Alyssa Pitura

World Literature II

May 3, 2011

Lee Kruger

VOLTAIRE'S CULTIVATION

CONNECTION–EXAMINING

PHILOSOPHY IN CANDIDE

Introduction

Voltaire‘s Candide is a very carefully crafted, satiric piece centered on metaphysical concerns, but ends in a very unsatisfactory way. The ideas of Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume provide a philosophical background for the two main schools of thought–optimism and cynicism– displayed in the story, primarily through the characters Pangloss and Martin respectively. Specific focus is placed on a possible connection between Voltaire and Hume that ultimately offers an explanation for the end of Candide. Finally, the presentation describes cultural connections and implications for society today.

Click here to read an online version of Voltaire‘s Candide.

Leibniz

(1646 – 1716)

For more information on Leibniz click here.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was

known as a rationalist and was

involved in “metaphysics,

epistemology, logic, philosophy of

religion, as well as mathematics,

physics, geology, jurisprudence, and

history” (Look ).

As stated by Brandon C. Look, Professor at the University of Kentucky, Leibniz trained in ―Scholasticism and Renaissance Humanism,‖ with a background of ―Aristotelianism, Platonism, and orthodox Christianity.‖ He was known as someone who combined ancient philosophic theories with more current ones.

There are several main points, created by Leibniz, present in Candide:

Contradiction – Leibniz states that ―a proposition cannot be true and false at the same time, and that therefore A is A and cannot be A‖ (Look). This seemed to be the notion Candidefollowed in the beginning of the story. His teacher Panglosstold him things were one way and that there was no other way to see them. For a long time Candide accepted this point of view and did not question his teachings.

Sufficient Reason – Everything has a reason, just as every effect has a cause. Candide searches for the reason behind many events in his life by going on a type of intellectual and philosophical quest.

The main point of optimism expressed in Candide is part of the Principle of the Best which states, ―God always acts for the best‖ (Look). God is perfect and so too are power and knowledge. Although Voltaire did not place much focus on God, this idea that ―God always acts for the best‖ is the base of Leibniz‘s Theory on Optimism, which is described in greater detail on the next slide.

Leibniz’s Theory on Optimism

As Look describes , Leibniz‘s Theory on Optimism, is organized, logical, and anything but foolish:

(1) God is omnipotent and omniscient and benevolent and the free creator of the world. (Definition)

(2) Things could have been otherwise—i.e., there are other possible worlds. (Premise)

(3) Suppose this world is not the best of all possible worlds. (I.e., ―The world could be better.‖)

(4) If this world is not the best of all possible worlds, then at least one of the following must be the case: God was not powerful enough to bring about a better world; or

• God did not know how this world would develop after his creation of it (i.e. God lacked foreknowledge); or

• God did not wish this world to be the best; or

• God did not create the world; or

• there were no other possible worlds from which God could choose.

(5) But, any one or more of the disjuncts of (4) contradicts (1) or (2).

(6) Therefore, this world is the best of all possible worlds.

The character Pangloss is used to represent Leibniz, or the optimistic attitude, in Candide. Through this character, Voltaire makes it clear that he did not buy this portion of Leibniz‘s theory. Obviously there is a great deal more to Leibniz‘s philosophy than what is shared in Candide, but the Theory on Optimism is presented in a way that makes it appear foolish. Voltaire seems to take this theory and work it backwards in Candide, starting with the idea that this is the best of all worlds, although God is not emphasized as such an important figure.

Locke

(1632 – 1704)

William Uzgalis, Philosophy Professor at Oregon

State University, states John Locke was a

“British philosopher, Oxford academic, and

medical researcher,” whose work was opposed to

“authoritarianism.”

Government – True power lies with the people and the government exists to protect the natural rights of its citizens which are, ―life, liberty, and property‖ (―John Locke‖).

Education – Its purpose is to ―produce an individual with a sound mind in a sound body, so as to better serve his country‖ and that education content should fluctuate with social standing and it should serve a ―practical end‖ (―John Locke‖).

Both of the ideas above are emphasized in Candide when the main character and Cacambo visit Eldorado. Eldorado seemed to be just as opposed to authoritarianism as Locke was. The ruler of Eldorado was equal to the people and there were no jails or courts. In addition, the people were educated about science and philosophy, and since they all got along so well, it appears Voltaire is saying that educated people have a greater chance of getting along and being happy.

As stated by Locke, the purpose of the essay was to discover ―the measures of the certainty of our knowledge, or the grounds of those persuasions which are to be found amongst men, so various, different, and wholly contradictory,‖ and also, ―by what measures, in things whereof we have no certain knowledge, we ought to regulate our assent, and moderate our persuasions‖ (Uzgalis).

