each paragraph

Read the easiest bits first

Use coloured post-it markers; colour–code for each subject and placemarkers in each book

Highlight, but sparingly!

Think of alternatives to help with your reading: CDs /Listening books/videos/tape lectures

Re – read your previous notes

Make a list of specialist words

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Storing/Filing your sources

Do keep a record of your sources, organised alphabetically, by author – essential for your bibliography – often really useful for more than one assignment and your dissertation.

Start a simple computer record or table.

Write them on index cards, which can be easily stored in a plastic box, or in a small address-type notebook.

Finally…. more information on effective reading skills can be found in the following:

Cottrell, S. (1999) The Study Skills Handbook Macmillan

Loughborough University (2000) Study Advice Sheets Learning and Teaching Development

Montgomery, M. (2001) Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature Routledge

Northedge, A. (2002) The Good Study Guide Open University

Web sites:

Support4learning.co.uk/education/study.htm Support4learning.co.uk/education /key skills.htm

www.hope.ac.uk/gnu/stuhelp/intro.htm

www.is.bham.ac.uk/gel/SSE.htm

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Taking Notes

______________________________________________________________

Why do I need to take notes?

To help you to remember somethingWhether taking notes from a lecture, book, journal or TV, the main purpose is to act as a memory aid. Then, at a later stage, you can study more closely the information you have gathered.

To keep a permanent record of something

To help you plan - notes can be a good way of starting off a project or piece of writing.

To help you understand - writing things down helps you to think them through properly.

To help you concentrate - sometimes your mind can wander when you are listening to someone talking. Making notes helps to prevent this.

To help you select the essential information you need and put that essential information into some order, when you take notes ask yourself:

What is this about? Why is it important? What do I want to remember?

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How do I take notes?

Taking notes from MA(Ed) sessions

Don't try and write down everything that is said. It's almost impossible to do and in trying to keep up, you might miss something very important.

Try to strike a balance between making notes and listening. Think about whether the information is essential. If it is then make a note of it.

Pace - if you find the speaker is going too fast then try asking questions to understand what is being said.

Signposts - listen for words that tell you the direction the lecture is going. For example: 'Today I'm going to look at', 'I want to move on to', 'Finally', 'To sum up'.

Keywords - listen for words that indicate the content of the lecture. These might include: important, major, different, key, a good example.

Where feasible try working in pairs so that one of you could note the examples given and the other one note the key areas mentioned.

If possible check your notes soon afterwards, so you don't forget what was meant. It might help to contact another person on your module after the lecture (via Portia - My Courses?), to compare notes to see if there are any gaps.

Taking notes from books and journals

Look at the introduction of a chapter for clues as to what it will be about.

Look at the conclusion to see what the author hopes to have said.

Look at the how the paragraphs are structured. Each paragraph will contain one main idea and the first couple of sentences in each paragraph should tell you what that idea is.

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Look for keywords like most important, essentially, on the other hand, finally.

Use your own words. This is better than just copying chunks straight from a book. It also enables you to study the text as you read, to understand what you are reading, and to feel that you are already writing material for possible use in your assignment. If you can't put what you have read into your own words then you haven't understood the text. If that's the case, then you will need to find a different book that will help.

Use a highlighter penThis will help you to pick out key passages or ideas. If you use one colour for each set of ideas, it will help you to identify similar areas when you look back at your notes.

What are mind-maps?

Tony Buzan uses the term 'mind map' in his book 'Use your head!'. They can also be referred to as ideas’ maps, spider diagrams, spray notes, patterned notes.

They can be a useful way of setting your ideas out and could include pictures.Sometimes new information may be more easily absorbed if it is presented in a diagram form with the main idea in the centre.

Can I use them in sessions?

The simple answer is yes you can! Mind maps allow you to make different links and connections as the session progresses.

It is best to use unlined paper in portrait or landscape format and identity different ideas, topics or arguments as they occur.

So long as you are aware of topics to be covered, you can prepare sheets before the session, as you may need several pages. Using coloured pens can help to focus main strands. You can then review your mind map after the session and make additional links to any handouts or notes produced by the tutor.

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A mind map may look like this:

Any mind maps that you create will be based on your own thinking. Your mind map will be very different from someone else's on the same subject.

You might find using mind maps difficult at first so start by making a map for a topic you are familiar with. You won't know if mind maps work for you unless you've tried them.

Where should I put my notes?

As taking notes is a way of extending your memory, make sure you store them where you can find them easily.

Try:

Putting them in clearly marked ring binders.

Using a concertina file - this has ready-made divided pockets.

Putting them on a PC (remember to make back-up copies!)

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Why make notes ? ?Why makeNotes?

Using a tape recorder if you find it easier to say things than write them down.

File your notes in a way that makes sense to you. This could include:

By topic

By date of the session

Don’t let your entire notes end up in a large bag where you can't find what you are looking for.

Finally…. more information on taking notes can be found in the following:

Ashman, S. (1993) Taking notes from lectures: a guide for students. University of North London Press

Buzan, T. (1995) Use your head. BBC Books

Howe, M. (1977) Student note-taking as an aid to learning. Exeter University Teaching Services Centre

Woodward, K. (1991) Reading and note taking. Open University

CD Rom

Kelly, T (2002) Essential academic skills in English: Vol. 1 Listening to lectures. University of Warwick

Useful websites:

http://www.yorku.ca/cdc/lsp/notesonline/note1.htm

www.mindtools.com/mindmaps.html

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Writing assignments

______________________________________________________________

Where do I start?

The first thing is to make sure you can understand what the assignment question, title or focus is asking you to do.

Look for key words or phrases such as: compare and contrast, criticise, discuss, evaluate, analyse, explain, illustrate, etc. These are known as process words - underline them or highlight them.

Make sure you know the real meaning of these process words.

Ask yourself - what is the reader looking for?

What do I do next?

Once you know what your question is about, you are ready to gather information. You can use this information to support any ideas you have had.

You'll find information from:

sessional notes, inter-sessional tasks, course handouts items in your module’s indicative reading list, library

research, journals and magazines or newspapers CD Rom databases, Internet

Now you're ready to form an outline

Having an outline for your assignment will enable you to plan what you want to say. You could try the following:

Brainstorming by jotting down all your ideas in any order. Don't try to order your thoughts at the very beginning.

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Next, look for any connections between the ideas you jotted down earlier.

Group your ideas under broad headings

Be flexible and try different layouts. These might include:

Keeping to one page and spacing out your ideas so you have room to add new thoughts as your plan develops. This is known as the linear method.

Pattern diagrams or mind mapping. These are good for establishing links in complex situations.

Index cards - one point per card, easy to rearrange - makes it easy to track down sources if you need to check up on something again - you can also use the cards to form and order your bibliography.

How do I start writing?

The assignment now needs to be structured to show how you put all the information you have found together. Assignment structures generally look like this:

IntroductionThis sets the scene and explains how you are going to answer the question. It allows the reader to note the major issues you will discuss and develop, and how you are going to present the information you have found. It is also good practice to state what you will be excluding and why, since the topic you have chosen may well be large, and while you need to demonstrate awareness of its breadth, it is perfectly legitimate for you to decide on the areas that you will cover in depth, so long as you can justify your decisions.

When you write an introduction ask yourself:

Does it state your aims and what is to come? Does it capture the reader's interest? Is it relevant and reasonably brief?

Contents

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This is the main part of your assignment and should address the key points that you have mentioned in your introduction. This is where you will support your ideas with all the examples you have gathered. Good paragraph structuring is essential. Each paragraph should begin with a sentence outlining the idea for that paragraph. The rest of the paragraph will support that idea using the information you have gathered from books, journals, etc.

ConclusionThis should be a summary of the main points of the assignment and should draw together your ideas and give an indication of your point of view in relation to the assignment title. Never introduce new information in the conclusion, and check that it complements your introduction.

You may write in the first person, since discussion of your own practice and experience is integral to your work on the MA(Ed). However you can vary this as appropriate by replacing phrases such as I think that…., with It seems that, it is reasonable to suggest that, It is clear that… or something similar. Please do not refer to yourself in the third person, e.g. The author believes that etc, which can be both irritating and contrived; it is appropriate to use the first person in your linking of theory to educational practice.

