virtual adv in sport events

225l APRIL 2011 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship

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Virtual advertising in sports events: does it really work?

Keywordsvirtual advertisingelectronic billboardsvirtual signageadvertising effectiveness

Executive summary

Virtual advertising is a technology that allows digitisedsuperimposition of images (i.e. advertising signage)into a television broadcast (Cianfrone et al, 2006;Pyun & Kim, 2004). Little has been known about theeffects of this new form of advertising on potentialcustomers, and this paper serves as an exploratorystudy to deliver more insights into the effectiveness ofvirtual advertising.

We hypothesised that virtual advertising isrecognised as such by the recipients. Furthermore, wetried to find out what factors influence the

effectiveness of virtual advertising. Variables whichcan be assumed to influence the measuredeffectiveness are brand awareness, duration ofexposure and frequency of exposure (Tellis, 1997;Longman, 1997; Pieters & Bijmolt, 1997; Turley &Shannon, 2000; Sander, 2004). The impact of thesevariables was also measured for conventionaladvertising. We also looked at the role of attitudestowards advertising in general as well as attitudestowards virtual advertising. We hypothesised a positivecorrelation between attitude towards advertising in

Abstract

This paper examines the effects of virtual advertising ina sports broadcast setting. We analyse theconspicuousness of virtual advertising and match theresults with explanatory variables like brand awareness,duration of exposure and frequency of exposure.Furthermore, we measure the role of attitudes towardsadvertising in general and its impact on attitudestowards virtual advertising of the respondents. Ourresults indicate that most respondents recognise virtualadvertising as such. Advertising effectiveness is drivento a large degree by the frequency of exposure. Apositive attitude towards advertising in general leads toa positive attitude towards virtual advertising of theparticipants.

Matthias SanderProfessor of Marketing, University of KonstanzBox 130, 78457 Konstanz, Germany Tel: 00 49 7531 88 2599Fax: 00 49 7531 88 3560Email: [email protected])

Claudia Fantapi AltobelliProfessor of Marketing, Helmut Schmidt UniversityUniversity of the Federal Armed Forces HamburgHolstenhofweg 85, 22043 Hamburg, GermanyTel: +49 40 6541 2772,Fax: +49 40 6541 2090Email: [email protected]

Peer reviewed

SMS12.3 paper 3 Sander pp225-239KT 11/4/11 22:05 Page 225

226 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship l APRIL 2011 l

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general and attitude towards virtual advertising. Ourstimulus for this study was an 18-minute video clipfrom a televised soccer match. Research participants(n=142) were students of a German university.

The findings indicate that most of the respondentsrecognised virtual advertising. Our model gives anexcellent explanation for the effect of the variables(brand awareness, duration of exposure and frequencyof exposure) affecting the respondents recallperformance. The frequency of exposure appears hereas the key explanatory variable.

Finally, we compared the participants attitudestowards advertising in general with their attitudestowards virtual advertising. We found a highlysignificant and positive correlation.

In conclusion, this investigation providesfundamental data for further research on consumerresponses to virtual advertising in sports broadcasts.However, there is only a little conclusive evidenceregarding the effectiveness of different kinds of virtualadvertising (e.g. 3D animation, animated virtualadvertising) so far. More effort has to be made in thisdirection.

Introduction

Virtual advertising has been in use in the U.S. sincethe mid 1990s, frequently during sports events (e.g.soccer, baseball, basketball). In Europe, especially dueto restrictive regulations, virtual advertising has not sofarbeen used very often.

Virtual advertising can be defined as the insertion ofbrands, products, trademarks, logos, slogans and 3Danimations by means of digital, computer-supportedtelevision signal processing (Cianfrone et al, 2006).This involves overlaying an advertisement into a spacein the telecast either over the top of existing groundsignage or billboards or in a free space on the field ofplay or in the crowd (Turner & Cusumano, 2000). Theadvertising is therefore only visible to the televisionviewer i.e. the people in the stadium cannot see theimposed image.

The advantages of virtual advertising over traditionaladvertising are evident. Virtual advertising allows themultiple sale of existing advertising space, and duringinternational sports events in particular,advertisements can be delivered in country-specificbroadcasts. Hence, advertising during majorinternational sports events becomes interesting notonly for worldwide operating firms, but also for thoseacting solely at a national level.

The implementation of this technology can bedifferentiated even within a country, at a local orregional level. This permits a targeted group-specificuse by tailoring advertisements according to regionalconsumers buying habits and brand preferences.Moreover, it allows country-specific advertisingregulations to be taken into consideration (e.g. foralcoholic beverages or tobacco products). In additionto the existing advertising, it facilitates the use of newadvertising space within a certain sports event.

These advantages suggest the enormous potentialyield of virtual advertising. In 2004 it was estimatedthat in the U.S. alone, considerably more than $2 billion was being invested in virtual advertising(Pyun, Han & Ha, 2004), and substantial growthrates since then can be assumed.

