Virginia in the Jim Crow Era

Jim Crow—A term referring to laws establishing segregated facilities and restricting blacks’ activities in the South following Reconstruction. Jim Crow was a character in the 19th-century minstrel shows, dating back to 1828.

Reconstruction in Virginia Federal military government

Radical republicans favored civil (voting) rights for blacks

Radicals controlled constitutional convention

Constitution of 1867 “Underwood Constitution” Gave blacks right to vote Former Confederates could not vote Secret ballot System of public education Opponents formed Conservative Party

Conservative leader Alexander H.H. Stuart

Pre-war Whig Denounced Black voting rights (“Negro

supremacy”) as “abhorrent to the civilization of mankind.”

Black status and rights became central issue of Virginia politics

Role of J.M. SchofieldConservatives were aided in their efforts to “redeem” state by Federal military governor, General J.M. Schofield. Schofield was troubled by Confederate disqualification, fearing that there would not be enough qualified people to run things.

Permitted a separate vote on disqualifying clauses

Role of William Mahone Railroad executive and former Confederate

general (“hero of the Crater”) Wished to consolidate RR lines from

Hampton Roads westward into Tennessee Opposed by RR south from Alexandria

through Lynchburg Mahone engineered nomination of Gilbert

Walker, a conservative republican, for governor.

Election of 1869 105,000 black voters 120,000 white voters 27 of 180 new legislators were black Gilbert Walker won governorship Conservatives used fear of “Negro control” to

attract votes Underwood Constitution passed BUT: Confederate disqualification clauses

were defeated

Virginia returned to Union in 1870 State “redeemed” by conservatives Opposed federal/military control of state Opposed former slaves’ access to rights and

responsibilities of governing Lists of voters separated by race Poll tax and whipping post (1876) Preservation of white control

Who were the Conservatives? Mainly former Democrats

State’s elite socially and economically

Continuation of ante-bellum pattern

EXCEPT: slave holding no longer a measure of wealth and status

Conservative fiscal policy Emphasized fiscal responsibility

Regressive tax policy, low level of state services

Education, medical, roads, etc., received little funding

Maintenance of elite’s own economic leadership

Issues RR consolidation (and state investment in

pre-war RRs.)

Public education (mandated by constitution)

debt

RR Consolidation Fight between Mahone’s southside plan and

Barbour’s Valley plan

Norfolk vs. Baltimore as rival terminals

Mahone plan won

Sale of state interests in RRs War had damaged RRs

Prices greatly deflated

State needed funds

Private investors got a great deal (incl. out of state groups)

Debt By 1870 state debt was more than

$45,000,000 Full funding became a question of state’s

“honor.” Funding Act passed March 1871 Put state in hole by about $1,000,000

annually Act challenged but upheld in state Supreme

Court

Judge Walter R. Staples From SWVA Dissent from majority decision Funding Act diverted funds from state

education system State legislature cannot bind future

legislatures BUT Funding Act applauded by business

interests (seen as Conservative program)

Gilbert Walker (1869-1873) Supporters claimed he had saved state from

“negro domination” Opponents claimed he sold out to railroad

executives Originally from NY, thus also seen as a

“carpetbagger.”

1873 election Conservative nominee— James Lawson Kemper Native Virginian Confederate hero Wounded in Pickett’s charge Carried cane and had a visible limp

Kemper Supporter of “lost cause” But advocated acceptance of victory of Union Decried “despicable adventurers from North,

who left their country’s good . . .to fill the mind of the superstitious and semibarbarous negro with purposes and plans of vengeance against the white race.”

Kemper Believed blacks were human beings, but Blacks did not qualify for “social equality

with the white man, entitling him to the same seats and privileges in hotels, churches, theatres and making him eligible to all offices state and federal and legalizing amalgamation.”

“two parties in this Commonwealth, the white man’s party and the negro party. There is no middle ground.”

Kemper Promised black Virginians “liberal facilities

for education, but Also said he would close the schools rather

than permit integration Vetoed a bill designed to abolish election of

blacks to city council of Petersburg Whites burned him in effigy

State Debt Kemper wished debt reduced, but not without

agreement of creditors School funding suffered from poor revenues

and debt service Kemper resented charges that he neglected

schools

1877 election William Mahone became a major force Advocated adjusting the debt Conservatives nominated instead F.W.M.

Holliday of Winchester Holliday evaded issue In House, many candidates who favored

modification of the Funding Act were elected

Barbour Bill Debt placed last among priorities after

government operation and schools

Holliday vetoed the bill

Beginning of “Readjuster” movement

Readjusters Sought to reduce or “readjust” state debt

Mahone was leader

Won control of legislature in 1879

Mahone elected to Senate (by legislature)

Conservatives opposed Readjusters Charged state’s “honor” depended on funding

debt Charged Mahone with political opportunism

and corruption Played “race” card—victory of Readjusters

meant victory of “Negro” rule

1881 election William E. Cameron, readjuster candidate,

won governorship

Riddleberger Debt Act, 1882

Assessed one-third of debt to West Virginia; reduced remainder by another one-third; lowered interest