When you've finished writing, try reading the introduction and then the conclusion straight after it. One should tell the reader where the assignment is going, the other where it has been.

What else do I need to do?

Carefully selected linking words or signposts will help your assignment move smoothly from point to point. These words will inform the reader of a new idea or a change in direction and will make your writing clearer and more easily understood. They can be used to:

link sentences link paragraphs guide the reader

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In a nutshell:

say what you're going to say (the introduction)say it (the contents)summarise the main issues (the conclusion)

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Linking words/signposts make your writing clearer by showing, for example:

Order - you can separate paragraphs to show the order of events of the logical progression of your points. Signposts could be: then, after that, following, finally, firstly, secondly, previously, before.

Illustration - you will need to illustrate a point or give an example. Signposts could be: for example, similarly, for instance, such as, can be likened to.

Reasons and results - you can discuss the cause in one paragraph and the effect in another. Signposts here include as a result of, because of, consequently, therefore, for this reason.

Positive and negative - you can contrast the positive and negative aspects of something. You might discuss the positive aspects in one paragraph and the negative points in the next. Signposts could be: but, however, on the other hand, although, nevertheless.

Extension - you can extend an idea, add weight to your views or give further examples. Signposts could be similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition to.

What should I include?

Decide on your viewpoint - think about the statement you want to make

Review your material - have you got the evidence to support your argument?

Will you require charts, diagrams? Think carefully about these. Good quality ones can take much time and effort to produce, while poor ones will detract from an assignment’s overall quality. If you do use charts or diagrams, position them carefully to avoid breaking the flow of your work and make sure that they are both clear and relevant to your text.

Similarly with appendices: like charts or diagrams they should ‘earn their keep’ and add to the quality of your assignment. Too often their

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inclusion can be gratuitous, and such padding is likely to lower the grade awarded!

Therefore be selective - decide what is relevant and what is not by re-examining the question. Ask yourself:

Is this important? Am I going into too much detail? What is my point here? Could it be said more directly? Is this true? Where is my supporting evidence?

Reference all your sources of information to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is the representation of another person's work as if it were your own. When writing assignments you should always show awareness of what you have read and discuss the ideas put forward by a range of authors, but you must do so in a way which does not look as though you are seeking to claim these ideas as your own.All ideas, arguments, evidence and quotations taken from the works of others must be fully and accurately acknowledged. Please see also the page entitled ‘Academic Malpractice’ in the MA(Ed) Student Handbook.

At the end of your assignment you should produce a bibliography which is one list only of all the books, journals, websites etc. that you have referred to in the text, together with any items that have informed your thinking or influenced you, but which you haven’t necessarily quoted from or overtly referred to. Items should be listed alphabetically by author surname.

If you use abbreviations and/or acronyms you must set them out in full the first time they are used with the abbreviation in brackets next to them. For example University of Chichester (UoC).

Don't allow your personal opinion to intrude unless it is relevant and properly supported by your reading/research. Unsubstantiated or unqualified statements will weaken your arguments and are likely to lower your grade.

Have I finished?

No, not quite. Think about the layout and appearance of your essay.

Make sure it is clearly laid out and typed, with assignments double- spaced (N.B. your dissertation should have 1.5 spacing).

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Remember to proof read and check for spelling mistakes. Using the spell-check is fine, but don't rely on it, as it isn't foolproof!

Look closely at the grammar and punctuation.

Reading the essay through to someone else will allow you to check whether it makes sense. If the person you are reading it to, can't understand what you are trying to say, the chances are no one else will either!

YOU ARE ALSO STRONGLY RECOMMENDED TO CONSULT ON A REGULAR BASIS THE YELLOW SECTION OF YOUR STUDENT HANDBOOK, WHERE POINTS CONCERNING THE WRITING, PRESENTATION AND CONVENTIONS TO BE ADOPTED IN YOUR ASSIGNMENTS, ARE STATED AND REINFORCED.

Finally….your tutor will normally provide you with one or more exemplars of good practice written by previous students on your module. Please check these for many of the points signalled in this section.

More information on essay writing can also be found in the following:

Clanchy, J. (1992) How to write essays: a practical guide for students. Addison Wesley Longman.

Cooper, G. (2003) The intelligent student’s guide to learning at university. Common Ground Publishing

Cottrell, S. (1999) The study skills handbook. Macmillan Elbow, P. (2000) Everyone can write essays. Oxford University Press

Germov, J. (1996) Get great marks for your essays. Allen & Unwin.

Lodge, D. (1997) The practice of writing: essays, lectures, reviews and a diary. Penguin

Northedge, A. (1992) The good study guide. Open University.

Redman, P.(2001) Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. OpenUniversity

Pecks, J & Coyle, M. (1999) The student’s guide to writing. Palgrave

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Rose, J. (2001) The mature student’s guide to writing. Palgrave

Scott, R (2001) Making your case: a practical guide to essay writing. Longman/Pearson

Smith, P. (1996) How to…. write an assignment. How to write books.

Turley, R. (2000) Writing essays: a guide for students in English & the humanities. Routledge

Varley, A. (1999) Good essay: how to plan them and write them. Pomegranate Press

Useful websites:

http://www.hope.ac.uk/gnu/stuhelp/essay.htm

http://members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/

http://www.poewar.com/articles/essayskills.htm

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Writing a report or review

(N.B. Alternative assignment tasks or options may require this in some modules, and some of what is described below can also apply to subsequent work on your dissertation.)

______________________________________________________________

What are reports?

Reports are usually written to give the results of a study or experiment, often lead to action, and help people make decisions. While an assignment may include subheadings, the layout of a report should include both headings and subheadings.

A good report should be:

Clear Concise Complete Correct Objective

Being objective means that you are giving the reasons for writing the report, deciding who will read the report and what they need to know, and what actions you want the reader to take as a result of reading your report.

How do I start?

There are four stages to writing a report:

1. Investigation - in which the purpose of the report is clearly defined, and in which all necessary and relevant information is collected.

2. Planning - in which information is selected, sorted into headings and arranged in a logical sequence.

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3. Writing - in which all the information, ideas and arguments are explained clearly.

4. Revision - in which a thorough check is made of the first draft of the report paying careful attention to layout, spelling, grammar and punctuation.

How do I set out my report?

The exact structure will vary depending on what you have been asked to do, but most follow a general format. Unlike assignments, each section in a report is numbered and each paragraph within that section should also be numbered. For example the first paragraph of section 1 is referred to as 1.1, the next 1.2 and so on.

All reports will contain the following:

Title page Introduction Main body - this will be the methods and sources,

results and findings Conclusion and recommendations Bibliography

Title page - this should be brief and accurate.

Introduction and AimsThis should identify the subject of the report. It should state what the report is about, provide the necessary background details and inform the reader briefly of how the subject is developed.

Main body - Method and SourcesThis explains how the aims of the study have been tackled. You need to tell the reader about the methods used to collect the information/data and note any weaknesses.

Main body - Results and findings

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This should contain a description and explanation of the findings. It should be a logical development starting with the existing situation followed by discussion and comments, then a comparison of alternatives.

Conclusion and RecommendationsThis should draw all the threads together and assess how far the original aims have been achieved. The recommendations should be clear. For example: It is recommended that:

1. Refreshments for MA(Ed) students should include an Omega 3 option

BibliographyAny items /texts referred to in the report should be fully referenced

here.

Longer reports (such as your dissertation) will have additional headings such as:

Summary/Abstract Contents Appendices

Summary/AbstractThis provides a brief description of the whole report. It should set out the problem being researched, the methods used, as well as the main results and recommendations. A summary is usually about 100-150 words long.

Contents This should refer to the various sections and paragraph headings. It will also refer to any charts or diagrams that may have been used.

AppendicesMaterial should be put here if it is relevant, but too detailed or space consuming to be put in the main report. Examples include a copy of a questionnaire, or large sets of tables or figures.

Make your report visually attractive (i.e. well laid out) so it invites the reader in. If you're using diagrams in the text make sure you place them close to the point where you mention them.

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Writing a review

What is a review?