However, little has been known about the effects ofthis innovative form of advertising on potentialcustomers. This paper has therefore been conceivedas an exploratory study to deliver more insights intothe effectiveness of virtual advertising and will showfuture areas of research in this field.

Literature review

Although there are a large number of studies thatexamine various practical and theoretical aspects ofsponsorship (see the overview in Walliser, 2003; formore recent studies, Wakefield et al, 2007), so farthere have been relatively few studies dealing with theeffects of virtual advertising as a relatedcommunications instrument. Some studies examinethe acceptance of virtual advertising among viewers.

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In general, virtual advertising is accepted by viewers,but with some limitations.

The market research institute FORSA investigatedthe attitudes of German viewers towards advertising ingeneral and specifically towards virtual advertisingduring soccer matches (FORSA, 1998), with 1,003respondents interviewed by telephone. The resultsshowed that 31% of respondents felt disturbed byvirtual advertising, 16% were indifferent towards itand only 18% did not feel disturbed; 35% had noopinion. As for gender, 40% of males and only 22%of females felt rather distracted. Older people also feltmore disturbed (41% of those aged 50-59) than theunder 30s (who had hardly any objections to virtualadvertising).

A study commissioned by GLOBAL SPORTNET wascarried out with a 13-member discussion group inMunich (Germany) using the soccer match BenficaLisbon versus FC Bavaria Munich as well as a videorecording of the soccer match Glasgow Rangers versusAC Parma (Sasse & Ludwig, 2002). The testerspointed out the conspicuousness of virtual advertising.Insertions during the match were perceived asdisturbing, but it was presumed that viewers wouldget accustomed to them. Furthermore, the grouphighlighted certain economic aspects, such as thebetter accessibility for target groups as well as themultiple marketability of the same advertising space todifferent customers at different prices. However, it wasnoted that virtual advertising should be carried out ina discreet, unobtrusive way, as otherwise there mightbe a danger of viewers moving over to commercial-freepay-TV stations. On the whole, the acceptance ofvirtual advertising was high among the members ofthe discussion group.

The purpose of the study by Bennett et al (2006)was to analyse the perceptual antecedents ofadvertising in general through television commercialsand virtual advertising to compare the two mediavehicles in a sports broadcast setting. Theyinvestigated attitudes towards television commercialsand virtual advertising among students from a largeuniversity in the south-eastern U.S. using Brackett and

Carrs (2001) model, with its perceptual antecedents(credibility, irritation, entertainment andinformativeness) as independent variables. Thefindings indicate that individual responses toadvertising vary according to the type of advertising.The results show that television commercials wereperceived as being more entertaining and informativebut also more irritating and less credible than virtualadvertisements, regardless of their location. However,virtual advertising with logo ads above or below thescore display was considered more credible than anyother type of advertisement. This means that differentlocations will trigger different responses. Therefore, thelocation of virtual advertising is an importantconsideration for media planning. On the whole,virtual advertising performed well compared toconventional advertising forms.

A focus group study carried out at the University ofTrier (Germany) investigated how television viewersreact to different forms of virtual advertising and thenew advertising space. It also examined how theincreased quantity of advertising possibly eclipsingthe sports event is perceived and to what extent thecredibility of television may suffer under virtualtechniques (Sasse & Ludwig, 2002). The study wasbased on the same soccer matches as in the GLOBALSPORTNET study. A video demonstrating the technicalpossibilities of virtual advertising was also shown.

The results indicate that although viewers acceptedvirtual advertising per se, they tended to reject virtualadvertising on the field. This was because in soccer unlike in sports such as ice hockey or boxing advertising on the field is unusual. Generally,advertising should not divert from the sports event.Insertions next to the goal were rejected because oftheir size and location. Virtual 3D animations bothduring the match and at half-time were rejected aswell, probably due to the danger of diverting theviewers from the sports event or from other eventsduring half-time. Furthermore, the more closely theadvertised brand was associated with sport, the bettervirtual advertising was assessed. Virtual advertising inprogramme sectors other than sports was rejected,

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with the argument that this would damage thecredibility of television. This, however, would not applyto sport. Generally, it was assumed that virtualadvertising would eventually establish itself, providedthat it was implemented discreetly and unobtrusively.

A second group of studies investigated theeffectiveness of virtual advertising. On the whole,virtual advertising is a highly effective communicationstool. In a day-after recall test for a representativehousehold sample, Psyma Psychological MarketAnalysis analysed the acceptance and effectiveness ofvirtual advertising among German viewers in theaforementioned Benfica Lisbon versus FC BavariaMunich match (Psyma, 1999). In this recall testvirtual billboard advertising achieved higher rates ofattention than conventional billboard advertising.Younger television viewers showed higher attentionvalues with regard to virtual advertising than olderviewers. Furthermore, the acceptance of virtualadvertising among potential customers was very high.