C. R. Morris, who was a Jowett lecturer in Philosophy at Balliol College, Oxford said Locke believed that human knowledge was limited and there was― no good reason for insisting that belief or opinion must be either developed into knowledge or repudiated as illusion‖ (21). The main point of the theory emphasizes ―the common sense claim that in the end our knowledge of the world around us must come from an examination of the world around us, and not from an introspective analysis of the furniture of our minds‖ (Morris, C. 23). This line of thinking, which differed from the one presented by Aristotle, positioned the mind as a blank slate or ‗tabula rasa‘ that is ―ready to receive impressions, but not yet having received any‖ (Morris, C. 24). He insisted the mind is passive and that everything is based on experience. Our reactions to things are based largely on our senses. Finally, ―The mind must be provided with ideas before it can think, and these ideas, since they do not come from thinking, must necessarily come into the mind through the senses‖ (Morris, C. 28).

Candide originally tries to rely on what others tell him, but quickly learns that real-life experience is the only way to truly perceive something. Locke believed there is no ―one and true religion‖ (―John Locke‖), just as Voltaire did not center Candidearound any one specific God.

From the Essay Concerning Human Understanding

To read more about Locke‘s philosophy

click here.

Berkeley

(1685 – 1753) Berkeley‘s ―aim in writing was to show that heretical conclusions were not

required by the new discoveries, and that old beliefs could exist side by side with a knowledge of the physical nature of the universe as now expounded by science‖ (Morris, C. 66). He constantly fought against materialism and argued that ―all the conclusions of science rest upon the observations of the senses as an indispensable datum; these observations can never be checked or discredited, except in the limited sense that particular observations can be rejected in the light of other particular observations‖ (Morris, C. 68). He was thought to be ―the true follower of Locke‖ (Morris, C. 69), even though religion played a large role in determining his philosophy as he believed that God had a hand in every aspect of life. Berkeley did not believe in abstract ideas but that ―the world as we know it must be visible and tangible, and have the qualities, primary and secondary alike, which sensible objects have: it must be such to reveal its whole nature, and its true nature, only to the senses‖ (Morris, C. 75-76). Because we can perceive ordinary objects and ideas, ―ordinary objects are ideas‖ (Downing). He believed that ―matter is mind-dependent, in the sense that everything which is not spirit depends wholly for its existence on the activity of spirit, that is, in the end, on the activity of the Infinite Spirit‖ (Morris, C. 77). For example, Berkeley would explain the existence of a kitchen table is due to the fact that we can perceive it and if we are not present that it exists because God can perceive it. In reference to distance, Berkeley states it is ―invisible‖ and that ―the distance of remote objects is not immediately perceived, but judged on the basis of past experience‖ (Morris, C. 79).

Berkeley did, in a sense, go in a bit of a backwards direction from Locke‘s theory regarding God. Locke believed there was no one true religion, whereas Berkeley went back to the idea that this one spirit rules all and things exist because God perceives them. Berkeley wanted to base his theory completely on Locke, but could not break away from his religion. Candide fluctuated much in the same way that Berkeley did. Throughout the story he bounces back and forth between optimism and cynicism, eventually resting somewhere in the middle. Although Candide doubts Pangloss he still keeps coming back to his optimisitctheory and ultimately builds on what he knows to draw his own conclusions, much in the same way Berkeley did.

Professor of Philosophy at The

Ohio State University, Lisa

Downing explains George

Berkeley was the Bishop of

Cloyne , philosopher, and

metaphysician .

To read more about Berkeley‘s philosophy click here.

Hume (1711 – 1776)

Hume‘s ―rationalistic‖ philosophy aimed ―to apply the methods of physical science to human nature and thus to build a Science of Man‖ (Morris, C. 111). In some ways, he was seen as a skeptic, primarily due to his ―faith in reason‖ (Morris, C. 112).

Hume‘s work followed four main principles:

1) The contents of the mind are either impressions or ideas, ―the difference…consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike upon the mind‖ (Morris, C. 116-117).

2) ―Judgments…are grounded in the ‗formal elements of experience‘, space and time‖ (Morris, C. 116).

3) An analysis of cause and effect.

4) ―He considers his results, attempting to determine the ultimate significance of experience‖ (Morris, C. 116).

Hume was not quite the skeptic that was presented in Candideand even though many of his theories fell to the darker side, he also said that we are ―driven by desires and feelings,‖ and that ―all the materials of thinking– perceptions– are derived either from sensation or from reflection‖ (Morris, W.).