A good review should help the reader identify the pros and cons of something easily. The reviewer's job is to acquaint the reader with the item (which may be a book, conference, exhibition or performance) and help the reader decide whether or not they wish to see, read or find out more about it.

An ideal review should be:

Topical Up-to-date Balanced Accurate Clear Concise

Try not to make it anecdotal. No one wants to read about how you travelled to the venue, what time you arrived and what you had to eat! It is not relevant to what you saw.

The best preparation to writing a review is to read a few examples. Choose reviews in publications that you trust or enjoy and note down what you find. You might also want to have a look at any promotional material being produced (usually in the hands of the organisation holding the event).

How should I set it out?

A general structure of a review might look something like this:

The opening paragraph would list the names of the main protagonists associated with the book, conference, exhibition or performance. It would give the reader some idea of the nature of the work.

Next would come a paragraph on the contents of the book, conference, exhibition or performance.

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A separate paragraph would follow on the theme, purpose, idea, and vision of the book, conference etc.

Next comes a paragraph on the strengths, if any, of the book, conference etc.

This is followed by a paragraph on the weaknesses, if any.

The concluding paragraph allows you to deliver your point of view, although this should not come as a surprise, but should have been indicated in your previous paragraphs.

Tips: Write a draft of your review and check it against your notes.

Read your work aloud to yourself or have someone else read it through to see if it makes sense.

Make sure you check the spelling and punctuation.

If you are referring to someone else's written work, make sure you reference it properly.

Finally…more information on writing reports and reviews can be found in the following:

Lewis, R. & Inglis, J. (1982) Report writing. National Extension College

Lodge, D. (1997) The practice of writing: essays, lectures, reviews and adiary. Penguin

Mort, S. (1983) How to write a successful report. Business Books

Powell, S. (1999) Returning to study: a guide for professionals. OpenUniversity Press

Taylor. G. (1989) The student's writing guide: for the arts and social sciences.Cambridge University Press

Van Emden, J. (1994) Report writing. Thornes

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Grammar and Punctuation

______________________________________________________________

Does it make sense?

When you write assignments they will need to be constructed well and easy to read. This involves, among other things, good sentence structure, using punctuation to clarify meaning and organising your writing in paragraphs.

Below is a list of items, which can be neglected, but knowledge or appreciation of which can improve the quality of your writing in Masters assignments, however basic the following may seem:

Pronouns are words used instead of a noun to avoid repetition, to stop sentences sounding disjointed and clumsy, and to aid the flow of a sentence. For example: it, he, she, I, they, you, anyone, we.

Some pronouns are personal or possessive. For example: The student spent all night writing her essay and the student’s partner was furious. becomesShe spent all night writing her essay and her partner was furious.

Some pronouns are relative. For example: which, who, thatThis is the house. Gaudi built this house.becomesThis is the house that Gaudi built.

Adjectives are words which describe nouns or pronouns e.g. Despite her nervous start, the student’s presentation was succinct, compelling and enjoyable.

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Verbs are words which either show what a person or thing is doing, does, did, has done, will do, will be doing, will have done, or else they express a state of being. For example:

He runs, she sings, we cry, you slipped, he is, we are, they become, you seem.

N.B. Every sentence must have at least one finite verb* in it or else it is not a sentence. Which of the following do you think are sentences?‘Co-ordinators are seen as passive or reactive. Only dealing with aspects as and when is necessary. However, leaders are seen as proactive in their subject. Pushing the subject and raising awareness of it to staff and pupils alike.’ Ask yourself which of the above make sense in isolation. Two do, and two don’t …Complete sentences are expected at Masters level; for further information please see the section on ‘How do I write sentences?’ below.

* a finite verb has a specific tense, number and person, e.g. ‘are seen’ in the sentences above, which is an example of the third person plural being used in the present passive tense.

Adverbs give more information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. For example:He ran quickly, she sings beautifully, an unusually tall boy, that’s an hysterically funny film, the cat was amazingly fat.

There are lots of adverbs and they often answer questions about How? When? Where? How often? How much?, but colloquial adverbs such as ‘fantastically, brilliantly’ should be avoided, as they have no place in objectively reasoned, academic discourse.

Conjunctions are words which join parts of sentences together or show the relationship between words, phrases and clauses. For example:The students finished their work and had lots of time to relax.The explorer was stuck on an ice floe, so rescuers had difficulty reaching him.Before you park your car, check for notices about clamping.

Conjunctions can also be used to build longer sentences from shorter sentences, to form more complex, polished and interesting sentences.For example: Although they had quarrelled recently, he was keen to patch up their differences, whereas she was still seething and consequently more reluctant to make up.

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Prepositions are words that show relationships connected to time, position and reason. For example:

on, in, under, behind, in front of, next to, at (position). until, before, during (time). because of (reason).

Occasionally students select incorrect prepositions, which if repeated, give their assignments a stilted quality, e.g. ‘in comparison to’, instead of ‘with’, ‘in contrast with’ instead of ‘to’ etc.

How do I write sentences?

Remember these letters SVO = Subject Verb Object.

For a sentence to be a sentence, it must have a subject, at least one verb and in addition often - but not always - an object.

The subject names the thing or person or place that the sentence is about, i.e. that ‘performs’ the verb, e.g. I, she, Nick, Mr. Reynolds, the cat, Universities…

The verb tells the reader something about the subjecte.g. run, jump, read, consider, talk, swim, am, is, have, make...

And so:

Shakespeare is our most famous playwright. He wrote many plays. (‘Shakespeare’ and ‘he’ are the subjects in the sentences. In the same sentences, ‘is’ and ‘wrote’ are the verbs, and only the second sentence contains an object: the noun ‘plays’).

When you are writing sentences, try to vary the length.

After two or three longish sentences, insert a shorter one to allow the reader to recover.

There are different kinds of sentences: simple, compound and complex.

Simple sentences contain one main idea. Complex and compound contain more than one idea.

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The subordinate clause cannot stand as a sentence on its own. When Jane rang the bell needs some other clause before it can be used

(Crystal, D. 1998)

When writing at university level, a combination of all three types is used, but mainly complex sentences, as they are good to use when arguing a case or explaining.

To sum up, complex sentences have one main clause (or idea) and one or more subordinate clauses (or ideas) attached to it:

For example: The government decided to keep interest rates low,/despite the fact that the housing market was spiralling out of control,/ which made it difficult for first time buyers/ as prices stayed high.

In this sentence, the main idea is: “The government decided to keep interest rates low”.The subordinate or secondary clauses give more information and make the sentence more interesting.

So there are actually four ideas in this sentence, one main idea and three secondary ideas.

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A compound sentence contains more than one idea, but none are secondary, e.g. ‘The tutor employed a number of teaching methods and found that students responded with differing degrees of enthusiasm.’

Punctuation

Why do I need to use punctuation?

If you don’t use punctuation at all, written English looks very strange: inordertocomplywiththetraininganddevelopmentagencyforschoolstdaframeworkforpostgraduateprofessionaldevelopment20058andinrecognisingandmeetingtheneedsofteachersandothereducationprofessionalstogaingreaterknowledgeunderstandingandimprovedpracticeinthreeareasofconsiderableimportanceandrelevancebothtotheeducationlabourmarketandtocareerprogressionthefollowingopportunitiesforchichesterstudentshavebeencreated (Extract from MA(Ed) Student Handbook)

When you speak, you use gestures, facial expressions, pauses and different tones and volume to get your message over.

When you write, punctuation does this job for you.The main items of punctuation that you will need are:

full stops, commas, apostrophes, colons, semicolons and quotation marks.

How do I use punctuation?

Full stop (.)The full stop is used to show or mark the end of a sentence. For example: Punctuation makes it easier for the eye to move over the page and pick up quickly the meaning of what is being said.

Commas (,)

Commas have several different uses, and without them sentences in Masters assignments often prove difficult to understand, with much re-reading necessary on the part of the tutor. So please heed the advice below:

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Use a comma to make a slight pause in a sentence. Commas help to organise ideas inside sentences, but they should never come at the end, where a full stop is needed. When reading aloud, commas are a useful way of telling the reader when to breathe. Try it yourself.