RSL Sponsorship, Sport und Leisure carried out astudy to assess the acceptance and effectiveness ofvirtual advertising during the ATP Tennis Tour, forwhich there were insertions on the tennis courts inGermany, France and Italy (Sasse & Ludwig, 2002).They found that recognition levels for logos inserted onthe playing area were much higher than those insertedon the sides of the court 80% of respondentsconsidered virtual advertising at the venue as notdisturbing, 45% had a positive impression about theorganisations using virtual advertising and 44%indicated that they were positively inclined to buy theproducts of the advertised brands and firms.

A study by Gallup Mexico for Publicidad Virtualcompared the effects of virtual advertising andconventional arena advertising on viewers of televisedsports (Doyle, 2000): 406 inhabitants of Mexico Cityaged 18 years and over who had watched a soccermatch with virtual advertising on a certain weekend,were interviewed by phone. The central finding of thestudy was that 60% of the respondents preferredvirtual advertising to all other forms of advertising.Virtual advertising was seen as modern, creative and

innovative. A further key result of the study was thatvirtual advertising would generate a higher perceptionof brands than all other programme-integrated forms ofadvertising, like arena signage, advertisements onfences or sports shirt advertising.

In a media analysis of five ESPN Sunday NightBaseball games broadcast between 4 May and 3 August 2003, Pyun & Kim (2004) found that virtualadvertising on television screens was visiblesignificantly more often than conventional advertisingin the stadiums. Assuming that visibility andperception of advertising are necessary conditions forits effectiveness, they expected that virtual advertisingwould be more effective than conventional advertising.For this purpose, the five games were cut together tomake a 10-minute video clip, followed by a writteninterview to test the recognition rate of therespondents (n=164). The recognition level forvirtually advertised brands was 31%, nearly doublethat of conventionally advertised brands (16%) (Pyun,Han & Ha, 2004).

Cianfrone et al (2006) analysed the effects of virtualadvertising on consumers recall levels. The studycompared the effectiveness of virtual advertising tothat of conventional television commercials during asports broadcast. For this purpose, 110 students of aU.S. university were interviewed by means of a writtenquestionnaire to assess their recall and recognitionlevels with regard to both virtual and conventionalcommercials. The questionnaire referred to a 40-minute soccer match that had previously beentelevised. During the match, different forms of virtualadvertising were used, such as virtual advertising onthe field, virtual insertion of brands into the scoredisplay, virtual insertions on the side boundary lines,virtual advertising on or close to the goal posts andvirtual billboard advertising. The match wasinterrupted by a commercial break with several 30-second commercials. Both unaided and aidedrecall rates were measured. With unaided recall,commercials were remembered best, followed byvirtual advertisements in the score display and virtualbillboard advertisements. The high rates for

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commercials, however, were partly due to the fact thatsome brands had been advertised both in commercialsand virtually. With aided recall, commercials recallscored highest, again followed by virtualadvertisements in the score display. Virtual advertisingon or close to the goal posts and virtual advertising onthe field performed worst. The results showed thatvirtual advertising, in comparison with commercials,came off well in terms of recall levels. One must alsotake into account that apart from the permanent

virtual advertisements in the score display commercials were visible in one unit for aconsiderably longer time than virtual advertisements.Virtual advertising proved to anchor the advertisedbrands very well in consumers minds and may beregarded as at least as effective as conventionaltelevision commercials. Table 1 gives a summary ofthe studies mentioned, the aspects analysed and theirmain findings.

Virtual advertising

AUTHOR(S)/ RESEARCH DESIGN/ MAIN FINDINGS/INSTITUTION (YEAR) STUDY TYPE CONTRIBUTION REMARKS

RSL SPONSORSHIP, SPORT EMPIRICAL ACCEPTANCE AND EFFECTIVENESS VERY POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND LEISURE (1997) OF VIRTUAL ADVERTISING DURING TOWARDS VIRTUAL ADVERTISING

ATP TENNIS TOUR

TV JOURNAL TODAY EMPIRICAL (TELEPHONE ATTITUDE TOWARDS ADVERTISING NEGATIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS (1998) INTERVIEWS) IN GENERAL AND TOWARDS VIRTUAL ADVERTISING, ESPECIALLY

VIRTUAL ADVERTISING AMONG MALE AND OLDER RESPONDENTS

PSYMA PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPIRICAL (DAY-AFTER EFFECTIVENESS OF VIRTUAL HIGHER ATTENTION RATES FOR VIRTUAL MARKET ANALYSIS (1999) RECALL TEST) ADVERTISING IN A SOCCER MATCH BILLBOARD ADVERTISING THAN

CONVENTIONAL BILLBOARD ADVERTISING; HIGH ACCEPTANCE OF VIRTUAL ADVERTISING

GLOBAL SPORTNET (1999) DISCUSSION GROUP ACCEPTANCE AND ATTITUDE POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS VIRTUAL TOWARDS VIRTUAL ADVERTISING ADVERTISING BUT DISCREET, NOT TOO

