volume 6, issue 4(1), april 2017 international journal of...

Volume 6, Issue 4(1), April 2017 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam

Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh

Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi

Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune

Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER®

Typeset and Printed in India

www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S Volume 6 Issue 4(1) April 2017

S. No Pg.

No 1. The Power of Media : Shaping Japanese Women’s

Linguistic Behaviour Kadek Eva Krishna Adnyani

and Made Budiarsa

1

2. Analysis AND Material Optimization of Friction Clutch Plate of Piaggio APE

A.Hari Kishan and P.Santi

16

3. Determinants of Adopting Agricultural Productivity Enhancing Technologies and their Management Practices Focusing on Crop Production: The Case of Some Selected Woredas of Ilu Abba Bora Zone

Alemayehu Abera and Mengie Belayneh

32

4. Dismantle the Empowerment of People with Disabilities in the Fondation Senang Hati Gianyar, Bali, Indonesia

Anak Agung Nyoman Sri Wahyuni

50

5. The Hikers Freedom: ‘Man is Condemned to be Free’ An Exposition of Sartre’s Notion of ‘Freedom’

Anasuya Agarwala

61

6. School Libraries Role in Literacy Enhancement in Secondary Schools of Illu Ababor Zone

Andualem Mola,Yitagessu Regassa and Wubayew Dagne

72

7. Creation of New State: Law and Politics with Special Reference to State of Andhra Pradesh

Anil Kumar Dubey

99

8. Challenges and Opportunities of Political Participation of Women in India

Anjali Gaidhane

96

9. Sustainability of Banking Industry in Ethiopia: Review of Financial Sector

Asmamaw Argeta Algesso and Navjot Kaur

104

10. Effect of Academic Motivation and Scientific Attitude on Achievement of Physical Science

Brojogopal Chand, Bhim Chandra Mondal and Tuhin Kumar Samanta

120

11. The Contribution of Sri Vijayananda Gajapathi to Separate Andhra Movement

B.Syam Sundar Raju

130

12. A Study on the Creativity of Teachers in Relation to their Job Satisfaction Between Male and Female Teachers in Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh

N.Sujata

140

13.

148

14. Entrepreneurial Competencies and the Success of Small and Medium Enterprises in Manufacturing Sectors

Ammani Ammal and K.Malar Mathi

152

15. Role of Ecomysticism in ELT in Middle East Haris. K

162

16. Review on Biofuels Production and Environmental Impacts

Prem Kumar Dara

169

17. Humanistic Element in Tagore's Gora Podalapalli Babu and Shodavaram Swarnalatha

181

18. Effect of Yoga Practices on Emotional Intelligence among Kabaddi Players

E.Eswara Reddy and Gotlamitta Venkatramana Reddy

189

19. doXoîmw Am{VÏ`_² नर आयः

198

20.

205

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit)

Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :4.527(2016)

Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Editorial……

It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect.

The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action.

The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute

Dr.K.Victor Babu

Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

www.ijmer.in

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 4(1), APRIL 2017

THE POWER OF MEDIA : SHAPING JAPANESE WOMEN’S LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOUR

Kadek Eva Krishna Adnyani Doctoral Student

Universitas Udayana Bali, Indonesia

Made Budiarsa Universitas Udayana

Bali, Indonesia

Abstract

This study describes and analyzes how media shaping Japanese Women’s Linguistic Behaviour with gendered characteristics in the language used. The Linguistic features I chose to focus on are those which are regarded as indexing certain social features, such as

femininity. Qualitatively-approach, the research uses in-depth interview method to examine how media shaping Japanese Women’s Linguistic in general. To collect data, semi-structured oral interview was conducted with participants regarding their perception and experience concerning media and japanese women’s linguistics. The interview was audio recorded. The research subjects of this study were two Japanese women who had observed Japanese women’s linguistic behaviour for years. In shaping Japanese Women’s Linguistic Behaviour, what socially marked linguistic and textual features are used by media? And do the features used reflect the previous discourses of linguistic femininity? How do the features used affect Japanese Women’s Linguistic Behaviour? I argue that the magazines, TV shows, novels, and comics may have used Japanese Women's Linguistics norms to shape an idealized linguistic femininity for their readers/viewers.

Keywords : media, power, Japanese women, linguistics

Introduction

As a UNESCO report on the world’s women and the communication media has emphasized the hiring of women by the media is also an

important concern within the general issue of promoting equality of

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women and men on television. In Japan, since around 1980, more women have appeared as newscasters and in 1986 female emcees began to be used on women’s magazine-style shows. Female producers and directors of dramas and documentaries also exist, as do female scriptwriters.

Since the first television broadcast in Japan took place in 1953, the relationship between television and people’s live has changed greatly. As television becomes more and more a part of everyday environment it becomes as indispensable to people as air. The women’s magazine-style shows (called “wide shows) which are information programs aimed at female audiences broadcast daily in the morning and afternoon, come

on, providing housewives with steady information. They probably absorb most of it without being conscious they are doing so. The number of topics on a given women’s magazine-style show covered but two or three specific areas. The most common topic was the entertainment world. The next most frequently broadcast topic related to items of practical benefit: TV shopping and offers for free gifts, cooking and food tips, household tips, health and beauty advice, and information on hobbies. (Suzuki, 1995). With the fast-growing of media and its tight connection with everyday life in Japan, the consequence is, that it may affect how language is used among Japanese women.

Washi (2004) observes that the use of ”proper” women’s language was encouraged through media (e.g., radio, boooks, newspapers), especially before and during World War II in the context of rising nationalism, and that nyooboo kotoba (a language used among court ladies-in-waiting since the fifteenth century) was often given as a model

language. Further, popular culture materials, such as films, televison dramas, novels, and cartoons, often show female characters, especially middle-aged women in the middle and upper-middle classes, using more honorifics than male characters. For example, in the comic strip Nono-chan, which appears daily in a major newspaper (asahi Shinbun) in

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Japan, honorifics are often used nonreciprocally from one of the main female characters to her husband.

The long-standing of joseigo (Japanese women’s register) can also be influenced by the existence of media. Some of the media adopt the element from utterances which stereotypically feminism when the listener or reader target are female. Female then use this linguistic form since this is what media expose to them. The existence of this joseigo can be observed in the magazine, romantic novel, manga,

television, and anime. This opinion indeed has to be proven first through a research on how media affects to the Japanese women’s linguistic behaviour nowadays.

1. Literature Review

Previous study have examined gender differences in various Japanese media from different perspectives. Ueno (2008) examined Japanese women and men’s interactional patterns, focusing on interruptions, reactions to interruptions, and backchannels in mixed-sex conversations. Excerpts from a Japanese talk/variety TV shows were analyzed quantitatatively and qualitatively. Gender seems to be a significant componen in Japanese conversational behavior as well. Women were found more willingly to acknowledge supportive interruptions and to provide more backchannels than Japanese men. These result support the previous American findings showing that women tend to be supportive and cooperative in interactions.

Yasumoto (2006) found that the Japanese language used in a

foremost Japanese magazine is no longer traditionally bound to convey long-held views of female subordination as intrinsically embodied in its semantics. It collectively portrays increasingly ambivalent perceptions of women with women being progressively portrayed in a dominant role, in some cases with implicit superiority over men. The traditional role and identity of Japanese women is changing towards a more

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modern role. Some of the agencies of change are the 1946 Japanese Constitution, the Women’s Movement, the 1986 Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law, and ready access to international attitudes and developments through travel and internet.

Ueno (2006) reported that the projected image of young girls speech style in manga (Japanese comic) does not conform to cultural norms, while older adult women’s speech patterns in manga show that they follow the traditional feminine speech. Women’s use of masculine forms is associated with youth. At this point, it is not known if these young women will maintain their current speech style when they become “responsible adults with social obligations.”. The message

emphasized in shojo manga (manga written for girls) and ladies manga certainly implies that they should.

2. Materials and Methods

Research method used in this research was semi-structured in-depth interview, while the subjects were two Japanese women who had observed Japanese women’s linguistic behaviour for years. The name of the subjects are made up for confidentiality and in this research will be called as Sakura (28) and Tamae (53).

During the interview, several questions (prepared advance) were given to the subjects.

(1) In your opinion, what socially marked linguistic and textual features used by media?

(2) Do the features used reflect the previous discourse of linguistic femininity?

(3) How do the features used by media affect Japanese women’s linguistic behaviour?

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The answers to those questions were then further developed into different questions to dig out deeper information about the subjects perception and experience related with media and Japanese women’s linguistics behaviour.

3. Result and Discussion

The data is presented in two parts: Sakura and Tamae. Both Sakura and Tamae are interviewed and also shown some Japanese Linguistic Aspects as following, and asked to mark which feature they recognise as Joseigo or use more often by women :

Table 1. Japanese Linguistic Aspects

No Aspect Words 1 Ninshoo Daimeshi

(Pronouns) 1) Ichininshoo (first person pronouns)

atashi, atakushi, ore, washi, boku, watashi, watakushi, uchi, jibun

2) Nininshoo (second person pronouns)

anata, anta, kimi, omae

3) Sanninshoo (third person pronouns)

ano hito, yatsu, koitsu, soitsu

2 Shuujoshi (Sentence Final Particles)

wa, no, nano, no yo, no ne, no, kashira, deshoo, ze, yo, ike (imperative form), form ee (instead of ai dan oi, example : shiranee), oo ka (ikoo ka), iku (plain form of a verb), yo ne (agreement), ja nai, jan, kana, naa (example : ii naa).

3 Polite Prefix O and Go

For example : Omizu, Obento, Gokekkon

4 Keigo (Honorifics Expressions)

Irrasharu, Itadaku, etc

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Sakura

Sakura is a social anthropologist who investigates many issues on Japanese in the perspective of culture, social behaviour, language, and the life view. This moment Sakura is a Ph.D candidate in Australia. Interview with Sakura was conducted in July 2015 when Sakura was conducting a research in Bali. Sakura comes from Himeji, in which people in this area commonly use dialect of Kansai. Sakura’s friends sometimes make fun of Tokyo people because Tokyo men also often use SFPs (Sentence Final Particles) which in Himeji is commonly used by women, such as particle “ne”. According to Sakura, Joseigo is a particular style of speech for non Tokyo women (because in Tokyo,

women and men speak almost the same). Sakura then formulates that the function of joseigo is to soften the sentences and attracting the empathy.

In Tokyo, Joseigo is not seen as feminine quality because it is not felt as feminine. When it is shown some features that commonly included in the characteristics of Joseigo, the following is Sakura’s comment : many Japanese are not really think about the women register because they do not have a standard rule or a strict division to joseigo. Particle Wa and Kashira are the particles which are Super

feminine while particle No and Ye are Moderate feminine.

Tokyo Dialect is a standard dialect (and it spreads among foreigner who learns Japanese from their female teacher). In her hometown, Himeji, a lot of women use joseigo. Women use joseigo is a normal thing. Factor affecting the use are where you from and the daily community language. According to Sakura, joseigo is a language to

make friends because it emphasizes on the empathy, and invite others to confirm an agreement. When using it with friends, joseigo can be used. Nevertheless when talking to elders: so desu ne, hence it is added

by kopula ”desu”

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No kids use it: since joseigo is commonly learned as long as the growing age. Sakura seldom hears people use particle wa and kashira anymore. Adverbial such as zenzen, zettai, sugoi, according Sakura is used more by younger people and the elder use all of them added by chotto, yappari, sukoshi. Older people use more choices of adverb, but

avoid absolute term like sugoku or zettai. Imperative form -nasai is usually used by parents and not feminine. Respectful prefix and go: older people use it more. Maybe it is slightly feminine. Sakura mentioned that the more educated you are, the more you use joseigo as a woman.

Sakura suggests to see Takara Zuka Theatre: the players are only women, hence they use joseigo and danseigo (Japanese Man Language) as the difference. More educated woman use respectful prefix o and go.

Because it is a polite form, men use it only in a formal situation. Women are usually more polite than men are; use more often honorific alternatives of words, for example: itadaku, irrasharu. Emotive particle assigned to women speech are araa and maa.

Lexically, indeed there are some differences of word used by men and women. When they mention “stomach” , men use the word hara dan women use the word onaka. When they mention the word meal

box, men use the word bento, while women use the word obento. Women say omizu, oishii, taberu (instead of what are usually used by men such as the word mizu, umai, kuu, which means water, delicious, and eat). But formal educated men use the more polite form too, as what are usually used by women.

When asked about language used in Media, Sakura mentioned that

news language is different from drama, because news used more formal language than everyday language. Drama can be anything from formal to very informal. But again, within drama it varies. Talk show will be in standard Japanese, which is the one spoken in Tokyo. Sakura argued

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that the language used by people in various media will affect the audience. Meaning the audience will copy certain terms and use it in everyday life. Sakura mentioned the examples, which is Hayarigo. Hayarigo is a popular word used by a media person and becomes a trendy word for that year. Like the word “ohitorisama” which is even

became part of Japan’s culture.

Hoffman (2014) mentioned the edition of Shicho 45 magazine profiled several Japanophile foreigners about what do they like about Japan. One of them, Swiss-born TV personality, Haruka Christine, praised “ohitorisama culture”. Ohitorisama refers to people living and doing things alone. Japan seems to be spawning the trend faster than other countries. In Japan, people dine out alone, sing karaoke alone, and increasingly live alone. Thirty-two percent of all households nationwide are single-occupant.

The term ohitorisama coined in 1999 by the late journalist Iwashita Kumiko, is popular lexicon of words used to describe single

woman. On her website, Iwashita defined ohitorisama as an adult woman with an established individual identity. She also challenge popular feminine ideals, by being career-focused rather than domestically inclined, or being active in pursuing romance (Dales, 2015).

Regarding women speech, Sakura argued that female TV personnel’s burikko language influence some girls speech. Novels, magazines, comic books, and television inundate Japanese-speaking subjects with images of “suitable” feminine or masculine behavior. Miller (2004) mentioned that the word burikko derived from the term

buru ‘to pose, pretend, or act” and the suffix-ko, used for “child” or “girl”. A combination of linguistic, prosodic, paralinguistic, and nonverbal features contributes to an interpretation of speech as burikko-like. The most readily associated traits are the falsetto voice

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and a glissando movement through a pitch range. Additional features include a nasalized delivery, use of a baby-talk register, a sprinkling of amusing coinages, and mannerism such a covering the mouth when smilling or laughing. In popular media and in interviews, burikko are characterized as both shallow airheads and crafty flatterers. People often say a distinctive feature of burikko talk is that they always utter hazukashii “I’m embaraassed” even though it’s clear they aren’t the

least bitmortified.

The features of burikko style often featured in media by some Japanese women celebrities are as following (Ken, 2012):

- Refers to herself by her first name

- She sticks out her tongue when she makes a mistake

- She adds da mon to the end of sentences

- When in high spirits she always screams “Waaai” (Yayy!!)

- Her scream is “Gyah!” etc.

Tamae

Tamae is a Japanese woman of 53 years old born in Osaka and has a master degree. From her college she has been working part time as a reporter and an MC of a television and a radio. After she has graduated, she has ever hosted a program in a Japanese National channel with the

theme of food, morning talks, and education. During 2001 - 2015, she has a position as the city council member, besides she is still active as the host. The interview was conducted in September 2015 when Tamae together with her friends from Non-Profit Organization was conducting an activity in Bali. Related to the language she uses everyday, Tamae is shown the Japanese Linguistic Aspects Table and she marked some features which are commonly marked as joseigo features like sentence final particles yo ne and na no. It is seen that she uses many features of

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Joseigo. This answer then is supported by investigating Tamae’s video in hosting the programs.

Tamae uses many features in Joseigo since she imitates her mother’s language. According to her, the language used by her mother is a very polite language. Therefore, Tamae often relates Japanese women language with politeness. These are the few examples of polite words which often used by Tamae’s mother :

- oitte irrashaimase (welcome)

- omeshi agare (please eat it)

In hosting a program, Tamae often uses respectful prefixes o- and go-. It is because when she is hosting a program, it is indeed commonly used formal register. In fact, sometimes, the language that is used is so polite that it will be odd when it is used in the daily. For example in the sentences: "ohanashi ni naremashita".

The language she uses daily is different from that she uses in hosting a program. The language she uses in hosting a program is more

polite and formal. Since the national TV channel commonly centred in Tokyo, hence the host and hostess are commonly Tokyo people or people domicile in Tokyo. It is automatically that the language being used for the broadcasting is the dialect register of Tokyo people. The area of Tokyo itself is known as the place where Joseigo is developed.

Language strategy used by Tamae when hosting a program usually does not use features of joseigo since the script is prepared before the news program. Nevertheless, when she is hosting a talk show and she becomes the MC, sometimes she uses features of joseigo.

Tamae explains with the existence of language register division according to gender known in Japan, they are Joseigo (women register) and Danseigo (men register), raises a new phenomenon namely nyuuhaafu (Japanese slang derived from the English terms "new" and

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"half" in reference to the fact that half of the person's appearance and persona has been changed in terms of gender. A transsexual, transgender or transvestite performer, typically male to female) who uses oneekotoba. Oneekotoba (older sister speech) is an effeminate Japanese language used by gay men.

Joseigo and danseigo in the media, such as in dorama Japan, anime, film, and TV shows commonly use to confirm the characters of

the figures. The feminine character (both women and men) are described using joseigo, while the masculine character (both women and men) are described using danseigo. Although in the daily life nowadays, the border between men and women is not as far as what is shown in some films, dorama, etc. Such condition in the media leads the transgender or gay to use oneekotoba hence it sounds more feminine. The features of feminine language they use in fact can be more feminine than the ordinary young women do in the same age.

When Tamae is hosting a cooking program that is watched by mostly

mothers, in fact she has no intention to use joseigo. Nevertheless women chef in this program commonly use joseigo, therefore Tamae uses joseigo to respond them. Sometimes she meets a woman chef who is as feminine as princess (Tamae call it with the term ojoosama sensei) which uses features of very feminine language. When she is asked about her impression she gets of ojoosama sensei, Tamae answers that

she considers that as a cute thing, but it also feels that there is a distance made between speaker and the partner.

There is also a moment when Tamae meets a woman who uses danseigo (men register). Tamae feels that since joseigo is suteki kotoba (a beautiful language) then it should be made everlasting. Women should keep using joseigo. When she hears a woman uses danseigo, she feels uncomfortable and wants the woman not to use danseigo. She also

feels surprised and thinks that it is not appropriate for women.

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When Tamae hosts political speech, she use a standard polite language register, and does not use a particle in the end of the sentence that is common in joseigo or otokoppoi kotoba (masculine words). In the daily politic world, there are also women who use danseigo to show their power. Tamae knows them and she observes in the media that they use danseigo to show the power but in the daily life they use

joseigo, good in cooking and is very feminine.