Hume‘s Moral Philosophy according to Rachel Cohon, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Albany, follows four main points:

1) ―Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the ‗slave of the passions‘.‖

2) ―Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.‖

3) ―Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate a character trait or action.‖

4) ―While some virtues and vices are natural, others, including justice, are artificial.‖

To read more about Hume‘s

philosophy click here.

David Hume was “the most important philosopher ever to write in English,” and,

“the last of the great triumvirate of „British empiricists ,‟” according to William

Morris, Philosophy Professor at Illinois Wesleyan University. Hume was also well-

known as a historian and essayist and “many of Hume‟s contemporaries denounced

his writings as works of skepticism and atheism” (Morris, W.).

Read Hume‘s A Treatise of Human Nature.

Hume’s Cultivation

As stated by Hume, ―the chief obstacle…to our improvement in the moral or metaphysical sciences is the obscurity of the ideas, and ambiguity of the terms‖ (Morris, W.). When something is ambiguous Hume suggests that we cultivate our knowledge. In An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding Hume states that it is worth our time to ―inquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter of fact beyond the present testimony of our sense or the records of our memory‖ (326). However, Hume goes on to state that ―this part of philosophy…has been little cultivated either by the ancients or moderns‖ (326). In Inquiry, Hume uses the term cultivate to refer to fostering the growth of knowledge, which I believe, was also the way Voltaire intended to use the term at the end of Candide.

According to Hume‘s moral theory, one cannot develop moral distinctions or sentiments by sitting back and hiding from life. At the end of Voltaire‘s story he has the characters retire to a practical life, away from the worries of the world, on a farm. The story up until the end (or so it appears) was satirical, so there is no reason to suggest that Voltaire would not make the ending satirical as well. If the ending is satirical in nature, and Voltaire is suggesting there is no possible way to live a successful life in seclusion, than it seems Voltaire agrees with Hume‘s point of view.

Hume – Voltaire Connection

A connection does exist between Voltaire and Hume that suggests they respected one another.

Hume said the following about Voltaire in a 1764 letter:

―When I arrived here, all M. Voltaire‘s friends told me of the regard he always expressed for me…I accordingly wrote him a letter, in which I expressed the esteem which are undoubtedly due to his talents; and among other things I said, that is I were not confined to Paris by public business, I should have a great ambition to pay him a visit at Geneva‖ (Fieser 130).

Voltaire referred to Hume as, ―one of the most profound metaphysicians of the times‖ (Fieser130).

In Candide, Voltaire uses Pangloss to make Leibniz‘s theory on optimism look foolish, but appears to side with Hume in regards to how our perceptions (intellectual or philosophical) are, or should be, formed. If Voltaire believed Hume really was, ―one of the most profound metaphysicians of the times,‖ it would also make sense that he use some of those philosophical concepts in his very philosophical story, Candide.

A manuscript of Candide from 1758 (pictured above). To read the letters that Hume and Voltaire wrote to each other click here.

Optimism in CandideAs previously mentioned, Voltaire uses Pangloss to represent the primary focus of Candide, the philosophical

theory of optimism, or the idea that everything happens for a reason. Specifically, Voltaire comments on the beliefs of the philosopher Leibniz, evidenced by Pangloss‘s statement, ―For after all I am a philosopher, and it would not be right for me to recant since Leibniz could not possibly be wrong‖ (Voltaire 2097). Initially, Candide believes everything Pangloss has to say, but as the story progressed, Candide fluctuated between renewed faith and doubt in optimism. Voltaire uses Pangloss in many ways to represent optimism:

- Voltaire refers to Pangloss as a teacher of ―metaphysico-theologico-cosmoloonigology‖ which makes him and his teachings sound foolish (Voltaire 2038).

- Just as Leibniz felt this was the best of all possible worlds, Pangloss felt that ―everything is made to serve an end, everything necessarily serves the best end…[and] everything is for the best‖ (Voltaire 2038).

- Pangloss holds strongly to his beliefs even after he returns with syphillis to tell of the death of Cunegondeand her family. Pangloss calls his disease a ―present‖ and states that his experience is ―an indispensable part of the best of worlds, a necessary ingredient‖ (Voltaire 2043).

- Voltaire shows how far optimists go to make their point by using Pangloss‘s reaction to Jacques death. Jacques falls overboard and drowns but Pangloss justifies this action ―by proving that the bay of Lisbon has been formed expressly for this Anabaptist to drown in‖ (Voltaire 2045).