Use a comma between things in a list, for example:

She brought along a hammer, some screws, a screwdriver and some masking tape.

Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives For example:It was a wonderful, hot, sunny, fun-filled day.

Use a comma to separate less important phrases or clauses from the main part of the sentence.

For example:Although Germany tried hard to equalise, Spain held out until the final whistle, which came as a great relief to their hard-pressed defence.

.WARNING! Notice how having one, as opposed to two commas, can alter the meaning:

They liked James, who played cricket better than Tom.

They liked James, who played cricket, better than Tom.

Or maybe a comma has been misplaced:

Eats, shoots and leaves!

Use a comma to separate parts of complex sentences, to help with understanding:

Although he had used his entire loan, he still bought a new sound system, which though irresponsible, was typical of him.

Use a comma to separate linking words:

Nevertheless, the research is based on sound data.Ulrika, interestingly, chose neither to deny nor confirm the allegations.

Use a comma to avoid misunderstanding (unlike the third sentence in the box above):

If you want to shoot, the farmer will lend you his gun.(Without the comma, the farmer could be shot!)

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Use a comma to separate ideas in a sentence:

You can run, but you cannot hide.

However, try not to suffer from an excessive use of commas:

In March, 2002, our school received notification, that for a second, consecutive year, we were to receive a School Achievement Award. This second award for the school, is an achievement, realised by only 20% of the schools, receiving an award in the first year.

Colons (:)

It is quite possible to punctuate your sentences using only commas and full stops. However, there are occasions when the use of a colon can help to add meaning to your writing.

Colons are generally used in three ways:

To introduce a list. For example:

I found some interesting things inside the sofa: a false eyelash, a £2 coin, a TV remote and a key.

There were three problems: her small loan, her large overdraft and her endless shopping trips.

To introduce a quote:

As stated by Harrison (2000, p.54): ‘The triggers for a more formal career development system…….’

To provide explanations:

The bus company has changed its timetable: it found that there was little demand for early morning buses.

Semicolons (;)

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These are very useful in long, complex sentences. They provide a longer pause than a comma, but not as long a pause as a full stop.

Use a semicolon:

When you want to combine two ideas of equal importance in one sentence.

For example: The industrial revolution was entering its second phase; many of the technological innovations were well established.

When you are making a list, where each item is not just one word.For example: There were many reasons for the decline in theatre going: the invention of television; the popularity of the cinema; the reduction in adequate transport.

To separate ideas, which could possibly form two different sentences, but which are actually closely related in meaning.

For example: It was dark, gloomy and cold in the isolated house; he shook with fear.

To show two contradicting ideas:It is thought that right-brained people may be better at visualisation; left-brained people may be good at languages.

WARNING!

MA(Ed) students often confuse the use of colons and semi-colons; please note for example that semi-colons should never introduce a quote.

Please check that you understand the very different uses of colons and semi-colons by re-reading the sections above.

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Quotations

Quotation Marks can also be referred to as inverted commas and are used to show when words are being directly quoted from another piece of writing.

E.g. from books, journals, newspapers:

Cohen states that Cunningham was ‘moving toward a radically different use of space’ (1998, p5).

For quotes of 20 words or less in MA(Ed) assignments you should use single marks and embed the quote in your text, as shown in the example above.

However, if a quote is more than 20 words long, it should be indented as a separate paragraph, not enclosed in inverted commas and should be single spaced*:

outstanding leaders have a vision of their schools – a mental picture of a preferred future, which is shared with the school community.

(Beare et al, 1989, p.99)

If you are quoting somebody’s spoken words, e.g. a comment from a pupil, colleague, an interviewee, or tutor, then the whole quote, irrespective of length should be enclosed in double quote marks:

“Theories abound, are often refashioned or should I say re-spun, but one certainty remains: there is no absolute truth in education.” (MA(Ed) tutor, 2/7/07)

*Remember that the text of your assignments should be double spaced, while the dissertation has 1.5 spacing.

WARNING - Never italicise your quotes in assignments, unless the quote itself contains italicised words.

Apostrophes (’)

What are they?

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It is very easy to be confused about when to use the apostrophe. Many people put them in when they are not needed.

The apostrophe is a little comma used between (and sometimes after) letters in a word:Can’t, isn’t, boy’s, children’s, Amanda’s.

The two main functions are contraction (For example: he’s sending for…) and possession (For example: the University’s prospectus).

Use contraction:

When two words are run together with some letters omitted. For example: I am writing = I'm writing. I cannot understand the question = I can't understand the question. She does not know = She doesn't know. Where is the bus station = Where's the bus station?

WARNING When writing assignments you should use the full version (e.g. ‘will not’), not the contracted version (‘won’t’) unless you are quoting direct speech.

Use possession:

When something belongs to someone or something.For example: The student's book = the book belonging to the student.The book's cover = the cover of the book.

The Government's education policy = the education policy of the Government.

All the above examples use the singular of the subject (i.e. one book, one student), so the apostrophe comes after the word and before the s.

If the subject is plural (i.e. two books, several students) and ends with an s, then the apostrophe comes at the end of the word after that final s.For example: The students' lecture = the lecture of more than one student.

My dogs' food bowls = the food bowls of more than one dog.

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Some words in English have a different form and do not need an s when they are plural, for example women, children, men. When that happens, in order to show possession, the apostrophe is followed by an s.

For example: The women's art library. The children's teacher.

If it’s a name that ends with an s you can either add 's or put the apostrophe at the end.For example: Charles Dickens's novel or Charles Dickens' novel

Points to ponder

Try correcting this short paragraph, and if you’re unsure, please ask your tutor:

“Its hard to know when youre right at this university; its rules and regulations are a pain, but I did notice two mistakes in the punctuation of it’s ethics form! … The boy’s school I attended was better than my sisters for making you do these sorts’ of exercises, but what can you expect from a girls school?”

There are seven mistakes here concerning apostrophes!

WARNING!Never use an apostrophe when you simply change a word into the plural, for example: books, notes, dances, shops.

Only use it when you need to show possession, e.g. the shops’ opening hours.

Remember too that its only needs an apostrophe when it means ‘it is’ or ‘it has’ – please see below for further clarification.

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Some of the most confusing words

A very useful list of these words can be found in ‘Basic Spelling’ by M. Temple (see reference list at the end of this section).

Here is an example of how you can try and remember the difference between some basic words:

There/Their/They're

There means a place as in: If you look over there, you might find it. Or There is no room left in the restaurant (It also has the word here in it – idea of place).

Their means belonging to them as in: He visited their home last week. Or Their lecture was cancelled(It has the word heir in it – idea of belonging).

They're means the shortened version of they are (so an apostrophe is used to show that letters are being omitted). For example: They're staying with friends in Chichester.I wonder if they're listening.

And finally, remember Its and It's

Its means that an item belongs to something, but it does not use the apostrophe; it is a possessive adjective like ‘his’ or ‘her’, for example:

The dog wagged its tail. Every rock has its own formation.

It's is really a contracted version of it is or it has, so needs an apostrophe to show that letters have been omitted, for example:

It's time to go to bed = It is time to go to bed. It's always been my ambition = It has always been my ambition.

There are also a number of words whose incorrect usage and spelling recur in MA(Ed) assignments.

Do you know the difference between:

a discreet principal and discrete principles; when to practise and when to rely on other people’s practice; how the effects of a change might affect you and effect

improvement;

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what you have just written complements the sense of what you are trying to say, and whether the tutor will compliment you on it?

Spellchecks won’t help you avoid making errors with the italicised words above, but a dictionary will. So if you’re not sure, please look it up.

How do I write a paragraph?

When you write your assignment, you will need to show the unfolding discussion by grouping sentences into paragraphs. You should have one main topic or idea in each paragraph. In other words, the paragraphs mark the natural breaks in your discussion and show when the focus of attention shifts.

Below is a suggested structure for writing paragraphs:

start with the topic sentence (your idea); explain and define your idea; discuss one example in detail to support the idea and

show evidence; remember that linking words/signposts are important; conclude by showing the relevance of your example and link the

end of your paragraph to your main idea/topic (i.e. to your first sentence).

Try not to make paragraphs too long - having them about 15 -20 lines is about right, otherwise the reader might get lost.