Many people imitate dorama, anime, etc. When there is a person who wants a feminine impression she can imitate joseigo that she listens to the media. Nevertheless, there are also people use strong joseigo for joke. Words that are feminine such as suteki dana are widely used not only by girls, but also by pretty boy (utsukushii dansei). There

are also special words used by only women such as the word of "bijin" (pretty). Regarding the impact of joseigo used by Japanese woman, there is even a phenomenon in which a foreign man who lives in Japan and has a relationship with a Japanese women, use a lot of feminine sentence final particles such as sou yo ne, da wa, and yo since he learns Japanese from his girlfriend.

According to Sakura, joseigo is made everlasting through its

existence in the media.

“Mada nokoru kotoba wa tsukawaranakattara, kotoba wa nakunatte shimau. Nanode, media de tsukaitsustukereba, sono kotoba wa nokoru.” (If the remaining vocabularies are not used anymore, then the words will be gone. Nevertheless since it is used in the media, the words will remain).

For example when she suddenly hears in the television that there are people or host utter the words they do not listen for a long time, Tamae will laugh while yelling “furuii” (old). This is a proof that media make

the words become everlasting.

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4. Conclusion

Socially marked linguistic and textual features used by media in shaping Japanese women’s linguistics behaviour can be observed through the quantity of Joseigo (Japanese women language) and danseigo (Japanese man language) which commonly used in the media, such as in dorama Japan, anime, TV shows and film to confirm the characters of the figures. The feminine character (both women and men) are often described using joseigo, while the masculine character

(both women and men) are often described using danseigo.

This features used by feminine character in media reflect the previous discourse of linguistic femininity in Japan. For example, in the case of Tamae, sometimes she meets a woman chef who is as feminine as princess (Tamae call it with the term ojoosama sensei) which uses features of very feminine language. On the other hand, from her experience in the daily politic world, Tamae also observes some women who use danseigo in front of public and media to show the

power and masculinity but in the daily life they use joseigo, good in cooking and is very feminine.

The features used in media affect Japanese women’s linguistic behaviour in some ways like how in Sakura case, the women celebrities who use burikko style and language are copied by their girl viewers and influence those girl speech. The existence of language register division in media according to gender known in Japan, Joseigo and Danseigo also raises a new phenomenon, oneekotoba. Oneekotoba (older sister

speech) is an effeminate Japanese language used by gay men. The transgender or gay tend to use oneekotoba to make they sounds more feminine. The features of feminine language they use in fact can be more feminine than the ordinary young women do in the same age.

In conclusions, Japanese women linguistic behaviour are more or less affected by media even though in the daily life nowadays, the

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border between men and women is not as far as what is shown in some films, dorama, etc. Another important point found in this research is how Japanese women language is made everlasting through its existence in the media. Like Tamae said, “If the remaining vocabularies are not used anymore, then the words will be gone. Nevertheless since it is used in the media, the words will remain.”

Bibliography

Burch, Alfred Rue. 2003. Feminine Language in Japanese : A Study of Usage Among Japanese Graduate Students Residing in Hawaii. [cited 2012 Sept. 15]. Available from URL : www2.hawaii.edu/~abu rch/Femi nine%20Language.html.

Dales, Laura. 2015. “Suitably Single? Representations of Singlehood in Contemporary Japan.” In : Configurations of Family in Contemporary Japan. Aoyama, Tomoko, Laura Dales, and Romit Dasgupta. New York : Routledge.

Hoffman, Michael. 2014. Why marry, or Worry, When We Can Be Alone Together in Ohitorisama Japan? [cited 2012 Sept. 22]. Available from URL : www.japantime s.co.jp/new s/2014/03 /01/nati onal/media-national/wh y-mar ry-or-worr y-wh en-we-ca-b e-alone-together-in-ohitor sama-ja pan/#.VgSEgREaySN

Ken, Y.N. 2012. Characteristics of A Sickly Cute “Burikko”. [cited 2012 May. 12]. Available from URL : whatjapanthinks.com/ 2012/09/03/ charac teristics-of-asickly-cute-burikko/

Miller, Laura.2004. “You Are Doing Burikko! Censoring/Scrutinizing Artificers of Cute Femininity in Japanese.” In : Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology. Okamoto, Shigeko and Janet S. Shibamoto Smith. New York : Oxford University Press. p. 148- 165.

Okamoto, Shigeko. 2004. “Ideology in Linguistic Practice and Analysis” In : Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology. Okamoto, Shigeko and Janet S. Shibamoto Smith. New York : Oxford University Press. p. 38-56.

Suzuki, Midori Fukunishi. 1995. “Women and Television : Portrayal of Women in the Mass Media.” In Japanese Women : New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future, ed. Kumiko Fujimura

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Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda. New York : The Feminist Press. p. 75 – 90

Ueno, Junko. 2008. Gender Differences in Japanese Conversations. [cited 2012 Sept. 25]. Available from URL : web.uri.edu/I aics/files 08-Junko-Ueno.pdf

Ueno, Junko. 2006. Shojo and Adult Women: A Linguistic Analysis of Gender Identity in Manga (Japanese Comic). [cited 2012 Sept. 21]. Available from URL : www.unc.edu/~jlsmith/ling563/d emos /uen o2 006_m a nga-particles.pdf

Washi, Rumi. 2004. “Japanese Female Speech and Language Policy in the World War II Era” In : Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology. Okamoto, Shigeko and Janet S. Shibamoto Smith. New York : Oxford University Press. p. 76 - 91

Yatsumoto, Seiko. 2006. The Representation of Women in Japanese Written Media. Journal Ilha Do Destero No. 50, p. 99 -126.

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ANALYSIS AND MATERIAL OPTIMIZATION OF FRICTION CLUTCH PLATE OF PIAGGIO APE

A.Hari Kishan Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Chaitanya Engineering College

Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

P.Santi Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Chaitanya Engineering College

Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

Abstract— In automobiles friction clutches are widely used in power

transmission applications. To transmit maximum torque in friction clutches selection of the friction material is one of the important tasks. In this project a model of Piaggio Ape clutch plate has been generated in Pro-Engineer and analysis done in ANSYS for power transmission applications. We have conducted structural analysis by varying the friction surfaces material and keeping base material aluminum same.

By seeing the results, Comparison is done for both materials to validate better lining material for Piaggio Ape clutch plate by doing analysis on clutch with help of ANSYS software for find out which

material is best for the lining of friction surfaces. Structural, Modal and Fatigue Analysis is used for Validate the Friction Material. Pro/ENGINEER is the standard in 3D product design, featuring industry-leading productivity tools that promote best practices in design.

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements.

Index Terms—Piaggio Ape, Solidworks, Finite Element Analysis.

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1.Introduction

Clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. Let us take an instance where one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), or be decoupled and spin at different speeds (disengaged). Depending on the orientation, speeds, material, torque produced and finally the use of the

whole device, different kinds of clutches are used. The clutch in itself is a mechanism, which employs different configurations and different principles in various models available. In the following lines, we have provided the different kinds of clutches that are available.

1.1 Plate friction material

Different special friction materials are available for wet and dry running clutches and brakes. The friction material used represents the most important part of each friction combination, which effectively consist of, in addition, the counter frictional surface and, in the case of wet-running, the oil. The friction combination influences the behavior of the clutch or brake when being engaged and disengaged, the permissible thermal loading, the behavior in terms of wear and thereby the required size of the clutch or brake. Only when these important properties are known can the optimum friction combination for a given application be selected in order to give the desired behavior and service

life. In order to provide understanding of the application selection of friction combinations, the following sections will describe the

characteristic properties and main areas of use of our different standard friction combinations, namely steel/steel, steel/sintered lining and steel or cast iron/organic friction lining, all of which

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have proved themselves in use over many years. Should you have special requirements with regard to the dynamic torque, the static torque or the lubricant to be used, please contact us. For such cases, special friction materials such as plates coated with molybdenum are available.

2. Calculations of Clutch and Friction

Specifications:

Power = 13.8 BHP @ 8500 rpm

Torque = 13.4 N-m = 13.4 × 10 −

Material used is pressed asbestos on cast iron or steel µ = 0.3

Maximum operating temperature 0C = 150 – 250

Maximum pressure N/mm2 = 0.4

r1 and r2 outer and inner radius of friction faces r1 =109mm and r2 = 90 mm

n = no of pairs of contact surfaces

n = n1 + n2 – 1

where n1 and n2 are no of disc on driving and driven shaft

n1 = 5 and n2 = 4 ; n = 4

R = mean radius of friction surfaces

For uniform pressure R =

=

= 99.80

For uniform wear R = = = 99.5

2.1 Considering uniform pressure:

When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire area of the friction face then the intensity of pressure P

P = ( )

Where W = axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together

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In general frictional torque acting on the friction surfaces or on the clutch is given by

T = n× μ × ×

n = no of pairs of friction surfaces

R = mean radius of friction surfaces

µ = coefficient of friction

WKT T = 13.4× 10 = 8 × 0.3 × × 99.80 = 55.94

P = ( )

= P = .( )

= 0.00047

2.2 Considering uniform pressure:

When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire area of the friction face then the intensity of pressure

P = ( )

Where W = axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together

Frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch

T = µWR

WKT = T = 13.4× 10 − , = 99.80, μ = 0.3

By substituting all these values in the above equation we get W

13.4× 10 = 0.3 × × 99.80 = 447.561

Pressure P = P = ( )

= P = .( )

= 0.0376 /

2.3 Considering uniform axial wear:

For uniform wear P× = ( = )

Axial force required to engage the clutch W = 2πC(r1-r2)

Mean radius of the friction surfaces R = = 99.5

Torque transmitted T = = n× μ × ×

13.4× 10 = 8 × 0.3 × × 99.5 = 56.11

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The intensity of pressure is maximum at the inner radius (r2) of the friction or contact surface

Equation may be written as × =

WKT total force acting on the friction surface

C = ( )

= .( )

= 0.470

= =0.470

90= 0.00522

The intensity of pressure is minimum at the outer radius (r1) of the friction or contact surface

Equation may be written as × =

= =0.470109

= 0.00431

The average pressure ( ) on the friction or contact surface is given by

=

−

=( − )

=56.11

(109 −90 )

.3. Introduction to pro/engineer

Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire is the standard in 3D product design, featuring industry-leading productivity tools that promote best practices in design while ensuring compliance with your industry and company standards. Integrated Pro/ENGINEER CAD/CAM/CAE solutions allow you to design faster than ever, while maximizing innovation and quality to ultimately create exceptional products.

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3.1 Model in pro/engineer

Figure-1 Clutch Plate modal in Pro/Engineer.

Figure -2 Friction materials lining in Pro/Engineer.

4. Introduction to ANSYS

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of

deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements

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4.1 Structural analysis of Friction Plate

Kevlar as Friction material

Figure-3 Displacement Vector sum for Kevlar.

Figure-4 Stress Result for Kevlar Material.

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Figure-5Strain Result for Kevlar Material

4.2 Modal analysis of Friction Plate

Figure-6 Displacement-1 Result for Kevlar Material.

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4.3 Structural Analysis of Clutch Plate

Figure-10 Displacement vector Result for Kevlar Material.

Figure-11 Von misses stress.

Figure-12 Von misses stress

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4.4 Modal Analysis of Clutch Plate


Figure-14 Displacement-2 Res ult for Kevlar Material.

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.



4.5 Thermal analysis of Clutch Plate

Figure-18 Temperature Distribution.

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Figure-19 Temperature Gradient.

Figure-20 Thermal Flux

5. Material Properties

Table-1 Mechanical Material Properties of Clutch.

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Table-2 Thermal Material Properties of Clutch.

Table-3 Mechanical Material Properties of Friction Plate.

Table-4 Thermal Material Properties of Friction Plate.

6. Results Tables

Table-5 Structural Analysis results of Clutch Plate

Table-6 Modal Analysis results of Clutch Plate

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Table-7 Thermal Analysis results of Clutch Plate

Table-8 Structural Analysis results of Friction Plate.

Table-9 Modal Analysis results of Friction Plate.

7. Conclusion

In our project we have designed a multi plate friction clutch plate and friction plate using reverse engineering process. Structural, modal, Fatigue and Thermal analysis is done on the Clutch plates to verify the strength. Structural, modal and Thermal analysis is done on the Friction to verify the strength. Friction materials used are Cork, Organic Polyethylene, Kevlar, and Ceramic. Material used. Clutch plate materials used are Stainless steel, Aluminum and Grey Cast Iron.

By observing the analysis results, for clutch plate the original material stainless steel we replace with Aluminum 6061 and Grey cast iron by

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comparing the all Values the original material Stainless steel is better consider all the Analysis.

By observing the analysis results, for friction the original material cork we replace with Organic Polyethylene, Kevlar, and Ceramic. By comparing the all Values the Ceramic material is comfortable for friction plate of clutches.

Finally we have concluded that the Stainless steel is better for

Clutch plate material and Ceramic is good for manufacturing friction material of Clutches.

8. References

1. Machine Design by R.S. Khurmi 2. Machine Design by R.K.Jain. 3. B.Sreedher, N.Amaranageswararao, “Stress Analysis and

Optimization of a Piaggio Ape Clutch Plate with different Friction Materials” Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 11(Version - 4), November 2014,.

4. Timoshenko S., Element of Strength of Materials, Part I and II, Van Nastrond , NewJersey, 1956

5. Peter R.N.Childs; Mechanical Design: Second EditionMa Aye Moe Khaing, ‘‘Design of single plate clutch for 3 tons Light Truck’’,2005

6. Maung Ngin Kap Thang, ‘‘Design calculation of Driven and Driving System of Clutch’’,2009. ClutchDesign,http://www.thecartech/com/subject/de sign/ Automobile-clutchs.htm.

7. Automobile clutch, http://www.tep.engr.tu.ac.th. 8. S. Jaya Kishore, Structural Analysis of Multi-Plate clutch,

http://www.ijcttjournal.org.

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DETERMINANTS OF ADOPTING AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCING TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOCUSING ON CROP

PRODUCTION: THE CASE OF SOME SELECTED WOREDAS OF ILU ABBA BORA ZONE

Alemayehu Abera PhD Candidate at Arba Minch University & Lecturer at Department of Geography and

Environmental Studies Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia

Mengie Belayneh PhD Candidate at Arba Minch University & Lecturer at Department of Geography and

Environmental Studies Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia

Abstract

The study was aimed to investigate determinants of adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies and their management practices focusing on crop production in some selected districts of Ilu Abba Bora Zone. Therefore, the study used descriptive research design and the data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. To achieve the objectives of the study the researchers collected data from 210 sample households selected through simple random sampling methods. The data collected from both primary and secondary sources were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. In addition multiple linear regression model was used. The result of the survey clearly showed that the major adopted technologies used to improve crop productivity in the study area were improved seeds/selected seeds/, modern fertilizer usage (Urea and DAP), water harvesting technologies/motorized pump irrigation/, vetiver grass technology, pesticides, herbicides, walking tractors. However, the crop agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in Illu Ababora zone were determined by different limiting factors. Some of the dominant factors that limit the adoption and continued use of the technology for productivity enhancement includes: households’ specific factors (age, gender, education, income, access to information, land holding size and land tenure status), Technology related (technology characteristics, availability & cost of technologies) Institutional related factors (credit, contact with extension,). The result of multiple linear regression model showed that income, cost of technologies and farm size, educational level, access to credit and linkage with research

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centers were found to be statistically significant at P<0.01 and P<0.05 level respectively. As far as the management practices of the adopted technologies concerned, those adopted technologies needs continuous follow up from different concerned bodies (agricultural research institute, woreda agricultural offices, extension workers and others) and proper usage of the technologies. Finally based on the findings of the study recommendations were forwarded.

Key terms: Agriculture, Adopted technologies, Herbicides, Pesticides

1. Introduction

1.1. Background of the Study

Agriculture in Ethiopia is a basis for the entire socio - economic structure of the country and has a major influence on all other economic sectors and development processes of the country. It is the backbone of the country’s economy or the main stay of Ethiopian economy (Legesse et al., 2009). This is due to the fact that agriculture plays paramount roles such as; it provides employment opportunity for about 85% of the total working labour force, 90% of the total foreign exchange earnings, it supplies about 70% percent of the country’s raw material requirement for large and medium agro-based industries and 50% of the Ethiopian GDP (Zelalem, 2011). However, the country is unable to feed its own people and suffering from great proportions of famine due to poor performance of agricultural sector. The critical food shortages and recurrent famine have resulted in a massive food aid and commercial imports of food. In this regard, improving the performance of agricultural sector is crucial for fast development of country’s economy (Alene et al., 2000).

The current Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) also centralize the rural development with technological advancement of the agricultural sector on which the industry sector will also take part to play vital role by supporting one another. The country’s potential is characterized by having high land and human resource and low financial power (Wogayehu et al, 2003). So, any measure that effectively utilizes plenty land and human resources widely and use financial power wisely are highly encouraged because of its compatibility with live situation. Previous studies revealed that adoption of agricultural technologies has attracted considerable attention among development economists. Currently, a number of

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scholars, development practitioners, and environmental activists forward adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies and their proper management practices as the remedy for increasing agricultural production and productivity of various crops. Thus, it is partly lack of academic research in the area on the issue of adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies and their management practices in Ilu Abba Bora zone that aroused the interest and curiosity of the researchers to undertake this study.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Agricultural productivity in Ethiopia is known to be the lowest among African countries (FAO, 2008). Ethiopia also has faced severe food shortages within the past two decades and is on constant threat of famine. One major reason for the low agricultural productivity in Ethiopia is the low rates of adoption of improved agricultural production technologies. Since agricultural research innovations have no value if they are not taken by the end users, identification of the factors determining adoption of improved technologies helps to improve the effectiveness of research and extension services and agricultural policy to increase productivity of traditional farmers (Zelalem, 2011). There have been few studies conducted to determine the rate of adoption of improved agricultural technologies in Ethiopia. To improve the economic welfare of their population many developing countries used modern agricultural technologies such as water harvesting and other technologies. However, this has not been the case for Ethiopian farmers, because of their continued reliance on traditional farming practices and insufficient technical and institutional support facilities, such as credit, extension, marketing, etc. These have greatly impeded the development and growth of the agricultural sector.