OBTRUSIVE, IMPLEMENTATION NECESSARY

GALLUP MEXICO (1999) EMPIRICAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS VIRTUAL VERY POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS (TELEPHONE ADVERTISING VIRTUAL ADVERTISING AND INTERVIEWS) HIGH ACCEPTANCE

UNIVERSITY OF TRIER DISCUSSION GROUP ACCEPTANCE OF VIRTUAL SOME POSITIONS FOR VIRTUAL (2001) ADVERTISING ADVERTISING IN A SPORTS EVENT REJECTED

PYUN & KIM (2004) MEDIA ANALYSIS RECOGNITION RATES FOR VERY HIGH RECOGNITION RATES FOR VIRTUALLY AND CONVENTIONALLY VIRTUALLY ADVERTISED BRANDSADVERTISED BRANDS

CIANFRONE ET AL (2006) LABORATORY STUDY EFFECTS OF VIRTUAL ADVERTISING VIRTUAL ADVERTISING AT LEAST AS AND TELEVISION COMMERCIALS EFFICIENT AS TELEVISION COMMERCIALSON CONSUMER RECALL LEVEL

BENNETT ET AL (2006) LABORATORY STUDY EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING TYPE INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES TO ADVERTISING (VIRTUAL/CONVENTIONAL) AND VARY ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF ANTECEDENTS OF ATTITUDE ADVERTISINGTOWARDS ADVERTISING IN GENERAL ON INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES TO ADVERTISING

TABLE 1 Overview of studies on virtual advertising



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Hypothoses

None of the studies mentioned in the literature reviewanalysed whether television viewers can recognisevirtual advertising, in the sense that they candifferentiate explicitly between virtual advertisementsand conventional advertisements. To achieve validresults with regard to the acceptance and perceptionof virtual advertising, it is necessary that viewers donot confuse virtual advertisements with other forms ofadvertising. Hence, the first hypothesis is:

H1: Virtual advertising is recognised by a majorityof television viewers.

As previous studies in the field of traditional sportsadvertising and sponsoring have shown, theeffectiveness of advertising depends on a multitude ofvariables (Wakefield et al, 2007; Harshaw & Turner,1999; Olivier & Kraak, 1997; Moore, Pickett & Grove,1999; Turley & Shannon, 2000; Grohs, Wagner &Vsetecka, 2004). The studies suggest that, amongothers, variables like exposure time, exposurefrequency and the prior awareness degree of thebrands being advertised will determine the recall ofthese brands, i.e. these variables seem to have asignificant impact on advertising effectiveness in asports broadcast setting (Sander, 2004; Deimel,1992; Schumann, 1987; Tellis, 1997; Walliser,1997b). This applies to conventional advertising aswell as to virtual advertising. As shown in otherstudies (e.g. Sandler & Shani, 1989; Deimel, 1993;Walliser, 1997a; Hackforth, 1989), these variableswill presumably have a positive impact on recall andrecognition rates. In the studies of Psyma (1999),Pyun & Kim (2004) and Cianfrone et al (2006), therecall and recognition rates vary, depending on thetypes of advertisements. However, these studies donot explicitly take into account the mentionedexplanatory variables. Therefore, our secondhypothesis is:

H2: Exposure time, exposure frequency and priorbrand awareness have a positive impact on therecall of the brands advertised.

The attitude of recipients towards virtual advertising isalso relevant. As shown in the literature review, somestudies showed a very positive attitude towards virtualadvertising (e.g. Psyma, 1999; Doyle, 2000), whileother studies presented a more critical perception ofthis new form of advertising (e.g. FORSA, 1998;Sasse & Ludwig, 2002). There is a large body ofstudies dealing with attitudes towards advertising ingeneral (e.g. Wang et al, 2002; Petrovici & Marinov,2007). It is particularly interesting to ascertainwhether people with a positive attitude towardsadvertising in general also have a positive attitudetowards virtual advertising and vice-versa. Valid resultsin this context are still lacking. Hence, the thirdhypothesis is:

H3: Attitude towards advertising in general ispositively correlated with attitude towards virtualadvertising.

Data and methodology

In this study, students of a German university wereinterviewed about the effectiveness of virtualadvertising. The interviews were based on a non-random sample of participants, as is customary forexploratory studies (e.g. Cianfrone et al, 2006; Brand & Greenburg, 1994). An 18-minute video clipof the soccer match Hertha BSC Berlin versus VfBStuttgart was chosen, showing both conventional andvirtual advertising. Conventional advertising wasbroadcast in the form of perimeter advertisingbillboards and sports shirt advertising, while virtualadvertising was shown as virtual billboards on theright and left hand sides of the goal. The virtualbillboards were visible only for the clip viewers andnot for the audience in the stadium.

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The students were shown the match clip, and awritten standardised interview followed. A total of 142undergraduate und graduate students participated inthe study, pooled from several business managementclasses. We split the participants into an unaidedrecall group (n=71) and an aided recall group (n=71)to measure possible differences in the awarenesslevels of the branded products.