Don’t make them too short either, as this can indicate a lack of planning and weak arguments, and will not help the flow or coherence of your writing.

If you feel uncertain about paragraphs, complete your writing and then go back and see where you think a paragraph should be. You can do this by asking yourself whether you are moving on to a new idea or different aspect in your writing. If you are, then you will need a new paragraph. The more you write the easier such decision making will become!

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Finally more information on grammar and punctuation can be found in the following:

Arscott, D. (1997) Good English. How to speak it and how to write it Pomegranate Press

Crystal, D. (1996) Rediscover grammar John Murray

Davis, J. (1985) Handling punctuation Hutchinson & Co

Greaves, S. (1997) Grammar and punctuation Collins Educational

Hilton, C. & Hyder, M. (1992) Getting to grips with punctuation and grammar Letts Educational

Murphy, R. (1997) English grammar in use Cambridge University Press

Peck, J & Coyle, M. (1999) The student’s guide to writing Palgrave

Sealy, E & Sealy, J. (1990) All about English Oxford University Press

Shiach, D. (1996a) Basic punctuation John Murray

Shiach, D. (1996b) Basic written English John Murray

Temple. M. (1995) Basic spelling John Murray

Woods, E. (1992) Using basic English grammar: form and function Prentice-Hall.

Web sites:

www.susx.ac.uk/langc/skills

www.grammarbook.com/

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Process and linking words

______________________________________________________________

What are process words?

These are the keywords or phrases that you find in task descriptors, assignment titles and assessment criteria. Understanding what the different words or terms mean, allows you to understand fully what you are being asked to do.

What do they mean?

The following are the most common process words and phrases that you may encounter. Whilst the definitions given are generally accepted, care should be taken to read them in their respective contexts.

Account for Explain, clarify, give reasons for.

Analyse Examine minutely (in great depth), or in fine detail.

Argue Make a case for or against a given point of view. The points raised must be supported with appropriate evidence.

Assess Consider, weigh up, determine the value of and importance of. (see Evaluate)

Comment Write explanatory notes on.

Compare Look for similarities and differences between items. You may need to reach a conclusion about which is preferable.

Contrast Set two or more items (opinions, philosophies, ideas, etc) in opposition to each other in order to highlight differences.

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Compare and Contrast Combines both of the above in order to establish common ground between various elements, whilst also showing how they differ.

Criticise Give your judgement (backed up by reasoned argument/discussion) about the merit of theories, opinions or facts. It will probably require you to outline each case accurately, and in reasonable detail, as the basis from which to draw your conclusions.

Critically evaluate Make a thoughtful, thorough and balanced judgement, assessing both strengths and limitations; it is not the same as criticism which implies an attack.

Critique As for item above, ensuring that both detailed analysis as well as assessment are evident.

Define Set down the precise meaning of. Often asked where there is more than one possible or commonly used definition. N.B. It is important that you establish your use of specialist terminology early in your work.

Describe Give a detailed or graphic account of. It is often factual such as recording the steps of an experiment.

Discuss Explain the background; draw out various viewpoints that may relate to the issue; sift and debate; give reasons for and against.

Distinguish or differentiate between

Look for the differences between

Evaluate Make a judgement of the worth/effectiveness/truth of something. You should include your personal opinion backed up with supporting evidence.

Examine Look in detail at.

Explain Make plain, account for, give reasons for. Generally requires you to look at the evidence or argument presented and to make a judgement.

Identify Requires you to extract the key points of an

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argument, establish clearly the nature of, list with examples.

Illustrate Make clear by the use of concrete examples, quotations, etc.

Justify Show adequate ground for decisions/conclusions/viewpoints, provide evidence to support the argument.

Outline Give the main features or general principles of the topic and show how they relate. Minor details are usually omitted.

Prove Demonstrate the truth of something by offering irrefutable evidence.

Reconcile Show how two opposed ideas can be seen to be similar in certain important aspects.

Relate Show how things are connected to each other; to what extent they are alike or affect each other.

Reflect Think deeply or carefully about.

Review Make a survey of a topic with the emphasis on 'assess' rather than 'describe', examine critically.

State Present in brief, clear form.

Summarise State the main features of an argument omitting details and examples.

Synthesise Combine into a coherent whole.

Trace Identify the connection between one thing and another, either over a period of time or in a cause and effect sense. May imply both 'describe' and 'explain' (see above).

If you are in any doubt about the wording of a question or the interpretation of any part of it, consult your tutor before you begin.

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What are linking words?

These are words used to carry meaning forward from one paragraph to the next and help clarify your argument. They act as signposts for the reader, helping the reader to follow your train of thought, showing the direction you’re going in and why and that you are moving into a new area of your debate.

It could be that you are:

reinforcing what you’ve already briefly stated giving a contrasting argument summarising showing the result or purpose of what you’re writing going from one subject to another – transition showing some kind of time relationship

They often placed at the beginning of new paragraphs, but can also be interspersed within the text.

Examples of linking words and phrases (N.B. Not an exhaustive list!)

Addition

also equally furthermorebesides too what is moremoreover in fact indeed

Contrast

whereas however and yetbut of course althoughnevertheless in contrast insteadnotwithstanding in spite of despite

Comparison

compared with likewisein the same way as

Reason & Result

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so as a result thusconsequently since accordingly

Time

before so far afterat first in the interim finallyat the same time meanwhile

Restating

in other words rather to put it more simplyalternatively

Transition (going from one subject to another)

to turn to as far as….is concerned with reference toincidentally As for

Examples

for instance that is to say for exampleto put it another way

in other words

Listing

firstly finally in the first placeto begin with secondly

Inference

that implies if not in that casethen otherwise

Emphasis

it is worth noting to put it another way that is to say

Summary

in short in all to sum up

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in conclusion on the whole in the end

To sum up then, when you write, you are aiming to carry a thread or flow of meaning right through your piece of work. To achieve this, and to be clear in your writing, you must use linking words and phrases – they show the connections between the ideas you’re presenting to the reader and the logic in your writing.

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How to Reference

______________________________________________________________

This section provides general tips on how to reference. It is based on the Harvard system, which may be new to you, since not all subjects use it, so please check this section and the yellow pages in your Student Handbook carefully.

Why do I have to reference?

When writing assignments or reports you will need to demonstrate what you have read, and discuss the ideas put forward by a range of different authors. You need to do this in a way which shows that you are not trying to take credit for such ideas yourself.

If you do include other people's ideas in your work without acknowledging where they have come from, you are plagiarising. Plagiarism literally means to steal ideas and pass them off as your own. This is looked on very seriously and anyone found plagiarising at the University will be penalised.

Another form of bad practice comes from writing down extensive sections from a book or everything a lecturer says without ever questioning their arguments. This will prevent you from understanding a subject in depth. An assignment made up from lengthy quotations linked by a few words of your own will not achieve a pass grade, because it will contain very few of your own ideas.

A well-referenced piece of work will:

Enable readers to find and read the original material for themselves.

Enable readers to check the origin and accuracy of your sources.

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3 4

Show you have read about the subject thoroughly.

Whether you have taken your information from a journal or book there are certain things which you must include so that a reference can be traced.

For a journal: For a book:

Name of author(s) Name of author(s)/editor(s) Date of publication Name of chapter author in an edited

book Title of article Year of publication of edition used Journal title Title and sub-title (if any) Year, volume and part numbers Publisher and place or publication. Page numbers of article Page number if quotations are used

However, please continue reading below to see the differences between textual (i.e. within the body of your assignment) and bibliographical referencing (i.e. the list of sources you have consulted), which follows the text of your assignment.

What is the Harvard system?

This is a very commonly used system of referencing which means you only insert the author's name and year of publication in the text. All other information is then placed in a list at the end of the essay. This list is called a bibliography.

Because these references are woven into your writing, they do not interrupt the flow and this makes reading much easier.

Here are some examples:

It has been shown (Lishman, 1994) that.........

Kennedy and Charles (2000) have stated that.....

Studies undertaken by George and Wilding (2002) suggest.........

According to Lane (2003)..........

In 2004 Holton and Turner found.......

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What's the difference between citing and quoting?