Adoption of technological innovations in agriculture has attracted the attention of development economists and policy makers since it is commonly believed that introduction of new technology increases productivity (Gebresenbet, 2008). The decision of whether or not to adopt a new technology hinges upon a careful evaluation of a large number of technical, institutional and socio-economic factors. Adoption analysis, in general, presupposes that innovations exist and the study of the adoption process evaluates the reasons or determinants of whether and when adoption takes place. Less adoption of agricultural technologies due to different factors is one of the major challenges in

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agricultural production in many parts of the world, especially in developing nations, such as Ethiopia in general and Ilu Abba Bora zone in particular. Low level of adopting agricultural productivity enhancing technologies are one of the major challenges to agricultural development and food security of the country in crop production. Such problem is also common in Ilu Abba Bora zone. Farmers in Ilu Abba Bora Zone of the Oromia Regional State typically rely, almost entirely, on agriculture for their incomes and livelihood. Despite the fact that they get a long and intensive rainy season, because of low adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in this area, they live with lowest incomes and highest rates of poverty. Proper adoption and management of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies of varies crops will maximize agricultural productivity and ensure food security. However, there are different factors that affect adoption and proper management of agricultural enhancing technologies. In light of this, it is important to examine determinants of adopting agricultural productivity enhancing technologies and their management practices in this area.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objective

The main objective of this study was to investigate determinants of adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies and their management practices focusing on crop production in some selected districts of Ilu Abba Bora Zone.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

Specifically, the study has the following objectives:

To identify adopted crop productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas

To examine factors that affect adoption of crop productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas

To explore management practices of adopted crop productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas

1.4. Research Questions

What are adopted agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas?

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What are the factors that affect adopting agricultural

productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas?

What are management practices of adopted agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas?

1.5. Significance of the study

Thus, the study result has the following importance:

It will be helpful in identifying key factors that affecting farmer’s decision of adopting crop productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas.

It can provide relevant information to the concerned bodies of the woredas and other stake holders in which area they should focus to sustainably increase crop production.

It can also help for further research and provide relevant information to policy makers and other development partner in this regard.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study was conducted in Oromia Regional state, Ilu Abba Bora zone; in eleven purposefully selected woredas of Ilu Abba Bora Zone (Borecha, Chawaka, Dabo Hanna, AlgeSechi, Darimu, Didhessa, Chora, Bedelle, Gechi, Alle and Mattu).

Figure 1: Administrative map of Illu Ababora Zone woredas

Source:Ethio-GIS, 2007

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2.2. Research design

It is important before research is undertaken to create guidelines that would give order and direction to research project. So as to assist the researchers not to lose focus of the research inquiry. This is done through research design and methodology. The particular research design that was employed for this research is a descriptive type of study utilizing survey method. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed to analyze the collected data. As it is indicated by (Best, 2003) the existing social world can be best studied using several analysis and point of view that means diverse approaches are most excellent ways of expressing and assessing the social world.

2.3. Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

In order to get representative and reliable information and to draw important conclusion about the study areas, employing sound sampling techniques is prerequisite. Thus, the researchers used both probability and non probability (purposive) sampling methods as techniques of sampling.

Non probability or purposive sampling method was used to determine the study areas and the topic under study. Study woredas were purposefully selected as a research setting due to the fact that out of woredas in Ilu Abba Bora zone, eleven woredas were purposively selected. This means woredas that had long history to the adoption of agricultural enhancing technology familiarity compared to other districts in the zone (woredas that better adopt), in which the researchers believed that farmers in these districts adopt different technology to increase production and productivity of agriculture. Two rural kebeles from each woredas were selected purposively (kebeles with better adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technology). In addition to this, in the area, research works are very little and there are no studies done so far on such issues in the area. Consequently, the study was partially intended to fill this gap. Purposive selection of the topic is due the fact that in order to enhance agricultural production and productivity in the woredas, assessing such issue is important from development perspectives. Again from section of the society, head of households were purposefully selected given the fact that including all society as study population is difficult and Head of households are matured and better represent the rest population.

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Stratified Simple random sampling from probability sampling was used to select head of households or farmers from the study areas who adopt crop production enhancing technologies. In order to obtain the sampling units or respondents the researchers employed stratified simple random sampling method. Because it is believed that this method would not affect the representation of the samples as Head of households represent from each kebeles and this method gives equal chance of being selected for each households. Head of Households were stratified according to their Goti to conduct the survey in the area. The total Households are 2100 HHs. From these, 10% (210 HHs) of the total Household heads were randomly selected by applying proportional sample allocation method from the “Gotis.” The sample size in each stratum is proportional to the size of stratum. This was determined by the following formula:

nh = (Nh/ N )xn where, nh = Sample size of the stratum

Nh = Total population of the stratum

N = Total population (i.e. total HHs)

n= Total sample size

Source: (Kothari, 2004)

3.2. Data Sources and collection instruments

In order to get reliable and valid data so as to achieve the objectives of the study, the researchers collected data from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected through household survey questionnaire, interview, field observation and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). To supplement the primary data, secondary sources of data were collected from various documents, books, journals, reports, electronic media (internet), etc. To collect primary data for the study, the researchers used the above mentioned data collection instruments for their own advantage one over the other and for the purpose of their complementarities.

2.4. Method of data Analysis

The data Collected via various methods of data collection instruments were analyzed, summarized, and presented through qualitative and

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quantitative methods. The data collected through questionnaires were quantitatively tabulated, interpreted and presented by using descriptive (frequency distribution, percentages) and inferential statistics (multiple linear regression model) and the analysis were made by using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) version 20 and Ms Excel. In addition to this, maps, figures, and pie chart were used. The data collected through interview, personal observations and focus group discussion were analyzed qualitatively.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Adopted Crop Productivity Enhancing Technologies in the Study Areas

Adoption of technological innovations in agriculture has attracted the attention of development economists and policy makers since it is commonly believed that introduction of new technology increases productivity (Feder et al, 2008). Majority of the population of less developed countries (LDCs) derives its livelihood from agricultural production and new technologies offer opportunity to increase production of crops and income sustainably. During the survey, information on adopted crop productivity enhancing technologies in the study areas were collected from selected households or sample respondents, from woreda agricultural offices and through onsite inspection (field observation). Moreover, secondary data sources were collected from the zonal and woreda agricultural offices. The feed backs received from these sources revealed that there are various adopted crop productivity enhancing technologies in the area understudy. The following are some of the major adopted technologies in the study area.

Improved Seeds/selected seeds/

This is central to any production system. The best quality seed of the best available cultivars suitable for the agricultural zone under consideration is the nucleus of a successful and productive system. A viable and aggressively functional seed industry is the engine that drives the transformation from traditional agriculture to technology based modern agriculture. All other inputs and improved production practices rely on good seed for their effectiveness. Wherever possible and applicable, hybrid seeds provide the proper incentive and avenue for building a thriving national seed industry which in turn drives the engine of improved and accelerated crop production.

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The proper production and distribution of good quality seed is a catalyst and stimulus for a well functioning /productive national research and extension system. The introduction of hybrid seeds into the production system has triggered the emergence and establishment of good and successful seed industries and eventually increased crop production. Most of the study woredas have adopted this technology on various crops such as maize, wheat, and others. For instance; data obtained from key informants of each woreda clearly showed that they have adopted selected seed on maize (BH661, shone, and Limu). From this three, Limu is the best in providing high yield than other selected seeds on maize. Majority of the respondents replied that using selected seed provide high crop yield production and most of these selected seeds were adopted from Jima and Bako research centers.

Figure 2: Photos of selected seeds (Shone and Limu)

Source: field survey, 2016

Modern Fertilizer Usage (Urea and DAP)

The proper use of mineral fertilizers not only enhances crop yield but can play a significant role in reducing soil nutrient depletion. Data obtained from key informants of different woredas revealed that farmers were encouraged to use as much animal manure as possible in all farming systems but this use can often be as supplemented to

Shone maize Limu maize

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mineral fertilizers. Since the mid 1990s, the importation and use of mineral fertilizers (N and P) in Ethiopia has shown progressively increasing trend which should be encouraged to continue.

The result of the survey also depicted that farmers of the woreda have adopted the use of modern fertilizer such as DAP and Urea on their farm lands to increase their production of different crops. Information obtained from key informants showed that the use of modern fertilizer on farm land increases fertility of the soil which in turn increases their production and productivity. Specially, they are using fertilizers on crops such as maize, wheat, teff and others.

Figure 3: Farmers taking modern fertilizer (left) and application of modern fertilizer (UREA and DAP) in there Maize crop (right)


Water harvesting technologies /Motorized Pump irrigation/

Improving water conservation, harvesting and water delivery systems are central to solving the food production problems of Ethiopia. The result of survey also clearly depicted that most of selected woredas are using motorized water pump irrigation system although the degree of usage vary from one woreda to another woredas. Data from key informants also clearly showed that using motorized water pump irrigation system increases crop production and productivity of the farmers in the study areas.

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Figure 4: water harvesting technologies used by farmers in the raea


Vetiver grass technology

Proper and science based land management is a prerequisite for increasing production and productivity at the household level. Soil and water conservation and management at the farm level contributes directly to natural resource management at the catchments and watershed levels. Farmers of these woredas are practiced vetiver grass strip on their farm plot to protect soil erosion which in turn increases crop production and productivity as information obtained from the key informants and sample respondents of each woredas.

Figure 5: Vetivar grass technology


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Pesticides: are substances that are meant for reducing and

destroying pests. The most common use of pesticides is as a plant protection product (also known as crop protection products) which in general protects plants from damaging influences. It is chemical crop protection that helps farmers to control insects, weeds and fungi and other potentially harmful pests. Data obtained from key informants showed that pesticides save farmers money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests. They also mentioned that this chemical have so many benefits for farmers in increasing their crop production and productivity.

Herbicides: are substances that are used to kill weeds in crop production. The field survey data obtained from key informants and sample respondents showed that farmers used this substance such as two-four D (2-4D) to kill weeds which in turn enable them to increase their crop productivity.

Walking Tractors: It is a farm vehicle which is used to till the farm lands. It is an engine or vehicle pulling wagons or plough by one person that till farm lands. This machine can till farm land in one day about 1.5hectors as information obtained from key informants clearly showed. However, only some woredas use this machine due to the fact that it is costly. According to the data obtained from the field survey, farmers implement this machine equipment to increase agricultural production.

3.2. Major factors that affect adoption of crop productivity enhancing technologies

Agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in Illu Ababora zone are determined by different limiting factors. Some of the dominant factors that limit the adoption and continued use of the technology for productivity enhancement and reduction of scarcity of food are broadly: households’ specific factors (age of the head households , gender of head households, education level of the households , income level of the households, access to information (in media, farmers training centres etc), land holding size and land tenure) technology related (technology characteristics, availability of technologies, high cost of technologies) institutional/government related factors (credit service, contact with extension and other stockholders, linkage between agricultural research institutes and farmers or local institutions)

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The result of multiple linear regression model shows that income level of the households and cost of available technologies were found to be statistically significant in determining adoption of agricultural productivity enhancing technologies at p<0.001. Income level showed significant relationship with adoption of the new agricultural technology in the area. Almost the entire farmers (89%) of the households were facing problems of adopting the agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in relation with income. Since new technologies incur costs, availability of capital is the first thing in using and adopting the technology. Hence adoption of the new technology increased with increase in levels of farm and off-farm income. This implies that, an increase of a farmers income would probably raise the level of adoption of the new agricultural technology by improving the ability of the farmer to access technologies.

Table 1.determinant factors of Agricultural productivity enhancing Technologies adoption, result of multiple linear regression model

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized

Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error

Beta

(Constant) -9.991 7.052 -1.417 .158 Age .030 .054 .028 .545 .586 Household size .375 .427 .051 .877 .382 Sex 1.768 2.068 .045 .855 .067*** Educational level .510 1.421 .018 .359 .049** Farm size 6.722 2.138 .213 3.144 .002** Total income .645 .110 .461 5.859 .000* Credit access .027 1.363 .201 .020 .04** Total livestock .000 .000 .089 1.307 .193 Linkage with agricultural research institute

1.744 .998 .103 1.747 .038**

Cost of inputs 2.573 1.608 .094 1.600 .000* Extension service -2.057 1.717 -.067 -1.198 .057*** Access to information .000 .000 .046 .640 .523 Training service .588 1.924 .016 .306 .760

Dependent Variable: Technology adoption Number of obs = 210 R-squared = 0.7606 Adj R-squared = 0.7464 F( 13, 197) = 21.37 Prob> F = 0.000

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Asterisks*, **and*** significant at 99, 95 and 90 % confidence level

respectively.


The result also revealed that farm size, educational level, access to credit and linkage with agricultural research institutes were statistically significant at p<0.05. Many studies have reported a positive relation between farm size and adoption of agricultural technology (Mignouna et al, 2011). The result in the area corresponds with his finding that farmers who adopt the technology better are those having larger farm size.

Small size land holders are hesitating to use new technologies especially different soil and water conservation technologies as they perceive that these technologies take some portion of their small plot of land. The study result shows as the level of education increases, the level of adoption of the technology also increases. It is believed that access to credit promotes the adoption of risky technologies through relaxation of the liquidity constraint as well as through the boosting of household’s-risk bearing ability. This is because with an option of borrowing, a household can do away with risk reducing but inefficient income diversification strategies and concentrate on more risky but efficient investments (Simtowe & Zeller, 2006). Agricultural research institutes are basic in Ethiopia in distributing the better new agricultural technologies to farmers in the country. The agricultural research institutes are important in investigating, demonstrating and evaluating different agricultural technologies from different perspectives in the context of the country and distributing to the farmers the better new technology. However, the case in the study area is not as such developed. The interview result indicates that there is poor linkage between agricultural research institutes, local agricultural experts (including agricultural extensions) and farmers in the area.

4.4. The Management Practices of the Use of Technologies

The adoption and use of new agricultural productivity improvement technologies needs accurate and continuous management. The management of the technology starts from the introduction of the new technology to the stakeholders (farmers, extension workers, experts etc) up to continuous evaluation of the use and impacts and level of adoption of the technology by the end users. The actual mobilization

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and sensitization of the community members in the area, was described briefly by the interviewed agricultural extension officers who took part in the management practices in the wordas’. They mentioned that the community members were called for a local meeting at the local farmers training centre and some other selected areas two to three times per month.

According to the interview result of woreda agricultural experts, regarding to the issue of how the community was mobilized, claimed that they were not responsible on how it was carried out or handled and they were resistant to accept new technologies. For this purpose the government of Ethiopia assigned at least one agricultural extension worker and/or developmental agent in each kebele. This agricultural extension worker and/or developmental agent have the responsibility to assist and demonstrate the use of the technologies at house to house level. This was the only means for farmers to get knowledge and understanding and even how to use the agricultural productivity enhancing technologies. In the area the result indicates that it is in a good start but still the management practices, demonstration and continuous follow up is still in a lower stage. The result also indicates that the agricultural extension workers are not using their maximum potential and time to assist the farmers in the area.

4. Conclusion

The feed backs received from these sources revealed that there are various adopted crop productivity enhancing technologies in the area understudy. The following are some of the major adopted technologies in the study area: improved seeds/selected seeds/, modern fertilizer usage (Urea and DAP), water harvesting technologies/motorized pump irrigation/, vetiver grass technology, pesticides, herbicides, walking tractors. However, the crop agricultural productivity enhancing technologies in Illu Ababora zone are determined by different limiting factors. Some of the dominant factors that limit the adoption and continued use of the technology for productivity enhancement and reduction of scarcity of food are broadly: households’ specific factors (age of the head households , gender of head households, education level of the households , income level of the households, access to information (in media, farmers training centres etc), land holding size and land tenure) technology related (technology characteristics, availability of technologies, high cost of technologies)

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institutional/government related factors (credit service, contact with extension and other stockholders, linkage between agricultural research institutes and farmers or local institutions). The adoption and use of new agricultural productivity improvement technologies needs accurate and continuous management. The management of the technology starts from the introduction of the new technology to the stockholders (farmers, extension workers, experts etc) up to continuous evaluation of the use and impacts and level of adoption of the technology by the end users.

5. Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

Most of the farmers still need more understanding about the importance and how to use the technology. Therefore, creating awareness is vital through different meetings, conferences and training at the training centres.

The income level of farmers is the basic determinant thing to use the technology therefore the government should give saving and credit services for farmers and the requirements should be modified and easily accessible by the community.

Developmental agents and local agricultural experts should cooperate and give continuous support and evaluation for farmers for better adoption and productivity as they said there is loose relationship between extension workers and farmers.

The agricultural research institutions should also be close to farmers and farmers training centers in evaluating the effectiveness of the technology (for the proper management of the adopted technologies) to deliver the best technology for the area etc.

Mettu University should cooperatively work with woredas and zonal agricultural offices for better adoption, appropriate use and management of the technologies. In addition the university should work on selecting appropriate technologies for the area.

References

Alene, A; Poonyth, D. and Hasan, R.M., 2000.Determinants of adoption and intensity of improved maize varieties in central high lands of Ethiopia.A Tobit analysis.Agricore.

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Belay, K. (2003). Agricultural extension in Ethiopia: the case of

participatory demonstration and training extension system. Journal of Social Development in Africa, 18, 49-83.

Best, J. (2003).Research in Education, 9th Edition. New Delhi: Prentice- Hal of India

FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), 2008.Water and Food Security. The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Monitoring Progress towards the World Food Summit and Millennium Development Goals, Italy.

Feder, L., R.E., Just and O., Zilberman, 2008.Adoption of Agricultural Innovation in Developing Countries:” A Survey” Economic Development and Cultural Change.

Mignouna, B., Manyong, M., Rusike, J., Mutabazi, S., & Senkondo, M. (2011). Determinants of Adopting Imazapyr-Resistant Maize Technology and its Impact on Household Income in Western Kenya: AgBioforum, 14(3), 158-163.

Simtowe, F. & Zeller, M. (2006). The Impact of Access to Credit on the Adoption of hybrid maize in Malawi: An Empirical test of an Agricultural Household Model under credit market failure. MPRA Paper No. 45

Gebresenbet Sebgaze, 2008. Determinants of Adoption and Intensity of Use of Improved Soil and Water Conservation Practices in Sodo District, Gurage zone Southern Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis presented to school of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University, Ethiopia

Genanew Bekele and Alemu Mekonnen .2010. Investments in Land Conservation in the Ethiopian Highlands.A household plot-level Analysis of the Roles of poverty, Tenure Security and Market Incentives.Environment for Development Discussion Paper.

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology, Method and Techniques, New Age International Private Ltd. Publisher, New Delhi

Legese, G., A. S. Langyintuo, W. Mwangi, M. Jaleta, and R. La Rovere (2009). Household Resource Endowment and Determinants of Adoption of Drought Tolerant Maize Varieties: A Double-hurdle Approach”. Contributed Paper prepared for presentation at the

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Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Beijing, China.