All questionnaires could be evaluated. The surveyrecorded participants gender and their general interestin soccer match broadcasts on a 3-point scale (high,medium, low ). Gender-related differences in theperception of (conventional) advertising have alreadybeen found in other studies regarding the effectivenessof advertising (e.g. Brunel & Nelson, 2003; Sander,2004); thus, it seemed reasonable to include this inthe test design. We included interest in soccer matchbroadcasts in our variable set as we assumed that apronounced interest in this direction may influence theeffectiveness of advertising (Walliser, 1997a;Meenaghan, 2001). Because of a low variance in thestudent sample, we did not explicitly include age as avariable in the analyses. The structure of the sample isshown in Table 2.

Additionally, the questionnaire comprised questionsabout attitudes towards advertising in general andtowards virtual advertising in particular, using someperceptual antecedents of the Brackett and Carr(2001) model. We used items with a positive phrasingas well as reversed items.

Attitudes towards advertising in general weremeasured with the items I find advertisingdisturbing, Advertising offers interesting informationabout products and brands, Advertising creates newjobs and Advertising is entertaining. Attitudes

towards virtual advertising were measured with theitems Virtual advertising is an interesting new form ofadvertising, Virtual advertising irritates televisionviewers, By virtual advertising playing areas can bebetter marketed and Virtual advertising should beprohibited. For this purpose, we used 5-point multi-attribute Likert scales (Churchill, 1979; Converse &Presser, 1986). Possible answers were offered on ascale of one to five, from 1 (I totally agree) to 5 (I do not agree at all). Furthermore, in apreliminary study we assessed prior brand awarenessof the same respondents, given that different levels of brand awareness may influence the effectiveness ofthe advertising for those brands. This effect has beenmeasured in other sports event studies withconventional advertisements (Walliser, 1997a; Sander, 2004).

A total of five brands/organisations were advertisedduring the soccer match, with different, partlymultiple, forms of advertising. This rather low numberof brands advertised is probably due to the fact thatthe match was part of the qualifying round, with alimited number of television viewers. Advertising wasdelivered as advertising on the shirts of the players(Arcor and EnBW), on the shirt of the referee and hisassistants (Dekra) and as billboard advertising(Premiere and betandwin.de). Billboard advertising forboth brands was made on physical billboardsalongside the pitch and virtually on the right and lefthand sides of the goal.

In addition to the questions, we performed a mediaanalysis of the match. First, we measured the durationof exposure of the individual brands in the video clip(in seconds). The duration of exposure is consideredas a typical determinant of the recall performance for

Virtual advertising

SAMPLE TOTAL N=142

GENDER MALE 90.8% FEMALE 9.2%

INTEREST IN SOCCER BROADCASTSa HIGH 34.5% MEDIUM 23.9% LOW 40.1%

a = not specified: 1.5%

TABLE 2 Structure of the sample



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sports advertising (Pieters & Bijmolt, 1997; Nebenzahl& Hornik, 1985). In accordance with findings of thepsychology of perceptions and common practice incomparable studies, durations of less than a secondwere not considered within this survey, for it isassumed to have no effectiveness at all (Taub &Abrams, 1971). As a rule, it is presumed that onesecond represents the lower limit from which pointonwards a (more or less) conscious perception maytake place.

Beside the duration of exposure, the frequency ofexposure of the individual brand advertisements wasmeasured, given that effectiveness might indeed vary,depending on whether a brand is shown more rarelybut longer, or more frequently but for a shorterduration (Longmann, 1997; Tellis, 1997; Turley andShannon, 2000). We measured frequency as thenumber of times the brand name was clearly legibleby the viewers for more than one second. We couldnot take into account the design of the billboards inthe test as none of the billboards used was particularlyeye-catching. Furthermore we could not includerelatedness (like Wakefield et al, 2007) due to the factthat only one of the five advertised brands has somerelationship to sports.

Analyses and results

In the questionnaire we explained the character ofvirtual advertising and asked the respondents whetherthey had recognised any kind of virtual advertising inthe video clip. The respondents could choose betweendifferent locations of virtual advertising: virtualbillboard advertising along the pitch, virtual advertisingon the ground, virtual goal-side billboard advertisingand virtual shirt advertising.

The fact that virtual advertising had been used inthe soccer match was recognised by 77.5% ofparticipants and 92.7% of these did assign virtualadvertising correctly, i.e. they recognised it as goal-side billboards. Therefore, H1 is supported. Furtheranalysis showed that there is no significant difference

in the perception of virtual advertising with regard togender and interest in soccer match broadcasts.

A detailed insight into the effectiveness of differentkinds of advertisements can be obtained by regardingthe recall levels of these advertisements for theindividual brands. Table 3 displays the aided andunaided recall rates for the individual brands,depending on the kind of advertising for these brands.The participants could choose here between sportsshirt advertising, billboard advertising along thepitch, goal-side billboard advertising and other,multiple selections being possible (and correct in thecase of Premiere and betandwin.de).