Citing means to refer to by name, so if you are citing someone's ideas then you are acknowledging whose ideas they are.

Quoting means you are using the author's exact words straight from the book/journal.

When quoting directly from an author you must include single quotation marks, the author's surname, date of publication and page numbers.

N.B. you will be in danger of failing if quotations appear without page references.

For example:It has been pointed out, ‘posture is also important, reflecting cultural status and emotions’. (Lishman, 1994, p.21)

However if your quote is longer than 20 words, you should indent the quote and put it into single line spacing. You should not use quotation marks if you indent a quote.

For example:

Lishman states that:

posture is also important, reflecting cultural and contextual conventions (sitting up straight in church), status and emotions. (1994, p.21)

Please note that it is also acceptable to use a colon instead of a comma and ‘p.’ as an abbreviation for ‘page’, but be consistent in your style: (1994: 21).

A quote within a quote

There will be times in your writing when you will need to quote an author quoting someone else. For example Kilkey is the author of the book you are using but she has included a direct quote from Hobson that you want to use.

So your referencing would look like this:

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Hobson (quoted in Kilkey, 2000, p.70) states that ‘the kinds of state support solo mothers receive indirectly shape the equality in families’.

Or it could look like this:

It could be argued that ‘the kinds of state support solo mothers receive indirectly shape the equality in families’. (Hobson quoted in Kilkey, 2000, p.70)

In your bibliography your reference would look like this:

Kilkey, M. (2000) Lone mothers between paid work and care. London: Ashgate.

You don't need to refer to Hobson again because you have already stated that it can be found in Kilkey's book.

A more comprehensive guide to referencing is given in the yellow pages of your Student Handbook and you are urged to study this carefully and to refer to it continually when writing assignments and your dissertation.

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Referencing the Internet

When you want to use ideas or quotes from a website you should follow the same rules that you use for a book by putting the author of the website and date of the site in brackets. Do not put the website address in the text.

Example: where there is an author, whose name appears here at the bottom:

In the text the reference would look like this:

‘Only socially disadvantaged minorities (often the poorest orleast socially able) can suffer social exclusion.’ (Wilmot, 2003).

In the bibliography it should look like this:

Wilmot, V. (2003) Social Exclusion Housing [online], available from: http://www.social-exclusion-housing.com/[accessed: 5/11/03].

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Top of the webpage

Author’s name atbottom of webpage

Author’s name at bottom of webpage

The term ‘online’ in square brackets indicates the type of medium and is used for all Internet sources. The ‘accessed date’ is the date on which you viewed or downloaded the information and should also be put in square brackets.

An alternative example, where you are citing an author in the text, but not quoting him, would look like this:

Sosnowski (2001) believes that the 20th century’s most popular non-realistic genre is absurdism.

In the bibliography it should look like this:

Sosnowski, H. (2001) Theatre of the Absurd [online],available from: http://www.honors.unr.edu/~fenimore/wt202/sosnowski/[accessed: 29/10/03].

N.B. In many cases the website you are using may not have an author. In this case put the title of the website, date and the word website in brackets.

Example: where there is no author, a reference in the text would look like this:

Lloyd Newson's work since 1986 as the Director of DV8 Physical Theatre has had a dynamic impact on contemporary dance by

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challenging the traditional aesthetics and forms that pervade most modern and classical dance. (DV8 website 2002)

In the bibliography it would look like this:

DV8 Physical Theatre (2005) [online]available from: http://www.dv8.co.uk/personae/pers.folder.html[accessed 29/10/05]

OR you may meet instances where there is no author and also no date given. Check carefully first though, as many websites list the date at the very

end of the information. However, if you can’t find any date at all, either put the year that you accessed the site or state ‘no date given’:

A reference in the text showing an access date, would look like this: Like other forms of abuse, elder abuse is a complex problem, and it is easy for people to have misconceptions about it. (Elder Abuse and Neglect website, 2006).

Or a reference in the text , showing no date, would look like this:

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Like other forms of abuse, elder abuse is a complex problem, and it is easy for people to have misconceptions about it. (Elder Abuse and Neglect, no date given, website).

In the bibliography like this:

Elder abuse and neglect: in search of solutions. Apa [online]available from: http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/eldabuse.html[accessed: 5/11/06].

**************

At the end of your work you must have your bibliography which will include all the authors you have referred to in your assignment. The list is arranged alphabetically by the author's name and a single initial. When there is no author then it should be listed alphabetically under title.

Books or journal titles must be italicised or underlined.

You must have all your references in one list, i.e. books, journals, video materials and websites; do not put them in separate groups. You may include also any items that have influenced your thinking, but which you have not directly referred to or quoted from.

Here are some examples of how to list different sources in your bibliography. Please note the consistency of punctuation; a full stop is optional at the end of each item.

Book: Northedge, A. (1990) The Good Study Guide, Milton Keynes: Open University.

Book(two authors ) George, V. & Wilding, P. (1992) Ideology and

Social Welfare, London: Routledge.

Book chapter Stones, C. (1989) ‘Groups and groupings in a family centre’, in Brown, A. & Clough, R. (eds.) (1989) Group and groupings, London: Routledge

Journal article Holton, R. (1994) ‘Debates in class analysis’, Sociology, vol. 28, no. 3, pp.799-805.

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Interview Norris, P. (1999) Notes from conversation held with Mrs Pamela Norris, Social Worker, West Sussex County Council, 10th March.

TV Programme BBC (2000) Forgotten children. 18th September.

Newspaper article Smith, C. (1998) ‘Bridging the gap’, TES, 13th October, p.12.

Work of art Chadwick, H. (1989) Enfleshings, Tate Gallery.(Here the date is referring to when the piece was made). If this was taken from the Internet then [online], the URL with ‘available from’ in front of it, and the date accessed need to be included in square brackets.

Legislation Department of Health and Social Security (1983), Mental Health Act 1983, London: HMSO.

Electronic book Field, J (2000) Lifelong learning, Ebrary [online] available at: www. ebrary .com [accessed: 10/07/2006].

If you use photographs in your work, you do not necessarily have to list them in your bibliography. However you must make sure that underneath the photograph the source is clearly identified and captioned with all relevant details. Please note however, that issues of confidentiality need to have been considered, before using any sensitive material of this nature. For more information, please discuss this with your tutor.

For conference proceedings you need the author, the year of publication, the title of the conference, the location and date of the conference and the place and publisher. An example would look like this:

CORD(2005) Dance and Community: the 24th Congress and Research in Dance conference, Florida State University, 7th-10th

March. USA: Florida State University

If you are referencing a conference paper then you would add the author and title of the paper and page numbers, so your reference would look like this:

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Filips, T. (2005) ‘Dance in the concentration camps: meaning andsurvival’, Dance and Community: the 24th Congress and Research in Dance conference, Florida State University, 7th-10th March. USA: Florida State University, pp71-79.

For films, videos, CDs the reference needs to include the film title, country of origin, date and director if known. For dance videos the name of the choreographer could replace the director.

As films and videos of the same works can have totally different dates, the date of the film should always be noted if such information can be found. If no original film date can be found, then it must be recorded that the reference is to a video or CD.

For example:

Carry on Nurse. Britain, 1957. Dir.: Gerald ThomasEllis Island. USA, 1996 (video) Cho: Meredith MonkFlesh and Blood. UK, 1989. Cho: Lea AndersonProspero’s Books. Holland, 1991. Dir: Peter GreenawaySecrets and Lies. Britain, 1996. Dir: Mike Leigh

Terminator 2: judgement day. USA, 1996 (video) Dir: James Cameron

Or

Terminator 2: judgement day. USA, 1996 Dir: James Cameron (filmed in 1991)

Is there anything else I need to know?

If there are more than two authors or editors of a book or article, it is usual to refer to them in the text by the name of the first author and then ‘et al’, for example Atkinson et al (1987). However, in the bibliography, you are expected to include all the authors’ names e.g.:

Atkinson, R., Smith, E. & Hilgard, E. (1987, 9th edn) Introduction to psychology, New York: Little, Brown.