Wagayehu, Lars D., 2003. Soil and Water Conservation Decision Behavior of Subsistence farmers in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia: a Case Study of the HundeLafto Area. Ecological economics,

Zelalem Bekele, 2011. Factors influencing work motivation of development agents, Assosa Zone, BenishangulGumuz Regional State, Ethiopia. An MSc. Thesis Presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University.

Acknowledgements

Above all to Almighty God is the glory for giving us all the patience and strength to complete our study against all odds. Secondly, we wish to thank Mettu University for providing us financial requirement and encouragement to conduct and accomplish our study. Thirdly, thanks are owed to all individuals who contributed for this research namely enumerators, all key informants, household heads and participants of focus group discussions for their kindly support in providing us with necessary information for our study and for all kinds of assistance provided during data collection.

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DISMANTLE THE EMPOWERMENT OF PEOPLE WITH

DISABILITIES IN THE FONDATION SENANG HATI GIANYAR, BALI, INDONESIA

Anak Agung Nyoman Sri Wahyuni PhD Candidate

Udayana University Denpasar,Bali Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This study describes the empowerment conducted by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) supported by governments and other communities in the era of globalization. The government should pay attention to every citizen including the disabled to obtain justice. It departs from the Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution and the Law of the Republic of Indonesia no. 8, Year 2016 on persons with disabilities.

The purpose of the research is to know and understand the form of empowerment, empowerment constraints, and the implications of

barriers to the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali. This research uses qualitative method. In this research there are two data source, that is primary data source and secondary data source. Data collection techniques used include observation techniques, in-depth interview techniques, and document studies. Theories used are hegemonic theory, deconstruction theory, and social practice theory.

The results of the research, (1) the form of empowerment of disabled people conducted by SenangHatiFoundation consist of four programs, namely social program, education program, health program, and economic program; (2) barriers to the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation, namely internal barriers and external barriers; (3) barriers to the empowerment of disabled people in

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SenangHatiFoundation, implicate the foundation, the foundation board, the foundation members, the government, the donors, and the community. The findings of this research is the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali has not been able to empower all members of the foundation. That is, the provision of tools to achieve 64% and other programs has not reached 50%. There

are several disability empowerment agencies in Senang Hati Foundationthat have different interests.

Keywords: globalization, deconstruction, empowerment, foundations,

and people with disabilities

PRELIMINARY

The influence of globalization that has swept the world since the end of the 20th century has given birth to a new ideology of the world with features like a world without boundaries, space and time. The cultivation of cultural values, such as discipline, hard work, frugality, responsibility, and so forth is a fundamental part of the process of empowering people living in the current era of globalization.

The role of empowerment agencies both NGOs and the government becomes very large to support successful empowerment of people with disabilities. One of the NGOs who do the empowerment in Bali is SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali which empowers people with disabilities. The establishment of SenangHatiFoundation is strongly influenced by the influence of globalization, seen from the structure of SenangHati Foundation which one of the coach is Vern Cork Laurence from the Netherlands and the location of the foundation

is given by Mr. Glen Adams from America. Some donors and lecturers come from other countries such as the Dutch organization Liliane Fonds.

Empowerment strategies put the community's active participation into effectiveness, efficiency and independence attitudes.

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Every citizen including disabled persons in SenangHatiFoundationis entitled to get justice departing from Pancasila as the source of all sources of law in Indonesia and the 1945 Constitution, and Law no. 4, Year 1997 concerning the disabled who later replaced with the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 8, Year 2016 on persons with disabilities.

In its development efforts to empower people with disabilities in

SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali has not produced an improvement process in various ways. As has not achieved improvement in condition, degree and quality of life of people with disabilities in various strategic sectors such as education, employment, economy, health and social.

The "SenangHati" Foundation was established on May 5, 2003 by I WayanWidantra, Vern Cork Laurence, Ni Putu Suriati, I GustiKomangDarmadi, and Petrus Gunadi. SenangHatiFoundationis located in Banjar Kawan Tengah, Tampaksiring District, Gianyar Regency, Bali Province which is engaged in integrated social services for people with disabilities in Bali. SenangHatiFoundation provide services based on SenangHati Foundation's Articles of Association and Bylaws, as well as related regulations such as RI's Law no. 32, 2004 on regional government, Law RI No.6, 1974 on basic social welfare provisions, Decree of the Minister of Social Affairs No.40 / HUK / KEP / X80 on social organization, Joint Decree of the Minister of Home

Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia, Minister of Social Affairs. 78, 1993 on the development of Orsos / LSM / HUK / 1993 and Law no. 4, 1997 concerning the disabled, which was subsequently replaced by the Law of the Republic of Indonesia no. 8, Year 2016 on persons with disabilities.

On February 14, 2005 SenangHatiFoundationestablished an orphanage named PantiGunaSenangHati to conduct dormitory program. The number of children in the first hostel is only 34 people. Since 2008 the number of members has reached 240 people with 45

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people who joint in the orphanage, and the rest live in their homes. With the development of SenangHatiFoundation through PantiGunaSenangHati until 2014 has been able to develop 276 people with disabilities, 30 people living in Panti and 246 who live outside Panti. SenangHatiFoundationalso get achievements in sports, arts and more.

The success of SenangHatiFoundationhas been shaken by the end of 2013 due to some members' lack of trust in the management and management and lack of transparent financial management issues. Some members of the foundation also feel exploited by the leaders and administrators of the foundation while performing dance and music performances, three-wheeled tours and restaurants SenangHati and while getting a sports medal. Problems that occurred in SenangHatiFoundationby some people with disabilities were reported to Vern Cork coach, followed up by the supervisor of SenangHatiFoundation I GustiKomangDarmadi, by conducting several meetings to bring in lawyers, bring in public accountants, make the succession of SenangHati Foundation, but Has not been able to solve the problems experienced by SenangHatiFoundation. This can also be seen from the debate that occurred in Facebook. On January 1 - June 30, 2014, 21 members of SenangHatiFoundation left the foundation

and foundation location also moved to Jalan Raya Siangan, Gianyar, Bali. The implications of the above problems greatly affect the survival of foundations, administrators, people with disabilities, government, and donors who usually cooperate with FoundationSenangHatiGianyar, Bali.

RESEARCH METHODS

This research uses qualitative method. In operation followed by social science research procedures, namely data collection is done by interview, observation, and literature study. Collected data is analyzed,

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verified (display data), and summarized in narratives, tables, photos, and charts in the perspective of cultural studies. Unpacking activity in this context uses Derrida's deconstruction concept. Furthermore, in the analysis of research results used the concept of Gramsci hegemony and Bourdieu social practice theory.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The "SenangHati" Foundation, which is one of the nonprofit social organizations, was established on May 5, 2003.

SenangHatiFoundationprovides services based on SenangHati Foundation's Articles of Association and Bylaws. In addition, also related regulations, such as Law No. RI. 32, 2004 concerning local government, RI's Law no. 6, 1974 on the basic provisions of social welfare, Decree of the Minister of Social Affairs No.40 / HUK / KEP / X80 on social organization, Joint Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs and Minister of Social Affairs No. RI. 78, Year 1993 on the development of Orsos / LSM / HUK / 1993.

On February 14, 2005 to conduct a dormitory program for its members, SenangHatiFoundationestablished a home named PantiGunaSenangHati. The number of children raised in the dormitory was only 34 people. Since 2008 the number of members has reached 240 people with 45 people who are resident in the orphanage, while the rest live in their homes. With the development of SenangHatiFoundationthrough PantiGunaSenangHati until 2014 has

been able to develop 276 people with disabilities, 30 people living in the orphanage and 246 who live outside the orphanage. SenangHatiFoundation also get achievements in sports, arts, and others.

The success of SenangHatiFoundationis experiencing shocks by the end of 2013. This arises due to some members' lack of trust in the management and management and lack of transparent financial

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management issues. This can also be seen from the debate that occurred in Facebook.

This research is focused on three problems formulated in the form of questions. First, how is the form of empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali? Secondly, what are the obstacles faced in empowering people with disabilities in

SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali? Thirdly, what are the implications of barriers to empowering people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali?

This study aims to dismantle the empowerment carried out by Non-Governmental Organizations (Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), by tracking the forms, barriers, and implications of empowerment. Community empowerment is a process whereby people, especially those who lack access to development resources, are encouraged to increase their self-reliance in the development of livelihoods of people with disabilities. Community empowerment is also an ongoing cycle process, a participatory process in which community members work together in formal and informal groups to share knowledge and experience and strive towards shared goals. So community empowerment is more a process (Madekhan Ali, 2007: 86). According to Sumaryadi (2005: 11) community empowerment is "the

effort to prepare the community in line with the efforts to strengthen community institutions so that they can realize progress, independence and prosperity in a sustainable social justice".

Empowerment is an effort to provide opportunities for a person to increase the potential and ability possessed, and independently determine the desired future (Prijono, 1996: 117). Empowerment can be interpreted as a process to empower or process of empowerment (power / ability) to party which have not powerless (Sulistiyani, 2004: 77). Empowerment is an effort to raise awareness of the potential

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possessed and strive to develop it so that people can achieve independence.

Sunyoto Usman (2003: 40-47) there are several strategies that can be considered to be selected and then applied in community empowerment, which is to create climate, strengthen and protect. Sumodiningrat (2000) explains that empowerment is not forever, but

until the target community is able to independently and then released for self-sufficiency, although it remains to be monitored in order not to fall again. Based on the opinion Sumodiningrat means empowerment through a period of learning process, to achieve independent status.

Forms of Empowerment

The first problem studied in this dissertation research is a form of empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali. The form of empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationincludes four programs, namely social programs, education programs, health programs, and economic programs. The social program is done by dormitory program for several foundation members, giving the tools according to the needs of the disabled, and the delivery of basic foods to the foundation members. Educational programs are conducted by providing education ranging from learning to read and write, package A, package B, package C. In addition, also provides skills training in accordance with the potential of the disabled.

Health programs are realized by practicing seated physiotherapy, standing, and pathways to improve the function of organs tailored to the type of defect they have. In addition to the physiotherapy SenangHatiFoundationalso performs quatherapy / water therapy, aquatherapy dolphins, and sports. Economic programs are conducted by providing skills and assisting the marketing of the work of persons with disabilities who are not able to work in the formal sector and the

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establishment of productive economic enterprise systems (UEP). The form of empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali is tailored to the foundation program, the main duty, and the foundation's function is supported by a partnership network conducted by SenangHatiFoundation.

Barriers to Empowerment

The second problem is the obstacles to the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali.

Community empowerment in various fields cannot be separated from the various obstacles that accompany it. The same thing also happened in the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation Gianyar, Bali. The obstacles faced in the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation come from within the foundation and from outside the foundation. According to Adi (2008), empowerment in various fields can be integrated. A common obstacle is the difficulty of synergizing the various empowerments in an integrated program. Adi's opinion about empowerment in an integrated program is contrary to what the Ife and the Tesoriero put forward.

In connection with integrated community development, Ife and Tesoriero (2008: 410) suggest the following. The development of a one dimensional society will inevitably fail because it is based on linear thinking instead of taking a holistic approach based on an ecological

perspective. By focusing on one dimension, development will ignore the richness and complexity of human life and community experience.

Factors that can hamper the success of the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali cover two aspects, namely internal factors or sourced from within the organization itself and external factors or sourced from outside the organization. Internal factors that can hinder the empowerment of

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people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundationGianyar, Bali can come from individuals / members of the foundation and board of SenangHatiFoundation. Conversely, external barriers can come from governments, communities, and donors.

Empowerment Implications

Obstacles to empower people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation have implications for various parties. The barriers of empowerment experienced by SenangHatiFoundation are a

social problem. According to Soekanto (2003), social problem is a mismatch between elements of culture or society that endanger the lives of social groups. According to Weinberg (1995: 4), social problems are situations that are stated as contrary to significant values. That is, an action is needed to change the situation. So the social problem is a condition that is not expected and considered to be detrimental to social life. In addition, it is also against the established social standards.

Obstacles to empower people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation have implications for foundations, foundation boards, foundation members, government, donors, and the community. Implications of the barriers to the empowerment of people with disabilities are the liquidation of the foundation. That is, SenangHatiFoundation becomes vacuum and empowerment programs are also hampered. The name of SenangHatiFoundation was also changed to Bhakti SenangHatiFoundation. In addition, the location of

the foundation at JalanSasibrata, Central Banjar, Tampaksiring Village, Tampaksiring District, Gianyar Regency, Bali Province was moved to JalanMundeh, Banjar Teruna, Siangan Village, Gianyar Regency, Bali Province. Several founders of SenangHatiFoundation were replaced and the board of foundations also changed. It caused 21 members out of SenangHatiFoundation.

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CONCLUSION

The form of empowerment of disabled people conducted by SenangHatiFoundation consists of four programs, namely social program, education program, health program, and Economic program. Obstacles for the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation, namely obstacles from within the foundation / internal and obstacles that come from outside the foundation / external. The implications of the barriers to the empowerment of people with

disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation are great for foundations, foundations, foundations, government, donors and society

SenangHatiFoundation should continue to update the data of its members and the addresses of the foundation members to maximize empowerment. Always be guided by the SenangHati Foundation (AD) and Household Bylaws (ART). Maintaining good communication, coordination, transparency and accountability.

The findings of this research is the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation Gianyar, Bali has not been able to empower all members of the foundation. This means that the provision of tools only 64% achievement, while other programs have not reached 50%. In addition there are several agencies in the empowerment of people with disabilities in SenangHatiFoundation have different interests.

Bibliography

Adi, IsbandiRukminto. 2008. Community Development Community Intervention as an Effort for Community Empowerment. Jakarta: PT Raja GrafindoPersada.

Ali, Madekhan. 2007. Village Change Step Children. Malang: Averroes Press.

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Ife, J. And Tesoriero, F. 2008. Community Development Alternatives in

the Era of Globalization: Community Development. Yogyakarta: Student Literature.

Prijono, Onny S. 1996. Empowerment: Concepts, Policies, and Implementation. Jakarta: CSIS.

Soekanto, Soerjono. 2003, Sociology of an Introduction. Jakarta: PT Raja GrafindoPersada.

Sumodiningrat, G. 2000. Building People's Economy. Yogyakarta: Student Literature.

Sumaryadi, I Nyoman. 2005. Effectiveness of the Implementation of Regional Autonomy Policy. Jakarta: Citra Utama

Sulistiyani. 2004. Partnership and Empowerment Models, Yogyakarta: Gava Media.

Usman, Sunyoto 2003. Community Development and Empowerment. Yogyakarta: Student Literature.

Weinberg and Gould. 1995. Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology Champaign Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Sources of Laws and Regulations

Decree of the Minister of Social Affairs No. RI. 40 / HUK / KEP / X80 on Social Organization.

Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs and Minister of Social Affairs No. RI. 78, Year 1993 on Development of Orsos / LSM / HUK / 1993.

Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution

RI Law no. 32, Year 2004 on Regional Government.

RI Law no. 6, Year 1974 on Basic Provisions of Social Welfare.

RI Law no. 4, Year 1997 concerning Persons with Disabilities.

RI Law no. 8, 1916 on Persons with Disabilities.

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THE HIKERS FREEDOM: ‘MAN IS CONDEMNED TO BE FREE’ AN EXPOSITION OF SARTRE’S NOTION OF

‘FREEDOM’

Anasuya Agarwala Independent

Center for Philosophy Jawaharlal Nehru University

New Delhi Introduction

The seduction of philosophy, at least in ‘popular imagination’, lies in its association with existentialism – the driver here being the question of

human existence. Sartre’s Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1943) examines the nature of this very particular existence – the being of man.

The essential belief determining the work as a whole is the identification of man’s ontology with freedom – the fact of our being the kind of beings we are condemns us to be ultimately free. We are just structured that way. And the only thing man is not free to do is to be not free.

Sartre elucidates this radical freedom with the famous illustration of the fatigued hiker stopping to rest. In this paper, I want to approach the same illustration by highlighting two notions to bring out the kind of ‘freedom’ implied in the hikers action of stopping: Sartre’s notion of ‘original project’ and his notion of ‘bad faith’. While the first accounts for the hiker’s recognition of his ultimate freedom and its allied cause of anxiety; the second amounts to the hiker compromising this ultimate freedom in a bid to escape anxiety. I want to attempt to bring out the relation these two underlying conditions of human existence have to each other and how they lead to the conclusion of the absurdity of human existence.

The Hiker

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Let me begin by setting out the scenario of the hiker.

“I start out on a hike with friends. At the end of several hours of walking my fatigue increases and finally becomes very painful. At first I resist and then suddenly I let myself go, I give up, I throw my knapsack down on the side of the road and let myself fall down beside it. Someone will reproach me for my act and will mean thereby that I was free.... I shall defend myself by saying that I was too tired. Who is right?”1

In addition Sartre notes that “My companions are in good health—like me; they have had practically the same training as I so...I usually conclude ...that they are for all practical purposes ‘as fatigued as I am’”2. Even though they’re as tired as our hiker, they don’t give in to their fatigue but continue to walk to the campsite.

How can we understand such a situation? Does fatigue cause or determine our hiker to stop or is stopping something he freely chose to do?

The Hiker acted in light of his freely chosen ‘Original Project’

Sartre denies that causality operates on human behaviour. Though it is the case that physical causes operate on my body—lack of food will cause me to eventually die—nothing ‘causes’ me to act in this way or

that. Thus our hiker’s claim that his tiredness caused him to stop is false. This puts him in a position of bad faith.3 But then what made him

1 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 584 2 Ibid. P. 586 3 Sartre tells us that bad faith can be the result of two denials – the denial of our freedom or the capacity to transcend and the denial of our facticity. The first is illustrated through the famous example of the waiter (where he is seen reducing himself to nothing but a waiter) and the hiker. By blaming his tiredness, he refuses his original freedom to choose himself. The second is illustrated with the description of the girl and the fact of her hand being held by the gentleman. The ‘bad faith’ here is shown to be the ambiguity of her position as a lover in not owning or denying it, shirking responsibility.

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stop? This leads us to an examination of what, with regard to human behaviour, the notion of cause amounts to.