- Candide believed the teachings of Pangloss, but started to doubt them after the great Lisbon Earthquake. After it occurs, and Pangloss is hanged, Candide begins to question the theory even stating, ―If this is the best of all possible worlds, what are the others like?‖ (Voltaire 2047). Symbolically the earthquake typified the fall of the optimistic viewpoint with no possible explanation how a disaster of that magnitude could be ―for the best‖ (Voltaire 2046).

- At the end of all their hardships Pangloss still refuses to give up on his theory:

―All events are linked together in the best of possible worlds; for, after all, if you had not been driven from a fine castle by being kicked in the backside for love of Miss Cunegonde, if you hadn‘t been sent before the Inquisitiion, if you hadn‘t traveled across America on foot, if you hadn‘t given a good sword thrust to the baron, if you hadn‘t lost all your sheep from the good land of Eldorado, you wouldn‘t be sitting here eating candied citron and pistachios‖ (Voltaire 2101).

Cynicism in ‘Candide’Pangloss gives up on optimism while in Surinam with Cacambo. There they meet a slave

who describes the hardships of slavery at which point Candide states, ― Oh Pangloss…you had no notion of these abominations! I‘m through, I must give up on your optimism after all‖ (Voltaire 2071). Shortly after this declaration, Candide meets Martin, a scholar, who had ―nothing to hope for‖ (Voltaire 2074). Martin claimed that ―God has abandoned it [the world] to some evil spirit‖ (Voltaire 2074) and that the world was only formed ―to drive us mad‖ (Voltaire 2076).

Martin had developed his pessimistic attitude as a product of his misfortune in life. He had ―been robbed by his wife, beaten by his son, and deserted by his daughter, who had got herself abducted by a Portuguese,‖ and had also just lost his job and was being persecuted by ―the preachers of Surinam‖ (Voltaire 2073).

Even when Candide tries to look on the bright side of things by pointing out that they had a little money and a few jewels, Martin still just wanted to see the negative side of things. Candide claims that there is SOME good in the world and Martin cannot help but argue.

Unlike Pangloss who at least changes his position slightly by the end, Martin is steadfast. In the last chapter Martin claims that, ―man [is] bound to live either in convulsions of misery or in the lethargy of boredom‖ (Voltaire 2099).

Martin was a scholar and presented in an intelligent light, whereas Pangloss was more outlandish. This leads me to believe that Voltaire may have sided with the cynical viewpoint and, through his characters, was stating that cynicism is the side that should be taken more seriously.

The Problem Candide goes on both an intellectual and philosophical journey, and

endures horrifying circumstances, only to end the story by buying land to farm, and stating that, ―we must cultivate our garden‖ (2101). No conclusive evidence exists in the text of the last chapter to support the idea that Voltaire meant anything more than the literal meaning—to farm or work the land—concluding that ―without speculating‖ (2101) or questioning, one can lead a practical and successful life.

Voltaire leads readers to believe that the end result will mean more than it does, which leaves them dissatisfied. Two main pieces of evidence support this idea: Candide‘s intellectual and philosophical journeys. Candide went on an intellectual journey, searching for deeper meaning, and essentially was told at the end not to be an intellect at all. In addition, the very core of the work is metaphysical, so logically the overall meaning should be based on a metaphysical concept. Every piece of Candide was placed where it was for a reason, thus there has to be more to the end than meets the eye.

Ultimately, the end of Candide brought the overall value of the story into question. A few logical possibilities exist to what Voltaire was really trying to say. Voltaire uses satire throughout Candide and there is no evidence to suggest he switched gears for the last chapter. Perhaps he was trying to make readers question the idea that they would just accept the ending as they possibly accept other things that do not fit in their lives. Jacques states, ―Men have corrupted Nature, for they are not born wolves, yet that is what they become. God gave them neither twenty-four-pound cannon nor bayonets, yet they have manufactured both in order to destroy themselves‖ (2044). He may have been making a statement about human complacency as he created satire out of painful, horrific events and many people have laughed at it, providing evidence that our society is immune to violence and human suffering to the point where we can find it comical; where we do not even stop to question what it means.

Click here to read The ‘Garden of Eden’ of Westphalia which discusses the main problem of Candide in greater detail.

The Resolution

Voltaire could have been leaving us a philosophical allusion in his language by using the term ‗cultivate.‘ David Hume used the term cultivate to reference the gathering or fostering of knowledge, specifically of the metaphysical nature and since Voltaire was a known fan of Scottish humanism during the Enlightenment, he would have been well aware of Hume‘s theories.