If you are referring in your text to two different authors with the same surname writing in the same year, you should include their initials, e.g. As B. Smith (1989) noted …

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When referring to two separate pieces of work by the same author published in the same year, use letters after the date to differentiate between them, e.g. Green (1994a) suggested that ...

If no publication date is available whether for electronic or printed material, then where the date would normally go, insert (n.d.) which stands for ‘no date’.

Information gathered by e-mail should be referenced as:

Goleman, D. (2007) Personal e-mail to T.Britton (tbritton@chi.ac.uk) [6th April 2007]

To reference a CD Rom you should follow the outline below:

Citation Order Example

Database name Encyclopaedia Britannica[CD Rom] [CD Rom]Inclusive dates (in round brackets (1994-98)Place, producer, if known Merrium Webster

If you make an index card for every item you read, you can note down the author, title, publisher, etc. This will then contain all the relevant information you want for your bibliography at the end. A painstaking task, which will save you time in the long run!

A final bibliography could look something like this:

Atkinson, R., Smith, E. and Hilgard, E. (1987) Introduction to psychology, (9th edition), New York: Little, BrownField, J. (2000) Lifelong learning, Ebrary [online] available at: www. ebrary .com [accessed: 10/07/2006]George, V. & Wilding, P. (1992) Ideology and Social welfare, London: RoutledgeHolton, R. (1994) ‘Debates in class analysis’, Sociology, vol. 28, no. 3, pp.799-805Northedge, A. (1990) The Good Study Guide, Milton Keynes: Open UniversityStanley, T. (1996) An Introduction to the Worldwide Web [online] available from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/ucs [accessed 25Oct 1999]Stones, C. (1989) ‘Groups & Groupings in a family centre’, in: Brown, A. &

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Clough, R. (eds.) (1989) Group and Groupings, London: Routledge

Please see further examples in the yellow pages of your Student Handbook.

Remember when you write your bibliography the order is:

author’s name, date, title, place and publisher.

Finally … more information on how to reference can be found in the following:

Bosworth, D. (1992) Citing your references: a guide for authors of journal articles and students writing theses or dissertations,

Thirsk: Underhill Press

Gibaldi, J. (1998) MLA style manual, New York: Modern Language Association of America

Maney, A. (1981) MHRA style book: notes for authors, editors and writers of dissertations, London: Modern Humanities Research Association

Pears, R. & Shields, G. (2004) Cite them right: the essential guide to referencing and plagiarism, Newcastle upon Tyne: Pear Tree Books

Useful websites:www.exeter.ac. uk /stloyes/harv.htm

http://www.i-cite.bham.ac.uk/

www.bath.ac.uk/Library/webpubs/references.html

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Chapter 8

Time Management

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As a part time student time, with very likely a demanding professional role in education and most importantly, personal and home commitments, time is your most precious commodity. It allows you to achieve the tasks you set out to do, but it is also something that you probably never seem to have enough of!

The following tips are intended to help you manage your time in the most effective way. Organising your time and tasks will help you to work effectively and to meet deadlines. It should also give you a more relaxed life, allowing you to finish tasks and minimise stress.

Where do I start?

Begin by looking at what you have to do and try to prioritise your tasks. Ask yourself what must be done today and what can wait until another time.

Look at how you spend your time - this will identify the most time consuming activities and will indicate where there are problems as well as possible solutions.

You could do this by:

Keeping a diary of what you do and how much time you spend doing it.

Keeping a weekly or daily organiser. An example follows below:

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Day Morning Afternoon Evening

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Fill in the tasks you must complete and then get them done in order of importance.

Block in work/employment commitments

Block in timetable sessions

Block in other regular commitments, clubs, societies, etc

Each week pencil in appointments with yourself for learning and other study tasks such as reviewing, summarising, planning, reading and writing

Aim to make your plan realistic and then try to stick to it.

Identify wasted time such as watching TV unnecessarily, taking extended coffee breaks, etc. You may be able to use some of this time more effectively.

Study for short periods of time. Initially 15, 20, 25, minutes can be very effective.

Record how you use the 168 hours in a week for one complete week. It will help you identity where your best time slots are for study.

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Allow yourself space for relaxation, exercise and socialising.

What's the best way of getting things done?

Work on developing your skills in word-processing, reading and note-taking, which can be very time-consuming if done inefficiently.

Set yourself realistic small targets. This will give you more chance to succeed in reaching your goal. Success will increase both your self-confidence and your work-rate.

If a task seems very demanding and you are finding it difficult to make a start, it may help to break it up into manageable chunks. Aim to complete the first chunk, then the second… and so on.

If practicable consider working with another person on your module, perhaps using My Courses on Portia to share your thinking, questions and to bounce ideas off one another, if you get stuck.

When using the library decide what your priority is. Do you need to:

return books (N.B. reminders will be sent via your Portia account);

use the library computers to check for new items; browse; take out items; use the CD Rom to search for research items; not forget to access the Professional Development

Collection via Portia from home or your workplace; consider joining the UK Libraries Plus scheme, if another

University library is closer to where you live (see details in your Student Handbook).

Trying to do all these at once is impossible, and will leave you feeling frustrated. Ask yourself what you most need from the above,

especially when you do plan a library visit.

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Use time productively. If you feel you are not achieving the task you are working on, then change the activity for a few minutes before going back to the original task. For example, if reading a chapter is hard going, then re-arrange your notes for 10 minutes to give yourself a break.

WARNING!!!

Whatever task you want to fulfil, always allow more time than you think you need.

How can I meet deadlines?

Start early If you write something down, even if it's only a few ideas on a scrap of paper, you will feel as though you have made a start. Keep these notes together and revisit them when you can, modifying them perhaps in different colours to show how your thinking is moving on, as the module proceeds.

Plan an outlineMake some outline plans of what you are going to write about. Allow yourself several tries; don't feel you have to 'get it right' the first time.

Use university time to the full, even though you attend only for short spells

Seeking information from the library, working quietly there or in an empty classroom, or talking to colleagues on your module and to your tutor about the tasks you have to do, will allow you to capitalise on your time.

Colour code your notesTo help you find your notes at a glance, colour code them with stickers or place them in plastic or cardboard folders.

Use a marker

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Use a marker in a book, such as a bookmark, card or 'Post-it' note, as a reminder of questions you want to answer or discuss, and/or relevant pages you want to return to.

In a nutshell:

Set priorities

Set deadlines

Make realistic time constraints - most people underestimate - add 20% plus to your first guess

Do one thing at a time

Set a timetable and stick to it.

Finally…more information on time management can be found in the following:

Bailey, V. (1995) Essential research skills, Collins Educational

Gillett, H. (1990) Study skills. A guide for healthcare professionals,Distance Learning Centre

Lewis, R. (1994) How to manage your study time, Collins Educational

Mackenzie, R.A. (1981) About time!: a woman's guide to time managementMcGraw-Hill

Masterton, A. (1997) Getting results with time managemen, LibraryAssociation Publishing

Useful websites:http://www.demon.co.uk/mindtool/page5.html

http://www.iss.stthomas.edu/studyguides/timman.htm

http://www.yorku.ca/cdc/lsp/tmonline/time.htm

Presentations

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9

_____________________________________________________________

The thought of seminars and presentations can be daunting, especially if your presentation is going to be assessed by your tutors or peers, which may be the case in some modules.

You may be asked to lead a seminar in which you will be expected to answer questions, to lead the discussion, and to defend arguments put forward in a brief, semi-formal paper that you have prepared, e.g. on your forthcoming assignment.

You will therefore need to demonstrate a good grasp of the subject matter and also to demonstrate the quality of your oral presentation skills. While you are probably ‘presenting’ every day in your job to your own students, conducting a formal presentation with colleagues may seem a lot more daunting, and this section is designed to pinpoint areas that you may need to concentrate on.

What is a seminar?

A definition is ‘a group or meeting for holding discussions or exchanging information'. (Twiss, 2005)

The objectives of a seminar are to:

relate theory to practice;

demonstrate organisational and presentational skills;

show the ability to encourage peer participation.

Under the guidance of your tutor and, as stated above, it will usually involve the delivery of a semi-formal paper on an academic subject to the remaining group of students.

How do I prepare?