According to Sartre human actions need to be understood in terms of two sets of features. The objective physical situation—burning sun, steep slopes etc., and the inner subjective facts—fatigue, pain etc. His claim is that for a full explanation, both need to be invoked. However, in most cases, human actions are sufficiently explained with recourse to just one. For example, suppose I’m sitting with a friend watching T.V. Suddenly she gets up and walks to the fridge. A full explanation constitutes a reference to both, the objective fact of there being a drink

in the fridge and a reference to the inner subjective state of thirst. Thus all human actions have two ‘causes’. Levy helpfully asks us to refer to the objective ‘cause’ as cause and the inner subjective one as ‘motive’. In the end a combination of the two result in action.4

In order to affect action, the for-itself must ‘nihilate’ the world (the situation). The basic structure of the being-for-itself – us – is nothingness. Though Sartre does not admit an ‘essence’ for beings like us, he does describe a fixed and universal human condition accepting that there are some general or original structures in each for-itself. Nothingness is one of them. We have the ability to transcend our given situation. Thus, the ability of the for-itself to engage in any action depends upon its ability to nihilate the given by separating (distance,

lack,) itself from the situation. The for-itself is able to do this for it is only the for-itself that secretes the nothingness from which is born any kind of non-being or negation.5 It is the only being from which nothingness comes into the world. In order for my friend to act, she must nihilate her thirst: she must be able to go beyond it, to separate

4 This illustration is from Neil Levy, Sartre, p . 90 5 The world is a being-in-itself. Full affirmation and positivity, it is inert. However we do encounter non-being and negations in the world. It must come from something that admits of change. This source is nothingness residing in man.

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herself from it and transcend it. It must not be something she simply suffers but something she believes she can change. Hence, the situation gets negated first in thought and then in practice. Through reflection, she must be able to conceive of a different state of affairs. This would issue in her finding her suffering intolerable and transcend the given situation towards a future state of affairs. In the light of this possibility, an intention, causes become effective to motivate action.6

Returning to our hiker who said his stopping was prompted by him being too tired, the sun too hot, the path too steep. His tiredness, one might say, is motive and the steepness of the path and the weather the

cause. But Sartre insists that ‘states of the world’ do not cause human actions. The ensemble of cause and motive must first be nihilated, the hiker must project himself towards another possible state of affairs in order to affect his stoppage: “No factual state whatever it may be...is capable by itself of motivating any act whatsoever. For an act is a projection of the for-itself toward what is not, and what it is can in no way by itself determine what is not.”7

So the factual state of fatigue, slope and weather could not cause him to stop. Remember, his companions are just as fatigued as he is and the objective situation for them all is the same but he stops and they don’t. Thus, whatever force the cause and motive have is ultimately due to him. If the sun was too hot or the fatigue too unbearable for him and not to his companions, it is because he has in some way chosen himself as not being able to tolerate it: “the for-itself must confer on it its value

as cause and motive”8

How and why does it happen that this force gets conferred on the causes and motives of an action?

6 Levy, Sartre, p . 90 7 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 435. 8 Ibid. p. 437

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According to Sartre, “to understand under what conditions I can suffer a fatigue as unbearable, it will not help to refer to so-called factual givens, which are revealed as being only a choice; it is necessary to attempt to examine this choice itself and to see whether it is not explained within the perspective of a larger choice in which it would be integrated as a secondary structure.”9

The last statement, with its appeal to ‘the perspective of a larger choice’ brings us to Sartre’s postulation of an initial choice or ‘original project’, which confers on all subsequent causes and motives their value and force. Sartre admits that there are some aspects of our being that

are not free. One such factor is facticity – the situations in which we find ourselves. A short person is not free to become tall, a person with one leg is not free to have two, we’re a certain age, we live in a certain historical age.10 In spite of these limits to our freedom, we are, however, free to choose our ‘original project’ and the meanings we confer to the situations we find ourselves in. The person with one leg is not free to get two, but she is free to choose, and is responsible for choosing, the meaning of her condition as related to her projects in life. “I choose the way in which I constitute my disability (as ‘unbearable’, ‘humiliating’, ‘to be hidden’, …’an object of pride’…”11 All of our present free choices become choices of the past and transform into facticity. This will explain how the hiker conferred the force or value of intolerance on his fatigue and situation that motivated him to stop. His stopping and

9 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 586. As a response to the question of how it happens that the hiker and his companions suffer their fatigue differently, one may say that he is a ‘sissy’ while the others are not. Sartre considers such an explanation to be insufficient. Being a sissy is not a ‘factual given’ but a name given to the way in which the hiker suffers his fatigue. And this, it turns out, is also a choice. 10Landau, ‘Foundationless Freedom and Meaninglessness of Life in Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness”, p. 3. Another factor that limits our freedom is what Sartre calls our being-for-others, the way other people’s views and interpretations affects our view of ourselves and our identities. 11Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 328

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finding fatigue etc. to be intolerable is only an articulation of his original choice. But what then grounds the original choice? The answer and the problem is nothingness.

Since the for-itself is the being by which nothingness comes to the world, such a capacity would demand that the being must itself be its own nothingness: that “by which lack appears in the world must be its own nothingness”12 The evidence that the for-itself is a lack lies in the experience of desire.13 It wants to be – to be a waiter or writer or ..., ‘to

have its being suffused with its emotions—it wants to coincide with itself. If the for-itself is capable of desiring because it is lacking, desiring something only in order to complete itself, what the for-itself lacks is itself. It misses from itself, it searches and desires for itself, the for-itself as a totality; the for-itself completed. But it can never be completed, so long as it remains a for-itself. It is always separated from itself by nothingness. “A for-itself is defined by the fact that it exists at a distance from itself; it is this division within itself which allows it to be a for-itself.”14 If the for-itself were to complete itself, it would cease to be a for-itself and become a in-itself (the existence of a thing).

Therefore, it always transcends everything it would be.15

Sartre distinguishes two kinds of freedom: the freedom ‘to determine oneself to wish’, which is limitless, and the freedom ‘to obtain what one has wished’, which is limited.16 These free and restricted modes of being

12 Levy, Sartre, p. 87 13 A being that was simply what it was would be complete in itself and require nothing to complete itself. Only a being that is not in-itself is capable of desire for desire by its very definition is an appeal to something else that it is felt would complete the self. Thus the desire of the for-itself testifies to its lack. 14 Ibid., p. 94 15Because it continually transcends, Sartre argues that the for-itself experiences itself “as a failure in the presence of the being which it had failed to be.” Levy, Sartre, p. 93 16Landau, ‘Foundationless Freedom and Meaninglessness of Life in Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness”’, pp. 3

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interact, and Sartre says “freedom can exist only as restricted since freedom is choice. Every choice … supposes elimination and selection; every choice is a choice of finitude. Thus freedom can be truly free by constituting facticity as its own restriction.”17

But as Sartre presents it, our freedom to choose the meaning of our condition – facticity – is completely undetermined. As such, freedom cannot rely on anything when making choices, and therefore cannot justify them. We might try to justify our choices based on our values,

but the values themselves are chosen. Freedom then underpins our values as well. Even our choice, whether or not to invoke reasons for the choices we make is based on the primordial first choice. Since our freedom is determined by nothing, it is the foundation of our world without having a foundation itself. The foundation – freedom – is foundationless.18 Ultimately, our choices, even the original project, have no foundations. It is because of this that Sartre takes it to be absurd: “Such a choice made without base of support and dictating its own causes to itself, can very well appear absurd, and in fact it is absurd.”19 This feeling of absurdity always lurks at the back in our awareness of freedom. The only way it may be resolved is by attaining a state which is in principle unattainable – the ‘in-itself-for-itself’.

According to Sartre, the for-itself in fact seeks to be an in-itself but it wants to be itself as in-itself. The for-itself is the foundation for

nothingness but wants to be the foundation for being as well. It wants to be for-itself, free and capable of choice while yet being in-itself, so that its choices will be secure, justified and will have being as their foundation. But the characteristics of the in-itself and for-itself are

17 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 483-484 18 Landau, ‘Foundationless Freedom and Meaninglessness of Life in Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness”’, p. 3 19 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 615

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mutually exclusive. What the for-itself seeks to be, an ‘in-itself-for-itself’ is, essentially God, according to Sartre. But this is an impossible ambition. Nevertheless, a for-itself is the kind of being who transcends itself towards the in-itself-for-itself. We can only abandon this project when we cease to be the kind of being that is defined by lack. We are all therefore engaged in a project in which we are bound to fail:20 “man loses himself as man in order that God may be born. But the idea of god is contradictory and we lose ourselves in vain. Man is a useless passion.”21

We are each faced with the same problem of being: becoming the in-

itself-for-itself. We each try to solve the problem in our own way in the form of an ‘original choice’ which we try to realize through all our actions. It is this ‘choice of ourselves’ which confers on everything that we encounter its force and value, its meaning for us. It is through this that the world has the significance and the meaning we confer on it. The commonality is that we will all badly fail.

To understand the experience of a person we need to interpret their actions and feelings, progressively peeling away the layers of meaning until we reach their fundamental choice. Our hiker and his companions experience their fatigue differently, each in the light of their own fundamental choice. The companion who presses on is not less fatigued but it is, in part, in order to continue experiencing his fatigue that he keeps walking. For him, this feeling of tiredness is the instrument by means of which he discovers the world (including his

body) that surrounds him. Just as the sunburn on his neck is the means of establishing contact with the sun, his suffering is for him a means of ‘appropriating’ the world.22 The project of appropriating the

20 Levy, Sartre, p. 87 21 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 615 22 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 587

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world is part of the larger project of abandoning oneself to the world, of ‘trustingly reassuming it and loving it’. We might abandon ourselves to the world to recover it, but by abandoning ourselves we assert a continuity between ourselves and the world and make ourselves in-itself. We give ourselves to fatigue in order that the in-itself will exist, but we also make ourselves the foundation of the in-itself.

By doing these levels of interpretation, we attempt to understand the meaning of a person’s conduct and its place within a larger project.23

We continue to delve, interpreting each project as a ‘secondary structure’ within a larger one till we reach ‘the original relation which the for-itself chooses with its facticity and with the world’24 and this original relation is the for-itself’s being-in-the-world in as much as this being is a choice.25 The lesson to be learnt in interpreting any action down to the context of its fundamental choice reveals to one a positional consciousness of an image of themselves and the meaning that they have given the world. That is, “we are fully conscious of the choice which we are...and this consciousness is expressed by the two-fold ‘feeling’ of anguish and of responsibility. Anguish, abandonment and responsibility...constitute the quality of our consciousness in so far as this is pure and simple freedom.”26

Interpreting the behaviour of our hiker in finding his fatigue unbearable, Sartre says he distrusts his body. His attitude with regard

to it is a way of wishing not to have anything to do with it. He wishes to be rid of his fatigue because it incarnates him, reminding him of his contingency. But this rejection needs to be interpreted further until we reach the hikers fundamental project. In yielding to his fatigue, the hiker is manifesting or renewing this fundamental choice. He could

23 Levy, Sartre, p. 96 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 26 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 597

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have done otherwise. It is a possible for him to not stop but that would only come by a radical conversion of his being-in-the-world in terms of the meaning he has given it, by enacting another choice of himself and his ends. When this possibility is revealed, the anguish produced manifests our freedom to our consciousness, and is witness to the perpetual conversion of our initial choice.27

Thus, explaining our actions can bring to our consciousness our initial freedom in choosing who we are and what the world signifies to us. Following one’s actions down to the initial choice and thereby bringing to positional consciousness the possibility of doing otherwise reveals

anguish. What relation does this bare to the notion of bad faith? To be more precise, bad faith is an escape from anguish.28 By bringing this anguish to the forefront does it encourage a lapse into bad faith or can it offer a solution to bad faith by showing us that we’re responsible for ‘making ourselves’?

How far does this recognition of ‘absolute freedom’ extend? Does it come with a recognition that whatever our ‘original project’, the pursuit is in itself in bad faith in so far as the project aimed to complete oneself implies a denial of our essential nothingness, our ability to transcend? Is our only solution to accept the conclusion that human existence is basically absurd in as far as an in-itself-for-itself is wished for but unobtainable?

27 Sartre, Being and Nothingness, p. 598 28 The possibility reveals an ultimate freedom that incorporates extreme responsibility as the freedom is foundationless. This naturally causes anxiety. Bad faith would mean a denial of this freedom and therefore shrugging of enormous responsibility. The hiker blaming his tiredness is in bad faith in shrugging off the responsibility that his original project that manifested as this is also his doing.

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References

Landau, I., ‘Foundationless Freedom and Meaninglessness of Life in Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness”’, Sartre Studies

International, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2012), pp. 1-8.

Levy, N., Sartre, Oneworld Publications, 2002.

Sartre, J.P., Trans. Barnes, H. E., Being and Nothingness: A Phenomenological Essay on Ontology’, Washington Square

Press, 1992.

Bibliography

Cerbone, D., Understanding Phenomenology, Acumen Publishing ltd., (2006)

Hymers, M., “Bad Faith”, Philosophy, Vol. 64, (No.249), July

1989, pp. 397-402

Landau, I., ‘Foundationless Freedom and Meaninglessness of

Life in Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness”’, Sartre Studies International, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2012), pp. 1-8

Levy, N., Sartre, Oneworld Publications, 2002.

Macann, C., Four Phenomenological Philosophers, Routledge, London, 1993

Sartre, J.P., Trans. Barnes, H. E., Being and Nothingness: A Phenomenological Essay on Ontology’, Washington Square Press, 1992.

Solomon, R.C., Existentialism, Oxford University Press, New York, 2005

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SCHOOL LIBRARIES ROLE IN LITERACY ENHANCEMENT

IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ILLU ABABOR ZONE

Andualem Mola Department of Educational

Leadership and Management Institute of Education

Mettu University Mettu, Ethiopia

Yitagessu Regassa Department of Adult Education

and Community Development Institute of Education

Mettu University Mettu, Ethiopia

Wubayew Dagne Dept of Educational Leadership and Management

Institute of Education Mettu University Mettu, Ethiopia

Abstract:

The purpose of the study was to assess the role of school libraries for

literacy enhancement and to suggest possible solution based on the results of the findings. Accordingly, the study was conducted to answer the following questions. What are the roles of libraries in students reading and information literacy?, What is the level of schools communities understanding and use of the school library as a resource both for reading and information literacy?, What are the activities schools performing to develop the awareness on the usage of libraries to the community in the study area?. In this study, the descriptive survey research method was employed. The study was conducted in 13 secondary schools of Illu Aba Bor Zone and total of 403 respondents were involved in the process of data gathering, data were collected through questionnaire and interview. Questionnaire was administered for teachers and students. Whereas, interview was held with principals in order to obtain necessary data for the analysis. The data gathered

were analyzed using frequency of respondents and percentage consequently. The finding of the study revealed that in almost all schools, teachers were serving as librarian and qualified librarian were

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not serving/ recruited. Low number of teachers and students visit school library frequently. There was no internet and TV access which may attract students and teachers to get information. The result shows that library did not provide books, journals etc to promote literacy and reading for general knowledge. The environment of school library was not conducive for independent study. There was a shortage in providing

appropriate support or information to students and school community. The result showed that schools have no linkage with donors or local NGO’s to equip libraries with different facility. Most of the teachers and students in the study area did not use library in their own free time, rather they have been used only during school time. This shows that investing in books and libraries is at the heart of educational reform, literacy enhancement and sustaining literacy skills for life, so as to lead subsequently to development and poverty reduction. By providing equitable access to information for all, libraries encourage critical citizenship in a society. With sufficient investment and support, libraries will have a major positive impact on the achievement of students. The role of library for literacy enhancement is critical in school system to attain educational goal at large and students’ academic achievement specifically. Thus, taking care of knowing libraries role and facilitating library is basic for schools. School leaders

including PTA have to take in to consideration the issue of school library when they use their budget. It is also better to create a link with donors and local NGO’s to solve shortage of materials like TV, Internet, mini media and library equipment like books and journal in the school.

Key words/phrases: Library role, Literacy Enhancement, School

I. INTRODUCTION

Literacy can be seen as the basis for survival in the 21st century. Different types of literacy are distinguished, such as economic literacy, mathematical literacy, information literacy, and language literacy and

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even emotional literacy. Language literacy refers to the skill of reading, writing, speaking and listening as well as thinking and reasoning (RSA. Department of Education 2002:20-21). This study is limited to the reading and information aspect of literacy. Research shows a correlation between poverty and literacy levels, learners from high poverty area and under resource schools tend to have lower

reading levels and perform poorly at school (Kinengyere, A. A. 2006).

All over the world libraries are dedicated to provide free and equitable access to information for all, be it in written, electronic or audio visual form. Libraries play a key role in creating literate environments and promoting literacy by offering adult and family literacy classes. Embrace the social responsibility to offer service that bridge social, political, and economic gaps, and traditionally make a special effort to extend their services to marginalized people. Libraries assist in finding using and interpreting appropriate information that opens opportunities for lifelong literacy enhancement, informed citizenship, recreation, creative information, individual research, critical thinking, and ultimately empowerment in an increasingly complex world. Information and knowledge are a critical and strategic resource in human development which includes literacy acquisitions and poverty reduction.

As a repository of human experience, not subject to the barriers of space and time, the major purpose of the library is to provide information. According to Lawal and Udofia (1994), the library meets the information needs of the users in the following four categories: Education (to develop society, adults, children and to fill gaps in memory), information (to develop executive activities such as economics, social and commercial development), aesthetic (to cultivate appreciation for culture, art, truth and judgment) and recreation (to provide amusement and hobbies). The function of the library, therefore, is to implement, to enrich, to vitalize and humanize the

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educational programs, as it strives to attain excellence in content, process and product.

The UNESCO Library Manifesto of 1949, revised in 1972 and 1994 states that: "Freedom, prosperity and the development of society and of individuals are fundamental human values. They will only be attained through the ability of well informed citizens to exercise their

democratic rights and to play an active role in society. Constructive participation and the development of democracy depend on satisfactory education as well as on free and unlimited access to knowledge, thought, culture and information. Libraries are the gateway to knowledge, provides a basic condition for lifelong learning, independent decision making and cultural development of the individual and social groups. The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO's belief in the library as a living force for education, culture and information, as an essential agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women" (UNESCO, 1994).

This study focused on the school’s libraries component such as conditions, situations, process and events that influenced and shaped up school libraries in disadvantaged secondary schools. When referring to ‘literacy’ simplistic definition of Krashen (2004) who defines basic literacy ‘as ability to read and write on a basic level’ with the main

focus on ‘reading’ that is the decoding of sounds, word recognition and comprehension of text as well as to read and write competently. Throughout the study the general term ‘literacy’ will be used, implying that it will refer to basic literacy as described above since it is the unit of analysis or object of study (Krolak, L., 2005).