As it is common practice, the aided recallquestionnaire not only contained questions concerningawareness of the brands featured during the soccermatch, but also included dummy brands, i.e. brandsnot advertised in the match (Sander, 2004; Deimel,1992; Schumann, 1987). Four respondents whoticked these brands in the questionnaire wereexcluded from further consideration to guarantee ahigh validity of the results.

Overall, the recall levels are very high. This may bedue to the fact that only five brands were advertised.Also, the differences in aided and unaided recall ratesfor the same advertisement are rather small in manycases (for the betandwin.de billboard the unaidedrecall level is even a bit higher than the aided recalllevel). Aside the small number of brands advertised,this result may be explained by the fact that thequestionnaire was administered to the participantsdirectly after being exposed to the match clip.Nevertheless, as shown in Table 3, the recall values ofthe individual brands vary to a great extent. Forexample, the brand Dekra was recalled by only half asmany respondents as the brand Arcor. To explain thiseffect, an OLS regression was conducted. Thefollowing results refer to the aided recall. Calculationswith the unaided recall produced comparable results,due to the fact that there are only small differencesbetween aided and unaided recall rates. We estimatedthe following model:

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RECALLij = a0 + a1DURij + a2FREQij + a3AWAREi + eij

with: RECALLij: aided recall rate of brand i according to

the modality of advertising j, a0: absolute term, DURij: duration of exposure to brand i according

to the modality of advertising j, FREQij: frequency of exposure to brand i

according to the modality of advertising j, AWAREi: prior brand awareness of brand i, and eij: error term for brand i and modality of

advertising j.

Table 4 shows the observations for the duration andfrequency of exposure for each brand, differentiatedaccording to the modality of advertising and priorbrand awareness rates of the brands. Billboardadvertising along the pitch for the brand Premiere wasno longer taken into account here, as the billboardwas either hardly legible or the duration of exposurewas under the assumed limit of one second. Thisexplains the rather low awareness levels incomparison to other brands and advertising forms (seeTable 3). We assume that the measured recall levelcan be explained by irradiation effects as Premierewas the main sponsor of the match. The low

Virtual advertising

BETANDWIN.DEACTUAL

BILLBOARDADVERTISINGALONG THE

PITCH

82.1 %

82.9 %

BETANDWIN.DEGOAL-SIDEBILLBOARD

ADVERTISING(VIRTUAL

ADVERTISING)

71.6 %

52.9 %

PREMIEREACTUAL


PITCH

41.8 %

37.1 %

PREMIEREGOAL-SIDEBILLBOARD

ADVERTISING(VIRTUAL

ADVERTISING)

64.2 %

58.6 %

DEKRASPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

44.8 %

42.9 %

ENBWSPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

74.6 %

74.3 %

ARCORSPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

82.1 %

78.6 %

AIDED RECALLLEVEL

UNAIDEDRECALL LEVEL

TABLE 3 Recall performance in dependence of modality of advertising

BETANDWIN.DEACTUAL


PITCH

42

557

93.5% 99.0% 99.0% 58.5% 99.0%

BETANDWIN.DEGOAL-SIDEBILLBOARD

ADVERTISING(VIRTUAL

ADVERTISING)

21

83

PREMIEREACTUAL


PITCH

PREMIEREGOAL-SIDEBILLBOARD

ADVERTISING(VIRTUAL

ADVERTISING)

15

71

DEKRASPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

4

23

ENBWSPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

12

38

ARCORSPORTS SHIRTADVERTISING

20

79

FREQUENCY OFEXPOSURE

DURATION OFEXPOSURE IN SECONDS

PRIOR BRANDAWARENESSLEVEL

a: Variable excluded due to poor legibility or duration of exposure < 1 sec.

TABLE 4 Frequency of exposure, duration of exposure and awareness of the advertised brands



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frequency of exposure for the brand Dekra is due tothe fact that only the referee and his two assistantswere wearing the sports shirt advertising for thisbrand, whereas the brand EnBW was advertised by allmembers of the team VfB Stuttgart and the brandArcor by all members of the team Hertha BSC Berlin.

Our model gives an excellent explanation for theeffect of the variables affecting the respondents recallperformance. An r2 of 0.942 (r2adj=0.884) indicatesa very good model fit. The whole model is highlysignificant (p=0.023). The autocorrelation test of theindependent variables showed negligible correlation.The frequency of exposure appears as an outstandingexplanatory variable (p=0.014). There is obviously astrong connection between the recall effectiveness andthe frequency of exposure of advertised brands. Thisresult is in line with other studies (Grohs, Wagner &Vsetecka, 2004; Tellis, 1997; Sander, 2004). Theimportance of this variable, compared to the otherindependent variables, becomes evident in terms ofthe beta value, which is clearly higher than with theother variables (the sign is of no relevance here). Ofless significance is the duration of exposure (p=0.06).Furthermore, the sign is negative. At first this might besurprising, but it is consistent with the results fromother studies (Sander, 2004).