Preparation is essential. When preparing a presentation:

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Begin by identifying the aims and objectives of your paper (i.e. ask yourself what you really want to say), then write the paper in a similar way to an assignment and include an introduction and a conclusion. A list of questions to be considered should accompany the paper, as this will help you with the group discussion.

Seminar presentations are usually 15-20 minutes in length. At the end of your paper you may be expected also to lead the group discussion. This means you are aiming to promote discussion within the group and to 'manage' it (i.e. not to let one person dominate, but to try to draw others in, to ensure that different sides of the argument are heard). The purpose of the discussion is for everyone to learn from it.

Know your audience and adopt an appropriate style. Think about what they might already know.

Decide what main areas you want to put across to the audience. In your paper you will need to bring out the key points of your argument and talk about them.

Develop a structure to the talk by giving it a beginning, middle and end, and try not to get sidetracked, as this could lead to incoherence.

Be aware of non-verbal communication as this can be very distracting and could also relay the wrong impression.

Choose visual aids that you feel confident with and practise using them. There is nothing guaranteed to put you off your stroke more than a powerpoint presentation that won't work, or slides that are upside down!

What's the best way to use visual or other aids?

You might want to use:

Interactive White Board

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3

Powerpoint Overhead projector (OHP) Visual material mounted on display boards Models Video clips Sound recording Flip charts/wipe boards

Visual aids can be very helpful when you are giving a talk as they can act as a prompt to you, and as a basis for the audience to make notes.

They allow you to present certain pictures or diagrams that you could never describe in words.

They encourage the audience to use their sense of sight as well as hearing, which helps them to concentrate.

Make sure you leave enough time for your audience to study, read and understand what you are showing them.

Make sure the seats are arranged so that everyone can see the visual display clearly.

Remember a projector has to be used in semi-darkness, so your audience may not easily read or make notes while watching.

Ensure you have contingency plans in case anything breaks down(e.g. printed material available).

Check that video/CD clips are in the right place before you start, if using separate units. Sometimes it's helpful to show a clip more than once.

Use large letters when writing on a board or flip chart

Try to avoid turning you back on your audience as much as possible.

Make sure the relevant equipment is provided for the room that you are giving your talk in.

Allow enough time to set up your equipment and make sure it is working, prior to your talk.

Some do’s and don’ts when using powerpoint or an OHP:

Make sure you know how the equipment works before the day of the talk.

Don't crowd the screen with too much information. Don’t read the content of slides to the audience. Don’t talk too quickly.

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Don't encroach on your audience’s line of vision. Face the audience, don't talk to the screen. Focus an OHP projector before you start your talk. Make sure any writing is large enough to be seen at the back of the

room. Have your own notes and triggers legible and to hand for each slide

that you show. Practise a few times what you are going to say in order to help you

remember the sequence. Remember no one is perfect, not even your tutors, and that

spontaneous thoughts and reactions often enliven a presentation!

Remember that – preparation, practice and the use of natural speech, rather than reading from a script, are the key to a good presentation.

Finally…. more information on presentations can be found in the following:

Baune, D. (1996) Making presentations, Oxford Centre for StaffDevelopment

Berry, C. (1975) Your voice and how to use it successfully, George Harrup & Co

Dunckel, J. & Parnham, E. (1985) The business guide to effective speaking.Kogan Page. [N.B. Includes sections on using AV aids, rehearsing, how toimprove your voice]

Hasbani, G. (1996) Winning presentations: how to sell your ideas and yourself, How to Books

Hunt, G. (1981) Public speaking, Prentice Hall [Includes sections on listening as a critic, analysing the audience,

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building introductions and conclusion, visual aids and non-verbal communication]

Lowe, D. (1999) Powerpoint 2000 for Windows for dummies, IDG Books Worldwide

Reilly, B. (1997) Creative Powerpoint presentations in a weekend Prima Publishing

Robinson, N. (2001) Persuasive presentations, Management Books

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Appendices

Appendix I Assessing Needs and Impact

Appendix II Common Problems in recent MA(Ed) assignments

Appendix III What we look for in assessing and grading assignments

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MA(Ed): ASSESSING NEEDS and IMPACT

Name ………………… Date ………… Module: ………………………………

MA(Ed) modules are designed and continually updated with school/college improvement in mind – through:

extending participants’ reflective practice;

deepening their knowledge, understanding and skills;

developing their strategic approaches to a wide variety of issues;

assisting them to feel better informed.

In order to meet your individual needs as far as possible, please answer as many of the questions below as you wish. Your tutor will request a completed, hard copy of this sheet in session one.

1) What are your reasons for undertaking this module?

2) What particular CPD needs or targets do you have related to the module?

3) What positive changes to the operation of your role(s) in school/college do you hope to achieve through attending the module, with particular reference to –

a) your own practice

b) pupils’ progress

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4) What criteria will you use to judge the module’s impact on your answer(s) to question 3?

5) How will you disseminate any useful outcomes to colleagues?

6) Please specify any concerns you have with undertaking academic writing.

7) Please let us know of a disability or any special need for which you may require support or extra resources.

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COMMON PROBLEMS IN RECENT MA(Ed) ESSAYS – DO YOU SUFFER FROM THE FOLLOWING?

Please ask about any of the points listed, if you’re unsure what is meant.

1 Lack of sharpness of analysis in certain topics2 Neglecting commentary on a specific assessment criterion (e.g. own

effectiveness as a leader and manager in management modules)3 Poor proofreading – why not ‘borrow’ a fresh pair of eyes?4 Ignoring conventions in bibliography (titles), referencing (web),

arranging quotes (& pp.nos)5 Not using double spacing or pagination6 Unsubstantiated or unqualified statements, so they become assertions

which weaken arguments7 Lack of confidentiality8 Early – or any – defining of specialist terminology is missing9 Assuming specialist/esoteric knowledge of reader10 Quotes only from secondary sources and/or websites11 Stilted, bizarre or ‘awry’ English12 Contradictory statements13 Not justifying inclusion of appendices14 Narrowness of viewpoints/arguments – dogmatism; lack of

problematising15 Imbalance between theory and practice; poor blending of same16 Excessive generalised treatment with lack of personalised ‘own voice’

exemplification or exposition17 Poorly embedded quotes i.e. not ‘milking’ them18 Similarly giving lists and then maybe using only one point from them

without explanation19 Imprecise thinking and expression20 Leaving phrases enigmatically hanging or undeveloped e.g. ‘Due to the

nature of teaching….’21 Colloquialisms; unexplained abbreviations22 Lack of cross referencing23 Poor syntax, punctuation and paragraphing; non-sentences, incorrect

use of semi-colons, colons, apostrophes; commas missing or used excessively…

24 Regurgitation of module notes

- Discuss with a partner, which ten are the more serious faults, and which – of any of them – you may be prone to.

- It may be helpful to go through a recent essay for which you have had feedback and see whether any of the above categories apply.

- No one is perfect, not even those gaining distinctions, so don’t be too hard on yourself. Self-awareness and self-management however, are important aspects of emotional intelligence…

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Please see your tutor if you would like help or advice with any of these or other points and don’t forget that the University now has a professional writer on the Chichester campus, who is willing to help with any essay problems. Contact Deborah Gearing (d.gearing@chi.ac.uk, 01243 816187); or through Maureen Preece (see page 2).

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In assessing and grading your assignment, we shall consider the extent that you:

1. analyse the information available to you and draw appropriate conclusions through reading, the module, your own experience and research;

2. display relevant understanding and knowledge of the subject;

3. make necessary links between theory and practice;

4. make appropriate and purposeful use of other source materials, e.g. texts, journals, websites;

5. make sense of your own experience in the context of the assignment’s focus;

6. display insight into the subject, as opposed to mundane and superficial interpretation of it;

7. present your material:

- logically- in a structured way- with clarity, coherence, succinctness and fluency- through balanced arguments- in a style appropriate both to audience and academic convention- in language free of grammatical and typographical error- through optimum use of the word limit and time available to you- and with due regard to professional boundaries and confidentiality.

Please ensure too that you are addressing each specific assessment criterion of the module listed in your module handbook, together with the general assessment criteria of the MA(Ed) given in the Student Handbook.

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