The above discussion revealing the notion that in developing countries such as Ethiopia, were the population has no habit of book reading the problem is critical. The researchers practically observed that in many schools, including some selected secondary schools of Illu Abba Bora

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Zone the problem has been persisted. Geographically, the Zone has located 600 KM away from the capital Addis Ababa to southwest of Ethiopia. It is one of the 26 Zones of Oromia Regional States; the Zone has 24 wereda’s.

Statement of the Problem

There are many factors that influence literacy. It becomes obvious that many of the students join for university education with no basic information literacy skills. Students do not have the skill to access

and use information, understand libraries, analyze different source (printed or electronics) or draw their own conclusions. The issues of information literacy include the realities that there are very few functional school libraries and teachers are not familiar with or use libraries themselves (Lance, K.C., et.al 2005).

In many African countries, libraries face greater challenge to play great roles (Book Aid International, 2004). Some of the problems are lack of resources, trained librarians, lack of facilities, lack of concern bodies’ willingness and motivation to support library and lack of adequate funding are the major problems (Lesia, 2005). Yet in spite this, it is evident that libraries are often viewed as non essential, optional, or even luxury expenditures for schools (Lonsdale, 2003). They are among the first school services to be targeted for cuts when funding is reduced. It can be concluded that those that make decisions regarding the staffing and funding of school libraries are either unaware that such

evidence exists, or that they are not convinced by it. In developing countries such as Ethiopia where much of the population has no tradition of book reading or reading culture, the problem is critical. Furthermore, he confirmed that Ethiopian education sector strategies discussed the achievement of its goals, but, the documents did not reflect libraries and its importance for successful development.

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There are two standard literacy here; reading literacy and information literacy. Students for most need good reading literacy skill at a high maturation level to participate in the academic playing field and to perform academically. Without this skill students be marginalized and will eventually drop out of higher education. In order to be successful, students need information literacy skill and must understand the

social, political, economic and ethical issue of information use (willians, D. et. Al, 2001). It became evident that students inherited these problems from their school education and that the school system is to a larger degree failing them. Most of the government schools in Illu Abba Bora Zone does not prepare learner adequately for these literacy. This has an adverse effect on their further education and working lives. The deficiency of reading resource and absence of school libraries add to further complication. Hence, in light of the indicated gap the researchers conduct a study tied with the problem of literacy that enables the concerned bodies to work seriously to narrow the existing gap.

An examination of the literature shows that, school libraries are essential resources for the acquisition of basic literacy as well as information literacy. This study combined a reading literacy intervention with providing accessibility to reading resource by

providing school libraries and endeavored to involve the whole school community, including the parents to some extent. So, this study aimed at in investigating the relationship between literacy and school libraries at grass root level in secondary schools of Illu Abba Bor Zone. The study, therefore, attempted to answer the following basic research questions:

1. What is the level of schools communities understanding and use of the school library as a resource both for reading literacy and information literacy?

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2. How learners’ are familiar with information in using the school

library?

3. What are the activities schools performing to develop the awareness on the usage of libraries to the community in the study area?

Objective of the Study

The objective of the study was to investigate the roles of libraries for students’ literacy enhancement.

Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were:

To identify the role of library on learners’ information literacy.

To assess the level of teachers understanding and use of school library as a resource information literacy.

To identify awareness creation activities performed by schools on the importance of library to the community in the school.

II. METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The study was conducted on the role of library as literacy enhancement school in selected government secondary schools of Illu Aba Bor Zone. In this study a descriptive survey method was employed. Since a descriptive survey approach provides a better understanding of research problem than other approaches (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007) and helps to reveal what is going currently in the school regarding libraries on students’ literacy enhancement.

In relation to this, Koul (1996) stated that, descriptive survey method helps to have general understanding of the problem by studying the current status, nature of prevailing conditions, practice and trend

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through relevant and precise information. Strengthening this assumption, Sharm (2000) states descriptive survey research methods makes objective description of phenomena at a particular time without value judgment and with no effort to what underlies to happen in the way. All these justifications made the descriptive survey method more appropriate for the study.

Data Sources

Data sources in this study were both primary and secondary sources.

The primary data sources of this study were key informants from schools community such as teachers, students, principals and library technicians who have a direct influence in the absence and existence of library for information literacy. The secondary source of data was documents mainly focuses on records and minutes concerning issues discussed related with libraries and recent publications which reveal ideas and information such as relevant books, journals, and website.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

According to the Zone Educational office statics of 2007 E.C., the total numbers of government secondary schools are 57. For the purpose of this study, researchers have taken 13(22.8%) schools. Accordingly, Alge, Boracha, Bure, Yayo, Gore, Barkume, Dabo, Halu, Elemo, Mako, Gordomo, Hurummu and Yembero were chosen by using simple random sampling technique to give equal chance to be represented. In this regard Gay and Airasian (2003) state that the sample 10% - 20% of the sample population is often used in descriptive research for large population.

From the total population, 130 teachers and 260 students found in these schools were selected by using simple random sampling technique for questioners, 13 principals were selected for interview by using purposive sampling because they are few in number and believed to known the case in detail.

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Data Gathering Instruments

For the purpose of this study, researchers employed data collection strategies such as questionnaires (close ended), interviews (unstructured) and document analysis. Questionnaire was the main sources of data gathering instrument that help to collect data at a specific time from the large populations and help to explain the purpose of the study briefly without orienting each respondent. A questionnaire used to collect information from teachers and students was made up of

close ended questions which contained 30 items grouped in to four themes. The close ended items used were easy in tabulation, objectivity and suitability to keep respondent on the subjects of discussion. For the purpose of this study, all the sampled school principals were interviewed. The unstructured interview questions were asked in a predetermined set of questions using the same wording in order to acquire sufficient information through pointing out the understanding they have about school libraries as literacy enhancement, its importance, their role, opinion on the overall school library situation as major aspect in interview.

Document analysis was one of the data collection tools that was used to validate the consistency of questionnaire’s response with the respondent included in the study. It focuses on records and minutes in the library and yearly report of the library to the school.

Pilot Study

Pilot test was conducted in Bedele secondary school which is not included in the sample of the study. It was administered on selected

respondents’ of school. This pilot-test was conducted to test the validity and reliability the content of the instrument. It is done with objectives of checking whether or not the item included in the instruments could enable the researchers to obtain relevant information, to identify and eliminate problems in collecting data from the target population. Before

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conducting the pilot test, respondents was oriented about the objectives of the pilot-study, how to fill the items, evaluate and give feedback regarding the relevance of the item. To this end draft questionnaire was distributed and filled with population selected. Based upon the result of the test directions of questionnaire, ambiguities related to language and content were amended and modified.

To check the reliability and validity of the questionnaire cronbach’s alpha reliability test was calculated after the pilot test conducted. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient normally ranges between 0 and 1. George and Mallery (2003) provide the following rules of thumb: “_ > 0.9 – Excellent, _ > 0.8 – Good, _ > 0.7 – Acceptable, _ > 0.6 – Questionable, _ > 0.5 – Poor and _ < 0.5 – Unacceptable”.

Then interview with principals and library technicians was carried out in such a manner that the interviewees were visited and briefed on the objectives of the study and reach upon the conviction of the day and time convenience to hold the session. The interview was conducted accordingly. While at the same time document analysis was carried out; the data collections through all the instruments has been done by the researcher team.

Data Collection Procedure

Finally after the necessary correction was made, the final questionnaire was duplicated and distributed with necessary orientation to be filled by respondents. Respondents were given ample time (one week) to

complete the questionnaire and returned it. Data from completed survey was filled in SPSS. However, no identifying information is included.

Data Analysis

First, the information collected through questionnaire was analyzed around the subtopic related to the research questions by using

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frequency and percentage to describe the result. All the data was tabulated and computed with the help of SPSS. Frequency used to identify the redundancy of the response on each question and percentage was used to determine the personal characteristics and measure role of library on students reading literacy and information literacy level of schools communities understanding and activities the

school performed to develop the awareness on the usage of libraries.

For the case of analysis excess/strongly agree/agree/exist indicate as libraries have essential role for literacy enhancement of each item and adequate/undecided/rarely exist represents neither positive nor negative essentiality of libraries for literacy enhancement and similarly shortage/never exist/disagree/strongly disagree/ indicate as libraries have not essential role for literacy enhancement of each items in the schools.

Finally, the data gathered from the unstructured interview and document analysis was analyzed and reported qualitatively through narrative description.

SUMMARY, CONLCUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter discusses the summary of the study major findings, conclusion and recommendation. Therefore, after analysis the summary of the study, the conclusions and recommendations was forwarded.

Summary

The purpose of the study was to assess the role of school libraries for literacy enhancement and to suggest possible solution based on the

results of the findings.

The method employed to conduct this research was descriptive survey research method. The study was conducted in 13 secondary schools of Illu Aba Bora Zone using 13 principals, 130 teachers ,260 students SIP

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committee members and 100 students, overall totally 403 respondents were involved in the process of data gathering, data were collected through questionnaire and interview. Questionnaire was administered for teachers and students. Whereas, interview was held with principals and helps to obtain necessary data for the analysis and the data gathered were analyzed using frequency of respondents and percentage

consequently the major findings are follows.

The finding of the study revealed that in most of schools in the study area teachers were serving as librarian and qualified librarian were not serving/recruited in the most of schools in the study area.

The finding also show that low number of teachers and students visit school library, the majority of teachers and students have no the habit of reading in school library during school time. Concerning the availability of some information equipment, the result shows that in most of the schools there was no internet and TV access which may attract students and teachers to get information and update themselves.

The result shows that most of the school under study, library did not provide books, journals etc to promote literacy and reading for general knowledge. As the result 261(66.7%) of respondents showed the environment of school library was not conducive enough in which there

was shortage of different facilities which can make the school library conducive for independent study.

The finding also disclosed that, there was a shortage in providing appropriate support or information to students and school community as they responded low but in some of the schools there was a practice to some extent. Regarding links with external agencies to extend the resources availability the result showed that majority of schools have no linkage with donors or local NGO’s to equip libraries with different facilitations.

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As the result in table 5a revealed in most of the school in the study area library helps teachers and students to enjoy in reading books, but significant number of teacher respondents were disagreed. The finding also showed that, in the study area most of the teachers recommend students to borrow and read books but students had not willing to go library unless they forced to do assignment and homework.

As revealed by the result from respondents, most of the teachers and students in the study area did not use library on their own free time, rather they have been used only during school time. As responded by the majority of teacher respondents, the existence of library for literacy enhancement in school is unquestionable and it has an effect on students learning, i.e. there is a difference between students who use library and those do not use. As revealed by data gathered from teachers, school libraries resource for lesson delivery can make a difference of teachers teaching as well as students learning, but the majority of teachers did not use information resources when they prepare the lesson for class room teaching.

Conclusions

This paper shows the role of school libraries in enhancing literacy. It also shows that investing in books and libraries is at the heart of educational reform, literacy enhancement and sustaining literacy skills for life, leading subsequently to development and poverty reduction. By providing equitable access to information for all, libraries encourage

critical citizenship in a global society.

With sufficient investment and support, libraries will have a major positive impact on the achievement of students. Therefore, based on the above mentioned findings, the following conclusions were made.

In most of schools in the study area teachers were serving as librarian and qualified librarian were not serving or recruited in the most of schools in the study area. This can affect negatively the role of school

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libraries contribution for literacy enhancement. Low number of teachers and students visit school library frequently, the majority of teachers and students have no habit of reading in school library during school time. This shows that there were low habit of reading and students were not familiar with school library to use it frequently.

In most of the schools in the study area there was no internet and TV

access which may attract students and teachers to get information and update themselves. This shows the effort of school management to facilitate the school and it also negatively affects the effectiveness of programs delivered in school to promote literacy. From the result one can conclude that in most of the schools under study, library did not provide books, journals and other publications to promote literacy and reading for general knowledge.

From the result 261(66.7%) of respondents, it possible to conclude that, the environment of school library was not conducive enough in which there was shortage of different facilities which can make the school library conducive for independent study. This can be the reason for students not visit library frequently. There was a shortage in providing appropriate support or information to students and school community as they responded low but in some of the schools there was a practice to some extent. From this we can conclude that the level of school

activities in creation of awareness to use library was low.

From the result we can conclude that the majority of schools in the study area have no linkage with donors or local NGO’s to equip libraries with different facilitations. The role of library in helping teachers and students to enjoy in reading books was high but it was not found in most of the schools, which may affect its role in creation of literate environment.

In the study area most of the teachers recommend their students to borrow and read books but they did not recommend each other. Here,

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peer influence is essential to have information literacy to update their knowledge, skill and attitudes. Most of the teachers and students in the study area did not use library on their own free time, rather they used only during school time. This may be due to lack of facilities and awareness activities performed by school. It is possible to conclude that the existence of library for literacy enhancement in school is

unquestionable and it has an effect on students learning. The role of library in making difference between students who use library and those do not use is high. From the finding it can be possible to realize that the role of school libraries resource for lesson delivery can make a great difference on teachers teaching as well as students learning.

Recommendations

The role of library for literacy enhancement is critical in school system to attain educational goal generally and students’ academic achievement specifically. Thus, taking care of knowing libraries role and facilitating library is a basic condition schools. Hence, based on the above findings and conclusions the following recommendations are made:-

Policy makers should consider the issue of library and higher institutions should launch the program to produce trained library technicians to sustain school libraries role for the attainment of educational quality. The Woreda education office has to recruit library technicians and capacitate the existing teacher librarian through

training to solve the problem related with helping and supporting students and school community concerning the importance of library and how it can make a difference.

School leaders including PTA have to take in to consideration the issue of school library when they use budget programs such as block grant as well as school grant in fulfilling the facilities to create a conducive environment for students and teachers to be attracted and use library

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frequently. Schools should create a link with donors and local NGO’s to solve shortage of materials like TV, Internet, mini media and library equipment like books, journal in the school. It is essential if school leaders encourage students and teachers who use library frequently through different incentives by awarding at least certificate for best readers. It is also recommendable for school leaders to provide

materials in print, audio and video as much as possible in school library. It is essential if school leaders organize events like

- Premier's Reading or Book Challenges or Reader's Cup

- Special events and displays eg. Book week, library lovers day

- Literature festivals programs in school to promote literacy in school.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is difficult to thank all those people and institutions that have helped us in accomplishing our research work, but the following deserve a special mention. First of all, we would like to thank the members of the Institute of Education staff of Mettu University for their useful comments and guidenace.

We also express deep gratitude to all the Principals, supervisors, teachers and students of Illu Ababor Zone secondary Schools for their cooperation during our research work. Again, we would like to take in this opportunity to express our appreciation to our colleagues, families and relatives who contributed in different ways for the success of this

study.

REFERENCES

Book Aid International: Submission to the Africa Commission. July 2004. http://www .bookaid.org/ resources/do wnloads/Bo okAid_Su bmission_to_Africa_Commission.

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Kinengyere, A. A. (2006). The effect of information literacy on the

utilization of electronic information resources in selected academic and research institutions in Uganda. The Electronic Library, Vol. 25, No. 3: 328-341. Available at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0264-0473.htm.

Krolak, L., (2005) .The role of libraries in the creation of literate

environments, Education for all Global Mon itori ng Report Literacy for Life, UNESCO accessed from http:/ /ww w .ifl a. org/fil es/assets/literacy-a nd-r ead ing/pu blica tio ns/role-of-l ibra ries-in-creation-ofliterate-environments.pdf

Lance, K. C., Rodney, M. J., Hamilton-Pennell, C. (2005). Powerful Libraries make Powerful Learners. Retrieved from http://www.islma.org/pdf/ILStudy2.pdf

Lisa Krolak (2005) The Role of Libraries in the Creation of Literate Environments [email protected] Head of Documentation UNESCO Institute for Education Hamburg, Germany.

Lonsdale, M (2003), Impact of school libraries on student achievement: A review of the research, Australian School Library Association, viewed

28 March 2008, <http://www.asl a.org.au/res earch/r esearch.pdf>.

UNESCO: Public Library Manifesto. Paris, UNESCO, November 1994.

Williams, D., Wavell, C., Coles, L. (2001). Impact of School Library Services on Achievement and Learning. Retrieved from http://www4.rgu.ac.uk/files/ impact %20of%20schoo l%20 libra ry% 20services1.pdf

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CREATION OF NEW STATE: LAW AND POLITICS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH

Dr. Anil Kumar Dubey

Assistant Professor School of Law, Guru Ghasidas Central University

Bilaspur (C.G.) ABSTRACT

The creation of Telangana as the 29th State of India by bifurcating Andhra Pradesh into Telangana and Seemandhra raised many questions regarding the law and procedure for creation of a new State. This research paper deals with various aspects relating to creation of a new State.

HISTORY OF CREATION OF TELANGANA

Andhra Pradesh was created on the 1st November 1956 under the provision of Section 3 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 by transfer of territory from Hyderabad (Telangana area) and other territory (Rayalaseema area) to the existing “State of Andhra”. It is worth mentioning here that The States Reorganization Commission, 19551 had recommended about Telangana to be as a separate State in Para 386 as follows: “…we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interest of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the

Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to the held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority, the legislature of the residency Hyderabad

1A body constituted by the Central Government of India in 1953 under the chairmanship of retired C.J. of India Justice Fazal Ali to recommend the reorganization of State boundaries.

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State expresses itself in favour of such unification”.2 In Hyderabad Assembly, out of 174 MLA, 147 MLA expressed their view-103 supported the merger and opposed the recommendation to keep Telangana as a separate State for 5 years and 29 opposed the merger. Among Telangana MLA, 59 agreed with merger while 25 opposed it.3 An agreement was reached between Telangana and Andhra leaders on 20th February 1956 to merge Telangana with Andhra with promise to safeguard interests of Telangana.4

The demand for Telangana as a separate State arose in the last of 1960’s decade when the interests of Telangana was overlooked. There have been several movements in this regard, particularly, in

Telangana in 1969-70 and in coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema in 1972-73.5 The movement was intensified in 2000’s decade after the formation of Telangana Rashtra Samithi.6

The demand for Telangana was ignored by the Union Government for decades. But, it gained life when the Congress Party’s fortune dipped in Andhra Pradesh after the death of YSR Reddy. The Party was brow-beaten for 5 years by its MPs from Seemandhra and it put Telangana on front burnner in December 2009.7 The Congress Party led UPA Government decided on July 30, 2013 for creation of Telangana by comprising its 10 districts.8 The Lok Sabha approved the

2 The text downloaded from Wikipedia. 3 “Page 1 of the edition 5, 1955” Andhra Prabha and “Statistical Report on General Election 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Hyderabad” Election Commission, downloaded from Wikipedia. 4 SRC sub-committee said no decision on Visalandhra taken-Page 1 of Feb. 1956, Indian Express downloaded from Wikipedia. 5 Jayprakash Narayan, “A Challenge to Indian Federalism” published in The Hindu, October 28, 2013 at editorial page. 6 K. Srinivas Reddy, “Looking beyond the boundaries” published in The Hindu, March 19, 2014 at 9. 7 The Times of India, July 31, 2013 at front page. 8 The Hindu, July 31, 2013 at front page.