Obviously, it is the frequency and not the duration ofexposure that is essential for the recall performance.This indicates that recipients do perceive the advertisedbrand during a longer exposure, but, once perceived,their attention shifts immediately back to the sports

event. Prior brand awareness as an explanatoryvariable proved to be non-significant (p=0.149). Thesmall variance of these variables might be essentialhere, as nearly all brands showed very high awarenessrates of the respondents (see Table 4). Therefore, H2 isconfirmed with regard to the frequency of exposure andis rejected with regard to brand awareness and theduration of exposure. The results of the OLS regressionare summarised in Table 5.

In order to gain further information about thecognitive structures of the participants, we asked theparticipants to assess their attitude towards advertisingin general as well as towards virtual advertising. Theparticipants attitude towards advertising in general issummarised in Table 6, showing that the internalvalidity of the scale as a whole was unexpectedly low(Alpha = 0.42). Thus, we focus on the respondentsattitudes towards the single items.

The respondents critical attitude towards advertisingin general is in line with the findings of other studies(Barnes, 1982; Witkowski & Kellner, 1998), with onlythe item Advertising creates new jobs displaying astrongly positive attitude towards advertising. Thefeedback regarding attitudes towards virtualadvertising (see Table 7) was better. A clear majorityagrees that by means of virtual advertising, advertisingspace can be better marketed.

Nearly three-quarters of all respondents disapproveof a ban on this form of advertising. Equally, amajority is of the opinion that virtual advertising doesnot have an irritating effect. This finding, however,

Virtual advertising

r2 = 0.942 (r2ADJ = 0.884)

F-VALUE = 16.179

SIGNIFICANCE = 0.023

EXPLAINED VARIABLE EXPLANATORY VARIABLE BETA-VALUE SIGNIFICANCE

BRAND AWARENESS LEVEL - 0.272 0.149

AIDED RECALL FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE 1.686 0.014*

DURATION OF EXPOSURE - 0.963 0.06

* = HIGHLY SIGNIFICANT

TABLE 5 Results of the OLS regression



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should not be generalised, as the kind of virtualadvertising certainly plays a significant role here.Internal validity of this scale as a whole was muchhigher (Alpha=0.69).

Furthermore, we controlled for the sequence effectsby varying the sequence of the items, both for theattitude towards advertising in general and for theattitude towards virtual advertising. However, t-teststatistics showed no significant differences betweengroups (with the only exception of the itemAdvertising is entertaining, p=0.03). Thus sequenceeffects can be neglected.

We also verified the sensitivity of results with regardto those respondents who checked a mid-position(=3) on the Likert scales for the individual items.Following the hypothesis that these are the undecidedor lazy persons choosing the middle position to

simplify matters, an exclusion of these respondentsmay seem reasonable. Analysis shows, however, thatin this case too, the results hold and majorities do notchange for the individual items, with only oneexception (Virtual advertising is an interesting newform of advertising: 49.1% rather agree, 48.1%rather disagree, 2.8% not specified). Hence, on thewhole, the results are very firm.

As we postulated that attitudes towards advertisingin general might influence attitudes towards virtualadvertising, we also verified the relationship of theparticipants attitudes towards advertising in generaland towards virtual advertising by means of correlationanalysis. The correlation is highly significant(p=0.000) and, as expected, positive (r=0.40).Therefore, the results support H3.

Virtual advertising

ITEM

I FIND ADVERTISING DISTURBING

ADVERTISING OFFERS INTERESTING INFORMATION ABOUT PRODUCTS AND BRANDSa

ADVERTISING CREATES NEW JOBS

ADVERTISING IS ENTERTAINING

a = NOT SPECIFIED: 0.7% CRONBACHS ALPHA = 0.42

I RATHER AGREE (1+2)

50.7 %

17.6 %

70.9 %

20.4 %

I RATHER DISAGREE (3+4+5)

49.3 %

81.7 %

29.1 %

79.6 %

ITEM

VIRTUAL ADVERTISING IS AN INTERESTING, NEW FORM OF ADVERTISINGa

VIRTUAL ADVERTISING IRRITATES TELEVISION VIEWERSa

BY VIRTUAL ADVERTISING PLAYING AREAS CAN BE BETTER MARKETEDa

VIRTUAL ADVERTISING SHOULD BE PROHIBITEDb

a= NOT SPECIFIED: 2.1 %b = NOT SPECIFIED: 2.8 %

CRONBACHS ALPHA = 0.69

I RATHER AGREE (1+2)

37.3 %

42.3 %

62.7 %

23.3 %

I RATHER DISAGREE (3+4+5)

60.6 %

55.6 %

35.2 %

73.9 %

TABLE 6 Respondents attitudes towards advertising in general

TABLE 7 Respondents attitudes towards virtual advertising



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Discussion

The results are consistent with previous studies butallow more differentiated and extensive insights. Amain finding is the fact that the duration of exposuredoes not play an essential role, whereas the frequencyof exposure has a significant influence on theeffectiveness of advertising. For advertising decisions,this suggests implementing virtual advertisements infrequent alteration in order to achieve strongerattentiveness effects. However, consideration must begiven to limitations, which sometimes prohibit the useof additional advertising space for virtual advertisingon frequently visible sites (FIFA, 1999). Despite apositive tendency in the assessment of virtualadvertising, implementing this new form of advertisingtoo obtrusively is perceived as rather disturbing. Ourinvestigation indicates that more than 40% of theparticipants are irritated by virtual advertising. A mainreason for this may be because this communicationstool is hardly known yet. Above all, virtual advertisingshould not divert from the sports event, so as not tojeopardise acceptance by television viewers.