Readjuster social legislation More money for schools Poll tax repealed; whipping post abolished;

assessments on corporations increased Became responsibility of Board of Public

Works; previously corporations had assessed themselves

Anti-Mahone Weakness of Readjusters was character of

Mahone Built “machine” to maintain power Fused with Republican Party Became target of Conservatives Conservatives accepted Riddleberger Act Targeted Valley and SWVA Became “Democratic” Party

Campaign of 1883 Democrats charged Readjusters with favoring

mixed schools, mixed marriages and social equality

Danville race riot right before election Blacks present in local government During scuffle, shots were fired, riot broke

out

Race Issue--1884 Jubal Early, Confederate general, led meeting

in Lynchburg “Negroes must know that they are to behave

themselves and keep in their proper places.” More people in Va. voted in this election Democrats won about 2/3 of legislative seats But Mahone’s Gov. Cameron still in office

1884 legislative session Passed Anderson-McCormick election law “to perpetuate the rule of the white man in

Virginia” Gave Democrats control of local elections:

registrars, election judges, and clerks Cameron’s veto overridden

1885 gubernatorial election Democrats nominated Fitzhugh Lee, nephew

of RE Lee Former Readjuster JE Massey for Lt.

Governor Rufus Ayers of Big Stone Gap for Attorney

General Republican/Readjusters, controlled by

Mahone, nominated John Wise, son of Henry Wise

1885 election Mahone charged Dems as “Bourbons,”

Funders, anti-education “An assassin-like blow at the Public Schools,

by Bourbon managers.” Dems responded by “mounted processions”

throughout SWVA Claimed that Fitz Lee was riding on RE Lee’s

saddle

1885 election Democrats won governor and majorities in

both state houses End of effective Republican/Readjuster

challenge Henceforth, political fights would be between

Democrats In 1887 Democrats had further gains in House

1889 election Mahone himself ran for governor Race issue “a scarecrow to excite prejudice

and fear” Defeated by Philip McKinney article in Roanoke paper, Nov. 7, 1889 “We Are Saved, White Men Will Continue to

Rule Virginia” Ended Mahone’s domination

John Mercer Langston Black Congressman from 4th district Split with Mahone But in 1882 had said: “The success of the

Mahone movement in Virginia means education, liberty, a free ballot, and a fair count for the colored man and the abolition of the whipping post. . .”

Democratic Ascendancy Confederate heroes such as Fitzhugh Lee and

John W. Daniel “Lame Lion of Lynchburg” “I am a Democrat because I am a white man

and a Virginian” “I have always believed that the next thing to

being a good Christian was being a good Democrat.”

Anderson-McCormick Election Law 1884 General Assembly chose local election boards

on recommendation of county Democratic party chairman

Election boards chose election judges and clerks, also as recommended by county party chair

One of three judges was supposed to be a Republican, but was usually compliant

Walton Act 1894 Ballots did not list party affiliation Voters marked ¾ way through names they did

NOT want, leaving only preferred candidate unmarked

Only specially appointed constable could assist voters

Election judges could be all same party

Issues of the 1890s Depression Rise of Populism Outgrowth of Farmers’ Alliances Tight money Free silver became issue Railroad charges Farmers wanted independent commission to

set rates

Tom Martin Railroad lawyer and lobbyist Distributed RR money to members of

legislature Became US Senator in 1893, surprising Fitz

Lee (senators still elected by legislature) Quiet, unassuming, possessed the money and

the secrets (“still hunt”)

Charles T. O’Ferrall Elected governor in 1893 (ran against

Populist candidate E.R. Cocke—see article in Roanoke Times)

Vague on money issue: “I am a Democrat”

Anti-lynching

Roanoke Lynching, Sept. 2, 1893

Thomas Smith Jailed for “fiendish attack” on elderly white

woman Militia fired on angry mob, killing 12 Smith was lynched and his body set on fire

Murder of Lucy Jane Pollard June 1895

Lunenburg County

Charles O’Ferrall governor

Danger of lynching

Election of 1896 Democrats adopted free silver platform Nominated William Jennings Bryan “Cross of Gold” speech Dems split: Regular Dems favored Bryan,

National Dems favored Palmer-Buckner Bryan carried Va. but McKinley (Republican)

won

1896 campaign in Va. Silver Democrats played race card Some national Democrats supported Republicans Widespread fraud in voting, esp. among Bryan

supporters Tom Martin had reluctantly come out for Bryan, but

only because he thought he would win: “Statesmanship becomes reduced to shifty politics, expediency takes the place of courage.” (describes Martin)

Post 1896 Following the 1896 election, there was a

move toward reform of the political process, chiefly led by Martin opponents within the Democratic Party

Reformers wished popular election of Senator Resented Martin’s upset victory over Fitz Lee

in 1893 (using RR money) A.J. Montague elected governor in 1897

Constitution of 1902 Culmination of calls for reform Limited voting rights for blacks and poor

whites Poll tax (paid 6 mos. Before election) Understanding clause Descendants of Confederate or Union

veterans were exempt from above After 1904 new registrants had to sign up on

blank piece of paper without any instruction