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contentious Bill for creation of Telangana amid protests. The Bill, approved by voice-vote in less than 90 minutes, was passed even as the Lok Sabha TV, curiously, went blank for the entire duration.9 It would be also remarkable to mention here that the Lok Sabha witnessed an unprecedented low on February 13, 2014 when Congress MP from Vijayawada used a can of pepper spray inside the House to protest against the tabling of the Bill. The House was adjourned in less than five minutes immediately after the Bill was tabled amid din and chaos. When the House met again, the Speaker announced the suspension of 16 Seemandhra MP-12 belonging to the Congress and rest from TDP and YSR Congress Party.10 Dramatic scene also marked the passage of

the Bill in Rajya Sabha when all the amendments moved by Opposition members were either defeated by voice vote or not put to vote by the Chair on the ground that there was disorder in the House.11 The Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Bill, 2013 was unprecedently rejected by the Andhra Pradesh Legislature along with recording amendments and suggestion.12

CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATE

The provision for creation of a new State is given under Article 3(a) of the Constitution of India according to which, Parliament is authorised to form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or their parts. Along with this, Parliament has also power to increase or decrease the area of any State and alter the boundaries or name of any State under clauses (b) to (e) of this Article. But, according to proviso to this Article, no Bill for the purpose mentioned in this Article shall be introduced in either House of

9 The Hindu, February 19, 2014 at front page. 10 The Hindu, February 14, 2014 at front page. 11 The Hindu, February 21, 2014 at 10. 12 Arghya Sengupta and Alok Prashanna Kumar, “Interpreting a federal constitution” published in The Hindu, February 4, 2014 at editorial page.

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Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries or name of any of the states, the Bill has been referred to the Legislature of that State for expressing its view thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference.

The provision of the proviso to Article 3 is silent on the effect of the view expressed by State Legislature. The literal interpretation of the proviso suggests that the view expressed by State Legislature is merely consultative and not binding on Parliament. But, it would render the constitutional process of consultation entirely nugatory.

The proviso to Article 3, introduced by the Constitution (Fifth

Amendment) Act, 1955, was necessary to lay the ground work for the smooth passage of the State Reorganization Commission Report that recommended a radical redrawing of State boundaries and creation of new States, because, it was felt that no single State could hold up the process of reorganization by adequately circumscribing State power.

Now, a serious question in this regard arises that-what will be legal interpretation of Article 3 if a State rejects the proposal to create a new State outright as was happened in the case of the State of Andhra Pradesh. Undoubtedly, Parliament could not envisage such a situation. But, for the literal interpretation of the provision, the view of the State cannot be ignored, as it may be proved dangerous for Indian federalism and unity of India.

GROUND FOR CREATION OF A NEW STATE

The India is regarded as a nation of diversity where casteism, religion, communalism, regionalism and linguism work as divisive forces. These forces were at work through-out the history of the nation. A cursory glance at the long history of India-cultural, geographical and

political-reveals that despite diversity, attempts were made from time to time to establish unity. Keeping in view the aforesaid background,

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pre-independent Indian State, divided into Part A, B, C and D, were integrated to form Independent India in such a way as to suit the political and cultural unity and smooth governance of the nation. This attempt is evident from the words of Sardar Patel, the first Home Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of Independent India, expressed on the policy of integration as follows: “the great ideal of geographical, political and economic unification of India, an ideal which for centuries remained a distant dream and which appeared as remote and as difficult of attainment as ever even after the advent of Indian independence, was consummated by the Policy of Integration”.13

In view of the peculiar situation of the nation, the Constitution

of India was framed so as to meet its requirements. The idea of united India informed each and every provision of the Constitution and the nation was established as “Union of States”.14 In spite of this, there was possibility for ecaping certain aspirations of the people needed for political and cultural unity. Hence, The States Reorganization Commission was constituted to recommend the reorganization of State boundaries and creation of new States. About the criteria for reorganization, the Commission was of the opinion that it is neither possible nor desirable to reorganize States on the basis of a single test of either language or culture. In its opinion, a balanced approach to the whole problem is necessary in the interest of national unity.15

The recommendations of the Commission were mostly followed and the States Reorganization Act, 1956 was passed. Although, additional changes to State boundaries have been made since 1956, the

13 V.P. Menon, The Story of the Integration of the Indian States, 1961 edition, Orient Longmans Pvt. Ltd. at 468. 14 Article 1 of the Constitution of India indicates the nature of nation which is as follows: “India, that is Bharat, shall be Union of States”. 15 Marshall Devid F. Language Planning, John Benjamin Publishing Co. sought from Wikipedia.

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States Reorganization Act, 1956 remains the single most extensive change in State boundaries.

REASON FOR DEMAND OF NEW STATE

The sentiment of being deprived in back word region and culturally subjugated and victimized are the main reasons for demand of separate State. But, a cursory glance at the condition of certain States formed after 1956 reveals that the aspirations of the people cannot necessarily be fulfilled in a separate State. For example, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand were formed in 2000. Uttarakhand continues to be at the lower end in Human Development Index. There was abject callousness in dealing with the recent floods, focusing solely on how to make it more tourist-friendly rather than planning for the rehabilitation of displaced residents. There was little

concern demonstrated for the local people in whose name the State was created.16

Chhattisgarh has witnessed the largest displacement of tribals in recent times. There have been sustained attempts to dispossess them of their land, which they have inhabitated for centuries, in order to extract mineral wealth. Attempts were also made to invoke the clause of Eminent Domain in the name of national interest even as tribals were ostensibly empowered by the Panchayat (Extension of the Scheduled Area) Act. The displacement of tribals was in fact outsourced by the State to vigilant groups formed through what was depicted as a spontaneous uprising called Salva Judam -in effect an organised effort by non-tribals and traders from outside the State.17

With hardly any agenda of development, the State of Jharkhand turned into a mining hell of predatory growth eventually resulting in a

16 Ajay Gudavarthi, “Small States, big problems” published in The Hindu, March 12, 2014 at editorial page. 17 Ibid.

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series of scams.18 During 16 years of its life, the State was placed under the President’s rule 3 times and the governments have been changed 9 times till writing of this research paper.19 In such a situation of political instability, the condition of development of the State can be guessed easily.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATION

Smaller States may be convenient from administrative point of view. But, mere formation of separate State is no guarantee for better lives for those social groups for whom the State is created. The aspiration of the people cannot be satisfied and the State cannot develop unless and until the administration of the State is carried on sincerely and the problems of the people are addressed properly and effective attempt is made to solve them.

Unity and integrity of a nation and welfare of its people is the main objective of the nation. The issue of creation of a new State is a crucial one affecting the main objective of the nation. Hence, the government should be very careful while dealing with the issue of creation of a new State.

18 Ibid. 19 The Hindu, January 8, 2013 at 10.

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CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA

Dr. (Mrs) Anjali Gaidhane Associate Professor and H.O.D

Dept. of Political Science Hislop College, Nagpur (MS), India

Abstract

Although women constitute almost half of Indian population, their role in the decision making process in Indian politics has been very limited, even after 68 years of enactment of a constitution which has given equal political rights to them. Political participation, which is the manifestation of democracy and allows for diversity of opinion and participation of both men and women cannot thrive by excluding the women folk that constitute half of the world’s population. As long as half of the population remains vulnerable to economic, political, legal and social marginalization, the hope of advancing democracy and development will remain in serious jeopardy. The present paper tries to examine challenges of women political participation in India. A qualitative research methodology has been employed and the data has

been collected from secondary sources mainly from published journal article, books and reports of Election Commission of India, Lok Sabha Secretariat and Rajya Sabha Secretariat, New Delhi and Others.

Key words: Women, Political Participation, Democracy, Development,

Rights and Equality

Introduction - The participation of women in all spheres of life and

politics in particular has become a major issue in the development discourses and it is increasingly being believed that development cannot be fully achieved without the active involvement of women in the decision making process. (Endale, 2012) Additionally the active participation of women, on equal terms with men, at all levels of decision-making is essential to the achievement of equality, sustainable

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development, peace and democracy. The inclusion of their perspectives and experiences into the decision-making processes can result in the solutions that satisfy larger number of the society, and are likely to have better and more appropriate social benefits, political, legal, and economic solutions for the existing problems. (Shimelis, 2015) -

Participation is a development approach, which recognizes the need to involve disadvantaged segments of population in the design and implementation of policies concerning their wellbeing.

The Concept of Political Participation

Political participation refers the active involvement and engagement by individuals both women and men with political process that affect their lives. The act of active engagements includes voting, standing for office, joining of political party or to take part the political campaigns of the political parties and to exert influence in the decision making process through public debate and dialogue with the representatives they elected or through their capacity to organize themselves; or exercise public power by holding public office at different levels of administrations- local, regional, national and international (Khadar,2013) Therefore, political participation is understood as a prerequisite for political development hence, by improving women’s political participation, given that they constitute over a half of the

world’s population may help to advance of political development and improve the quality of women’s lives ( Seyedeh N, Hasnita K and Hossein A,2010) In fact, without the active participation of women, and the incorporation of women’s perspective at all levels of decision making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved . (FWCW, 1995)

Socio Economic Situation of Women in India

In India, traditions continue to emphasize women’s primary roles as mothers and housewives and to restrict them to those roles. A strong

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‘traditional patriarchal cultural value system’ favours sexually segregated roles, and works against the advancement, progress and participation of women in any political process. The status of women in India and the world is abysmally low where they: (a) are generally poorer than men because they earn less; (b) are less educated; (c) are

increasingly taking up roles as mothers, with no resources to support their dependents; (d) do not enjoy due acknowledgment for their labour contribution, particularly in agriculture and household (e) do not have decision making power. They also suffer from work stereotype and gender distribution of labour and most of them are occupied in economically invisible work. Women experience lower socioeconomic statuses in general and hence are marginalized from making decisions at all levels. Women are poor in terms of access to resources, services and employment (FWCW, 1995).

The cultural mindsets about women can affect women’s levels of representation throughout the political process, right from an individual woman’s decision to enter politics, to party selection of candidates, to the decision as whom to vote on Election Day. Hence, women face prejudice as leaders because people tend to assume that

leadership is a masculine trait. Even in countries where women have made gains in employment or education, they face cultural barriers to participation in politics.

Despite the subordinate status they have in the society, and their exclusion from most of the privileges and opportunities availed to their male counterparts, women’s contribution for the survival of the household and economic and social development of the society as producers and reproducers is indispensable. Hence, now efforts have to be directed to address the problem of gender inequality and gender based discrimination in the country. ( Seyedeh N, Hasnita K and Hossein A,2010)

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Importance of Women Political Participation- According to

Haque ensuring women’s political participation is essential to bring legitimacy to government and establish democracy in its real and practical manner, as validity and trustworthiness of democracy can be in question if females, who are 50% of the population, stay marginalized or segregated from the political and public institutions in the society (Haque M ,2003). In addition to this the degree and level of

women’s representation in the government has considerable and significant impacts on the lives of the people in any operational political and public milieu. ( Panday P , 2008). Therefore, increasing women’s representation and participation in the political and public decision making positions is a question of democracy, democratic process, and equality as well as a question of political and civil rights that has been guaranteed by the international organizations’ (UN) agreements, treaties, covenants and conventions;

More over without greater representation of women in parliamentary and executive positions as well as in the judiciary, it is difficult to achieve participatory, accountable, and transparent governance which can ensure political, cultural, social and economic priority goals of the wider society. Besides every human being has the right to participate in decisions that define her or his life. This right is the foundation of the

ideal of equal participation in decision-making among women and men. This right argues that since women know their situation best, they should participate equally with men to have their perspective effectively incorporated at all levels of decision-making, from the private to the public spheres of their lives, from the local to the global (Miranda R, 2005)

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Political participation of Women in the Pre and Post Independent era-

In the pre independence era the national movement mobilized women to a large extent, but the same momentum was lost in the post independence era due to pre dominance of power politics. Barring the exception of the left movement, no political faction has impetus to the mobilization to the women in political decision making. The JP movement of 1975 to 1977 did make an effort in this direction but it fizzed out with the failure of the Janata party government in the post

emergency period.

Although a healthy democracy entails balance of political power between men and women, the number of women members in the Lok Sabha (House of Commons) in terms of percentage of total number of member in Lok Sabha has barely crossed two digits, although women constitute nearly 50% of the voters. Women’s representation in elected bodies, Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies is a source of huge disappointment. As far as the Representation of Women Members in Parliament is concerned; women occupy just 62 seats in the 543 member in the Lok Sabha, which is a mere 12%.( Deccan Herald, 2016) The scenario for women Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) across all state assemblies in India is even worse, with the national average being a pitiable 9%. The best among them, Bihar, Rajasthan and Haryana have 14% representation while the worst states are

Pondicherry and Nagaland, which have no women MLAs at all.

With regard to women holding minister ship in India, we may say that successive governments, irrespective of whichever political party held power, women were generally given the so-called ‘soft” portfolios, or in the areas traditionally considered women’s concerns, such as health, welfare, culture, education, women and child development. Women have been and are generally excluded from key

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ministries like commerce, defence, finance, justice etc. ( Indira Gandhi has been an exception in this case, as she held all important portfolios while she was the Prime Minister of India). There are only 6 women cabinet rank ministers in the Union Cabinet in 2017 (Deccan herald, 2016). Although there have been some remarkable women Chief

Ministers in various States who have proved their mettle.

Role of Women in Political Parties - The manifestoes for the

parties also lay considerable importance on women issues but are not practically implemented in the organizational structures of the most of the political parties. Most often, the women are not at the apex decision making level, but are usually relegated to the “Women’s Wing” dealing largely with the so called “Women Issues”. The ‘’ Vote” centric and patriarchal nature of the multi party democracy in India is the real culprit in the reluctance of the political parties in giving more seats to the women candidates. Every party lusts after power and formulates all its strategies around the basic objective of coming into power.

Women Reservation bill for women in parliament and State assemblies - The UF led government floated the first draft of 33.3%

reservation bill for women in parliament and State assemblies, in 1996. Although theoretically almost all the parties support this, but are opposed to it due to various practical considerations. Most of the women MPs are in favour of the 33.3% reservations but they have to toe their respective party line. The main opposition to the women’s reservation bill is due to (a) the threat to the male dominance (b) it would help only the elitist women (c) parties like BSP, SP, demand

“quota within quota” for dalits, OBCs and other religious minorities in proportion to their population and (d) the total number of seats reserved would increase to 56% if 33.3% are reserved for women in addition to the already existing 22.5% reservations for SC/ST.

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Even though reservations for women in Panchayats were introduced almost 30 years back, still the inherent leadership characteristics of panchayats are largely patriarchal and masculine in nature. They are still based on factors like power dominance, and influence. Due to these reasons the real power of a female panchas or surpanchas actually vests

in her husband, father, and brother or in some cases masters. Owing to the generally violent and inflammable nature of conflicts at the rural level (land disputes, property disputes eater distribution etc), the job of arbitration or dispensation of justice is usually entrusted to the men folk. Women panchayat leaders are restricted to resolving disputes of domestic nature.

Conclusion

It is true that more than half percent of the world’s population are women, but they lack access to political decision making as compared to their counter parts at all levels of government. The finding of the study shows that different casual factors such as; economic, religious, social and cultural factors contribute to women’s poor political participation in the country. Democracy cannot succeed until and unless both men and women have full and equal participation in the decision making process. In spite of this, in India and the world, the political arena remains dominated by men. Women’s equal participation in decision-

making and politics is not only a demand for simple justice, development or democracy, but a necessary pre-condition for women’s interests to be taken into account. Without equal participation of women to political process, the hope for democracy and democratization is a far cry. The democratic process is able to grow and develop effectively when all people are given equal encouragement to exercise their democratic rights, and when women can experience benefits equally with their counter parts. Without the active participation of women and the incorporation of women’s perspective at all levels of

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decision making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved.

References

Khadar M ,Women Political Participation and Decision Making in

Hargeisa, Somaliland.,2013

Seyedeh N, Hasnita K and Hossein A,’’ The Financial Obstacles of

Women’s Political Participation in Iran. UPMIR, 2010.

FWCW (1995) Beijing Declaration and platform for Action.

Endale A, Factors that Affect Women Participation in Leadership and Decision Making Position. Asian Journal of Humanity, Art and Literature., 2012

Shimelis Kassa, ’Challenges and Opportunities of Women Political

Participation in Ethiopia, October 26, 2015

Haque M (2003) Citizen Participation in Governance through

Representation: Issue of Gender in East Asia. International Journal of Public Administration.

Panday P (2008) Representation without Participation: Quotas for

Women in Bangladesh. International Political Science Review

Miranda R (2005) Equal Participation of Women and Men in Decision-making Processes: With Particular Emphasis on Political

Participation and Leadership.

Deccan Herald, 2016, Retrieved from wwwdeccan herald .com

Retievedprsindia.org, Statistics of 16 th Lok Sabha, 16 th Lok

Sabha Source: List of Members of Rajya Sabha , Rajya Sabha Secretariat , New Delhi

Source: List of Members of Lok Sabha , Lok Sabha Secretariat,

New Delhi

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SUSTAINABILITY OF BANKING INDUSTRY IN ETHIOPIA:REVIEW OF FINANCIAL SECTOR

Asmamaw Argeta Algesso PhD Research Fellow

School of Management Studies Punjabi University, Patiala, India

Dr. Navjot Kaur Professor of Management

School of Management Studies Punjabi University, Patiala, India

Abstract

This article is primarily concerned with an intensive review of sustainability of Ethiopian banking industry based on different articles, annual reports, seminars and many other evidences by IMF and different global financial institutions to have clear image of current status of banking sector in Ethiopia and predicting the sustainability.

Key Words: Banking Industry, Ethiopia, Financial Institutions,

Sustainability.

Introduction

This article is intended to provide the overview of the current status and sustainability of Ethiopian banking industry in particular and the financial system and sector in general. Thus the overview inculcates: the current status and background of financial system in Ethiopia, developmental stages of financial sector, liberalization and regulation of banking industry, structure and expansion of banking system, access of banking service in Ethiopia.