As clearly shown in other studies with conventionaladvertising (Babin & Sheri, 1996; Russell, 2002;Sander, 2004, Walliser, 1997b), prior brandawareness also tends to have a positive effect onbrand recall. As mentioned, the non-significance ofthis variable in this study is probably due to the smallvariance of this variable. We expect that in virtualadvertising, limited display options will cause high andlasting advertising effects, especially in the case ofsufficient brand awareness. Hence, virtual advertisingseems to be not very suitable for the introduction of(new) brands.

That television viewers recognise virtual advertisingand have an overall positive attitude towards virtualadvertising (especially in comparison to conventionalforms of advertising) makes this communications toolinteresting for advertisers. Thus shifting advertisingbudgets partly to this new form of advertising seemsreasonable in order to achieve a more effective mix ofcommunications instruments.

Limitations and future research

Our study cannot claim representativeness, as it wasconceived as an exploratory analysis. Whileconvenience samples are acceptable in pilot testing orwhen they represent a significant part of the focalpopulation, in most cases the results cannot beextended due to poor external validity (for a discussionof the limitations of students samples see Lamb/Stem,1980; Morgan, 1979). In our case, as our researchpurpose is exploratory, our sample provides valuableinsights into the effects of virtual advertising. Furtherstudies should broaden the sample to represent thewhole range of viewers of sports broadcasts.

Similar to most other studies, as mentioned above,our study is a laboratory study, where a certaindistortion occurs due to the inherent monitoring effect(Lynch, 1982; Winer, 1999). Nevertheless, as theaim of our study was camouflaged, we can assumethat the internal validity was guaranteed (Schram,2005). Furthermore, valid conclusions can be drawnfrom the comparison between the effectiveness ofconventional and virtual advertising, as both forms ofadvertising were affected in equal measure by thelaboratory situation.

So far little research has been done regarding theeffectiveness of different kinds of virtual advertising(3D animation, animated virtual advertising, etc.). Inour study we focused solely on the effects of virtualgoal-side billboard advertising on consumer response,as this was the only form of virtual advertising used inthe match. Thus, further research needs to be done toinclude different types of virtual advertising.

With respect to future research, it must be statedthat only a few insights have been gained so far intothe effectiveness of varied locations of virtualadvertising. The study of Cianfrone et al (2006)already suggested that different locations may havedifferent advertising effects. The frequency and/orduration of exposure are certainly of importance hereas well. However, this can only be presumed, as intheir study in contrast to our study these variableswere not explicitly investigated. As clearly shown in

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the present study, it is the frequency of exposure thatobviously plays an eminent role in the effectiveness ofvirtual advertising. This depends, among other factors,on the location of virtual advertisements.

We could not measure the impact of an integratedcommunications strategy on the effects of virtualadvertising because other communicationsinstruments were missing in our video clip. However,the highest recall values in the study of Cianfrone et al(2006) were obtained in the case where virtualadvertising is part of an integrated communicationsstrategy (e.g. it is presented in connection withtelevision commercials). This result is not surprising,and its reasons can be found as with integratedcommunication and cross-media advertising inlearning theory (Olivier & Kraak, 1997; Solomon &Englis, 1994; Rothschild & Gaidis, 1981). Thisimplies that companies intending to use virtualadvertising within sports broadcasts should combine itwith other forms of advertising (e.g. televisioncommercials or programme sponsoring) in order toachieve a lasting effect among viewers. Furtherresearch has to confirm this interaction effect.

Conclusion

Our study provides deeper insights into consumerresponses to virtual advertising in sports broadcasts.For the first time, consumer responses to virtualadvertising are analysed together with a mediaanalysis of a sports broadcast. As a result, we found agood model fit. This study provides initial evidencethat virtual advertising can be an effectivecommunications tool for advertisers, sponsors andbroadcasters. The (still) overall reserved employmentof virtual advertising compared to traditional forms ofadvertising, even in the U.S., may be particularlyattributed to restrictive regulations (Turner &Cusumano, 2000; McEvilly, 1998). This also seemsto be the main reason for the hitherto relativelyinfrequent use of virtual advertising in Europe.Regulatory frameworks for virtual advertising in the

individual countries within the European Union vary,thus hampering the widespread use of this type ofadvertising (Matthies, 2004). Harmonising theseregulations might support the application of thisfascinating advertising technique.

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