As Meyer explains, Voltaire found himself in a similar state to Candide:

―Voltaire, on the other hand, felt himself to be an exile from his rightful place in his own country and, after a bitter and humiliating experience abroad, was once more seeking a spot where he could continue in peace and comfort what he considered to be his life‘s mission‖ (Meyer)

So although Voltaire seemed to recoil from society at his home in Ferney, he was still carrying out his work or ―life‘s mission‖ as Meyer calls it. Voltaire may suggest that Candide retire from life and ―cultivate the land,‖ but he is not suggesting that Candide forget about the intellectual side of life. Outside events and figures can distort our viewpoints, but on the farm Candide only has Pangloss and Martin to deal with. Perhaps the term ―cultivate the garden‖ does refer to knowledge instead of a literal garden and Voltaire, through Candide, is saying that before we can understand the rest, we must first sift through what we already know. In other words, before other topics can be dealt with Candide must first sort through optimism and cynicism (and whatever else is in between).

Cultural Manifestations & What it Means Today: Pop

Culture

• Different versions of Candide are still performed:

• Leonard Bernstein created a Broadway play version that premiered in 1956

• Candide is still performed as a play today and was staged at the Shakespeare Theatre just last year.

• Many movies today showcase a main character who goes to hell and back, similar to how Candidedid:

• There’s Something About Mary

• Exhibits

• The New York Public Library held an exhibit on Candide in 2010.

• Philosophy in popular culture

• The book The Lord of the Flies by Willilam Golding touches on philosophical concepts.

• The popular television show Lost, which is loosely based on Golding‘s book, uses many of its main characters and themes to showcase popular philosophers and their theories, including Locke and Hume. For a complete list of the philosophical ties to the show visit this link. There is also an article from USA TODAY that discusses the central themes of the show.

Cultural Manifestations & What it Means

Today: Scholarly

• Current Philosophers

• There are many philosophers still active today producing new or altered theories. In particular, Martha Nussbaum writes her theories to highlight a woman‘s point of view on topics like stoicism and epicurianism, but with a focus on emotion, empathy, etc. To read a selection from Nussbaum‘s The Therapy of Desire follow this link. For more information on her view of human capabilities read this paper by Giuseppina D‘Addelfio.

• Philosophy, both traditional and contemporary, are still important to our society today and whether consciously or not, help shape beliefs, actions, etc.

Ability SlideThis project applies to the Global Awareness ability, which

focuses on working with diversity.

My project meets skill level four under the general skills category, which according to VCSU should demonstrate that I have examined an critique a cultural perspective. My project also demonstrates that I can critique policies and actions that impact the world.

I explained how Voltaire uses both an optimistic and cynical philosophy in his major work Candide to convey his main message. I used major philosophers, specfically Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume to create a context for the information I shared. Finally, I established why the content was still applicable to society today.

More information on the VCSU Abilities can be found here.

What I Learned/ConclusionPhilosophy is a very broad subject with many concepts that are

often difficult to grasp. Even the small amount of material included in this project took hours to research and comprehend, and even now some areas remain cloudy. However, it is not important to be able to grasp all of the information, but rather the basis of it. Philosophical connections exist readily in most aspects of literature it is simply a matter of finding those connections and making them clear.

Above all, I believe a writer with the capabilities of Voltaire, would have wanted his message to be more than simply giving up. I think that through language, and metaphorical concept, Voltaire left us a hint that implies a greater meaning. Only by going on an intellectual and metaphysical quest of our own can we begin to perceive the world and those in it.

Works Cited

Cohon, Rachel. ―Hume‘s Moral Philosophy.‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 27 Aug. 2010. Web. 2 May 2011.

Downing, Lisa. ―George Berkeley.‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 19 Jan. 2011. Web. 22 April 2011.

Fieser, James (ed.). Early Responses to Hume. Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 2003. Web.

Hume, David. The Philosophy of David Hume. Ed. V. C. Chappell. New York: Random House, 1963. Print.

―John Locke.‖ North Carolina State University, n.d. Web. 22 April 2011.

Look, Brandon C. ―Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 22 Dec. 2007. Web. 23 April 2011.

Morris, C. R. Locke, Berkeley, Hume. London: Oxford UP, 1931. Print.

Morris, William Edward. ―David Hume.‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 15 May 2009. Web. 22 April 2011.

Uzgalis, William. ―John Locke.‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 5 May 2007. Web. 22 April 2011.

Voltaire, Francois-Marie Arouet de. ―Candide, or Optimism.‖ The Norton Anthology: World Masterpieces. Ed. Howard E. Hugo and Patricia Meyer Spacks. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1997. 2037-2101. Print.