1. Background and Overview of Financial Sector In Ethiopia

The Ethiopian financial sector and policies have grown through three formal steps: first, financial subjugation and promoting government led industrial and agricultural development through privileged credit

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during socialist regime; second, market-led development through liberalization and deregulation during post 1991, and third, financial inclusion and strategies by permitting private banks and Micro- Finance Institutions (MFIs)after second half of 1990s. According to Proclamation No. 84/1994 that allows the Ethiopian private sector to

involve in the banking and any financial sector including insurance and micro finances and Proclamation No. 40/1996 in 1996 that permits the

establishment of MFIs business marked the beginning of a new era in Ethiopian financial sector in general as a long term strategy to

ensure sustainability of bankingindustryand opened great opportunity for an inclusive financial sector development in Ethiopia.

Currently, the Ethiopian financial sector consists of 2 public banks in

which Construction and Business Bank (CBB) merged with

Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) and DevelopmentBank of

Ethiopia (DBE),16 private commercial banks, 16 private insurance companies, 1 public insurance company, about31 microfinance institutions and over 8500 Saving and Credit

Cooperatives (SACCOs) in both rural and urban areas of the country. The ownership structure of microfinance institutions in Ethiopia may be private, NGOs, and public or mixed; but, most big microfinance institutions partially owned by regional states, some by NGO’s and some are private owners. Where as in banking sector, the government owned bank which is Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) is the dominant commercial bank and accounts for more than 70% of total

assets of banking sector as of 2013/14 fiscal year. The balance, 30%, is

accounted by the other 16commercial private banks. Unlike many privateowned commercial banks, CBE is relatively stable, sustainable andmore profitable than private commercial banks.

The following issues are addressed in this article concerning the

sustainability of financial sector emphasizing on banking industry of Ethiopian: Emergence and Contribution of Financial Sector to

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Ethiopian Economy and the trend of banking and other financial institutions in Ethiopia

1) Access and Quality of Financial Services in Predicting Sustainability in Ethiopia,Scope and Operation of Financial Sector of Ethiopia ,Banking Service Coverage in Ethiopia, Branches and financial status of commercial

Banks in Ethiopia:

2) Deposit mobilization and Financial Performance

In answering and addressing issues above, the researcher reviewed different related articles, financial sector proclamation, regulation of banking industry, structure and reform of banking and other financial institution, and other different reports by World Bank, IMF, and other developed countries financial system and reports. .

2. Emergence and Contribution of Financial Sector to Ethiopian Economy

The emergence and entry of the private investors in to financial sector especially in banking and insurance business has created greater opportunities in fostering ease of access to financial services in Ethiopia directly through their operations and participation in business and indirectly through the pushing over effect on government financial institutions. According toGetnetAlemu (2010), the emergence and entry of private financial institutions especially banks with the essence of competition and emphasis on profitability has brought major shift in the focus of public banks towards a more profit oriented approaches in doing business and contributed to the economy. He argue that, the

government has carefully restructured policies in financial sector and banking business in particularby granting full operational autonomy, recapitalizing, and clearing their balance sheets from bad debts accumulated in the previous socialist system of directed credit delivery

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system by the order of the government to be more competitor with emerging commercial private banks.

Regardless of those encouragements in changing its structure, the Ethiopian banking sector is not expanded in terms of the type of institutions delivering the service and the type of financial products being delivered. According to most researches, the banking industry’s

nonperforming loan ratio is commendably low in relation to other banking operations and services and profitability is better, but the dominance and line share of governments’ sector banking certainly hinders financial intermediation and economic growth of a nation by affecting the sustainability of private banking industry. While comparing with regional and other peer countries, banking industry of Ethiopia is least banked have lowin number as well as share of private commercial and foreign banks involved and operating than Ethiopian banking sector (World Bank, Ethiopia Economic Update II, 2015).

Not only banks but also, microfinance institutions plays a vital role in Ethiopiaeconomy (IMF Country Report, No. 13/309) and the National

Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) has also encouraging this segment of operation in financial sector via the issuance of Micro-Financing Business Proclamation No. 626/2009, which offers guidance on the licensing and

supervision of microfinance institutionsfor both private and public ownerships. Regardless of these efforts, the development and strategy to enhance this segment has been weak because provision by microfinance institutions by the type of financial services delivered by full-fledged banks remains restricted by capacity and penetration in

serving the nation across the country. As of June 2012 all MFIs were providing services to 2.9 million Ethiopians, representing just 3.6 percent of the country’s estimated 80 million populationsunbanked

(IMF, 2015).

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In general, the underdevelopedfinancial sector and MFIs can be observedin Ethiopian and only the small proportion of the population has a deposit account in MFIs, less than 8% (IMF, 2013). This

underdevelopment in financial sector in generallimits economic growth because it dramatically decreases the ability of the banking industry to offer different services and saving products, which in turn restricts greater bank lending to business and entrepreneurial developments which affects directly the country’s economy.

3. Access and Quality of Financial Services in Predicting Sustainability in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian financial sector is at its infancy stage (African Economic Outlook, 2012) and the coverage as well as the banking services of

financial services in Ethiopia is inefficient and low in quality (ADB, 2011). Recent researches are estimated that less than 10% of

households have access to formal credit as source financial service from both formal and informal financial sources. Furthermore, there is shortage of more sophisticated financing and financial mechanisms like: leasing, equity funds, and moorages in Ethiopia compared with peer African countries.

Starting from a very beginning, among different financial sectors operating in Ethiopia, the total asset of the banking system has registered an encouraging growth over the last ten years comparing with insurance, MFIs and other financial institutions. The total asset of bank increased from Birr 153 billion (USD 14.68 billion) in 2008/09 to Birr 400.9 billion (USD 21.9 billion) in 2012/13,

showing greater increase which accounts about 163%within five years. Yet, from low base the growth is too fast in mobilizing asset and

dramatically increased the total asset, and now the financial inclusion, regulation and inclusively shows growth in Ethiopian financial system and can guarantee to ensure sustainability of banking industry.

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National Bank of Ethiopia has continuously improving the regulations and directives concerning the operation of banking sector and put new regulations that slowdown the increase in the banking sector profitability and growth in volume of profit and new entry, accordingly, the NBE has raised the startup capital for commercial banks from 75 million birr to 500 million birr in the form of paid up capital

(Directive No_: SBB/50/2011). In Ethiopia among the financial

sectors, the banking industry is the largest and dominant among the financial sector covering more than 80% of the total assets of the

financial sector of the country.

4.1 Banking Service Coverage in Ethiopia

The effectiveness and efficient functioning of the financial sector has significant role in accelerating economic growth of any country. Banking and banks generally play an important role in trade and payment system by mainly in reducing transaction costs and by increasing suitability (NCA, 2006). The typical characteristic of less

developed countries like Ethiopia is that, financial system and financial sector is dominated by banking industry. To accelerate and understand the role of banks in an economy, stiff competition and less regulation of the sector is an important driving force. Without fair competition, it is less possible to bring about efficiency and enhance financial sector development in any financial system especially in banking industry. Similarly, insufficient, unfair, and less competition may also result in substantial losses on social account and higher price on interest rate, difficulty of access and unfair distribution, higher transaction cost, lower credit supply, less innovation and low service quality.

4.2 Branches and Financial Status of Commercial Banks in Ethiopia:

In dealing with Ethiopian commercial banking, the number of bank branches has increased alarmingly and reached 2357 as of 205/16 in

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which it was 1376 at the end of 2012/13 in the first quarter. This

increase in number of commercial banks and branches has dramatically changed the financial sector and enabled bank to be dominant financial industry in Ethiopia by and contributed significant share for the growth of economy in the country (NBE Report, 2015).

There are only nineteen banks from which seventeen are commercial banks for about 96 million population of the country as of 2013/14

fiscal year, suggesting the per capita of commercial bank is very low about 5.7 million populations per one commercial bank. This rather

rudimentary measure indicates the access of the population to financial services is very limited.

The following table below shows overall and individual branches of

both private commercial and public banks, year of their establishment, and profit generated from different operational activities by individual banks and the total profit all commercial banks generated as of fiscal year of 2013/14. In mobilizing deposits as a source of finance, with the

objective of enhancing domestic resource mobilization in the country to finance their operations and for the ambitious five years Growth and Transformation Plan(GTP), public commercial bank is being

encouraged to expand its branch network to address the needs of clients and generate more profits than private commercial banks. As a result, the share of CBE in terms of branch expansion is about 39% and

total profit of67.24% fiscal year2015/16 and2013/14 respectively.

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Table 1: List of Banks, Branches (as of 2015/ 16), and Profit (2013/14) Ethiopia

No Bank Name Year Est.

No of Branches

Profit in EB (2013/14)

1 Abay Bank S.C. 2010 79 75,000,000.00

2 Addis International Bank

2011 18 60,000,000.00

3 Awash

International Bank

1994 191 861,000,000.00

4 Bank of Abyssinia 1996 111 351,300,000.00

5 Berhan International Bank

2010 46 131,000,000.00

6 Bunna International Bank

2009 72 109,000,000.00

7 Commercial Bank of Ethiopia

1963 909 9,700,000,000.00

8 Cooperative Bank of Oromia(S.C.)

2005 190 485,000,000.00

9 Dashen Bank 2003 146 928,000,000.00

10 Debub Global Bank 2012 32 19,000,000.00

11 Development Bank of Ethiopia

1909 43 491,000,000.00

12 Enat Bank 2013 7 39,000,000.00

13 Lion International Bank

2006 67 128,000,000.00

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Source: Own Survey based on NBE Report, 2015

4.3 Scope and Operations of Commercial Bank of Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, all financial services are dominated by cash based system and flaw. Besides, there is no stock market, capital market and financial markets containing the interbank money and foreign exchange markets as well as different bonds and Treasury Bills (TBs) market is at an infant stage accommodating limited amount of transactions.

It is worth highlighting that the financial sector in Ethiopia is highly regulated and completely closed to foreign companies and investors. The complete closing of the financial sector especially banking industry to foreign nationals has limited the opportunities for competition in the financial sector in diversifying the financial services and products. Also, enclosure of foreign national to invest in banking sector, missed opportunity in terms of capital injection of the economy, foreign exchange access, banking technology, different banking related

businesses. The government of Ethiopia has been trying to justify such a closure on account of possible domination of the financial sector by foreign banks as the public commercial and private commercial banks are quite and at infant stage and the regulatory capacity of the national

14 Nib International Bank

1999 98 420,000,000.80

15 Oromia International Bank

2008 115 205,000,000.40

16 United Bank 1998 108 350,000,000.00

17 Wegagaen Bank 1997 98 394, 000,000.30

18 Zemen Bank 2009 1 131,000,000.00

Total 2357 14,425,000,000.00

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or central bank will remain limited if foreign banks are allowed to operate.

While comparing the level of access to financial services of Ethiopian with a neighboring country like Kenya, Gahan, South Africa, it can be inferred that there is considerable room for expansion of services in Ethiopia. Table below clearly shows comparison of commercial bank of

Ethiopia with similar selected banks by taking five years branch expansion, access, ATMs ratio, client access and distribution of two banks.

Table2: Financial Services in Ethiopia Compared to Some Selected Peer African Countries

Country

S.No Indicator Ethiopia Ghana Kenya South Africa

1 Commercial banks branches/1000km2

1.53 3.89 2.31 3.05

2 Commercial banks braches/100,000 clients

2.96 5.68 5.28 10.24

3 ATM/1000 km2 0.24 3.74 4.18 17.52

4 ATM/100,000clients 0.46 5.47 9.57 58.92

5 Outstanding deposits with commercial banks (%of GDP)

24.4 26.78 39.4 41.26

6 Outstanding loans from commercial banks(%of GDP)

13.46 17.49 33.75 68.94

Source: Own Compilation based on IMF, 2013/14

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According to survey conducted in 2012, Ethiopia Enterprise highlights access to finance as the major developmental limitations for small 38%

as surveyed and medium-sized businesses enterprises 30%. In

comparingthis figure is compared withsub-Saharan African average of 21% and 15 %,respectively (World Economic update II, 2015, p 41).

The lending policy of the government through CBE compounded by the government’s directionwas to focus lending and investment to government or public enterprises generally and the regulatory policy and requirement that a large portion of private sector banking business is already limit by lending capacity be used to purchase NBE bills corresponds to 27 %t of any new loan payments, and thus removing the

possibility of investing or lending these funds by private banking sector(World Bank, Ethiopia Economic Update II, 2015,P 6).

4. Deposit Mobilizationand Financial Performance of Banking Industry

Due to the observed branch expansion with an objective of addressing banking service to clients, especially in recent years, the total asset specially generated from deposit by: saving, demand, and time

mobilization of the banking sector has significantly increased from USD 4.45 billion by the end of June 2005 to USD 10.7 billion by

the year2012/13.The average annual growth rate in deposit was about 20%.

As different sources indicate, the three public banks mobilized about 70% of total deposits mobilized by all commercial banks by the end of

June 2008. This has shown only small decline within the last five

years and accounted for about 68% in 2012. From total deposits

mobilized by public banks, CBE alone covers 66% of the total deposit

mobilization of banking industry in Ethiopia as of year2012.The

financial markets of Ethiopiaconsist of the money market, the foreign exchange market and the capital market. Money market is a market

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for the concerningon short-term funds with maturities less than one year from a financial institution where there is a surplus fund to another financial institution with temporary deficits in funding. The concept of foreign exchange market is a market for the buying and selling of foreign currencies against the Ethiopian currency (Birr)and

or against other foreign currencies. While the capital market is concerned,a market for mobilizing long-term funds consisting ofequity and bond markets. Equity market is useful for firms to raise funds by

issuing shares and stocks, the bond market helps to market and raise funds by issuing private debt or government securities.

Beside its expected significant role in the country’soverall economy, the Ethiopian financial market still remains low level and demand development of the sector. The money market in Ethiopia has been in existence since 1998 has remained inactiveand latent serving only limited number of transaction since then. From 1998 onwards, a total of twenty three transactions worth of Birr 259.2 million were

conducted in the inter-bank money market transactions. The rate of interest charged for long term loans especially for the maturity period ranges from overnight to five years ranged between 7 to 11% per year.Since April 2008,there is no inter-bank money market

transaction in Ethiopian banking industry.

Since last five years, the inter-bank foreign exchange market has been relatively active and reported improvement from year to year in its overall operations. Beside its improvement in operations, the volume of foreign exchange traded in the inter-bank foreign exchange market reached USD 152.2 million 2011/12,where there was significant

increase compared to USD 12.6 million in 2009/10(IMF Report,

2013). From the total transactions conducted among interbank foreign exchange trading in 2011/12, commercial banks accounted for USD 90.9Million or about 60% while the remaining amount which

accounts for USD 61.3 million supplied by NBE.

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Table 3: Ethiopian Banks Branch, and Access in Relation Population

Year Public banks

Private banks

Regional states

Addis Ababa

Total Population in

million

Outreach to

client

2008/9 273 363 354 282 636 76.8 1:120,754

2009/10 273 408 416 265 681 78.8 1:115,712

2010/11 483 487 621 349 970 80.7 1:83,196

2011/12 675 614 859 430 1289 82.7 1:64,158

2012/13 711 665 918 458 1376 84.8 1:49,675

Source:Own compilation based on NBE and different Annual Reports

Table 4: The Status and Involvement of Commercial Banks in Serving Their Clients and Mobilization Resources

No

Indicators

Year

2008

2009

2010

2011 2012/13

1 Commercial banks branches/1000km2

0.54

0.62

0.68

0.96 1.53

2 Commercial banks branches/100,000 clients

1.2 1.32

1.37

1.91 2.96

3 Number of ATMs /1000km2 0.03

0.05

0.15

0.16 0.24

4 Number of ATMs/100,000 clients

0.07

0.1 0.3 0.32 0.46

5 Outstanding deposits with commercial banks(%GDP)

24.96

22.68

25.2

27.18

24.4

6 Outstanding loans from commercial banks(%GDP)

14.44

12.1

12.44

12.61

13.46

Source:Own Compilation and IMF Financial Survey (2014)

Conclusions

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Based on different literatures and researches by scholars, there is no consensus to apply a single instrument and model in determining competitiveness and developing a single structure that optimizes efficiency, stability, and ensure sustainability of banking industry. Determining and forecasting the sustainability of organization may not be easy in banking industry due to the fact that the profitability and

competitiveness of are not good indicators for both sustainability and competitiveness especially if there is stiff competition and less regulated. On the other hand, it may be possible to determine and forecast banking efficiency to benefit from both competition and sizeperspectives (Northcott, 2004). Competitiveness in market and market relatedarea can power provide incentives for banks to actcarefully, but government regulations such as; capital requirement during startup, disclosure rules and risk based deposit insurance and related rules can help ensure that banks behave prudently even in a stiff competitive market situations.

Neither perfect or extreme competition nor monopoly market structure is likely ideal and practical in dynamic market and business environment. It may not be easy eliminating the presence of complete marketing power, stiff competition and monopoly in banking industry(Northcott, 2004). Similarly, LiangZhicheng (2007) in

achieving optimal competitive banking environment, the quality of legal institutions is the most important that firms are expected to take in to consideration to have competitive power of marking over similar competing firms and ensure competitive advantage to sustain in the market

Sources from the National Bank of Ethiopia obtained shown that, enterprises at federal level and regional state have been the main issuers of corporate bonds in securing financial problem. While the Commercial Bank Ethiopia was the major corporate bond holder in the country by issuing and selling bonds to overcome sustainability

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problem in commercial banking industry. As of 2011/12 fiscal year,

CBEcorporate bond holding reached at USD 3.53billion in that has an

increase of 41.3% compared to Birr 2.5 billion in 2010/11 fiscal year.

From the total corporate bond holding by the CBE, about 79.2%goes to

Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. While the remaining amount 17.8% of regional governments and 3% of the Development Bank of

Ethiopia (DBE).

References

1) African Development Bank (2011), Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Country Strategy Paper, April 2011.

2) African Economic Outlook (2012), Ethiopia, 2012.

3) GetnetAlemu (2010) Challenges and Prospects of Agriculture Development Led Industrialization in Transforming the Economy and Promoting Private Sector Development, CIDA, Addis Ababa.

4) IMF, “Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: 2013 Article IV Consultation,” p. 21.

5) IMF(2013/4), “The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia:

Selected Issues,” p. 13.

6) IMF(2015), The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Selected Issues, p 43

7) Liang Zhicheng (2007). “Banking Sector Development and Economic Growth in China: Why Does the Quality of Legal Institution matter?”, paper prepared for the international conference on opening and innovation on financial emerging markets, Beijing.

8) NBE(2015), Reports on Financial Sector Development in Ethiopia, unpublished source

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9) Nordic Competition Authority (2006). “Competition in Nordic

Retail Banking”, Report No. 1/2006, Nordic Competition Authorities.

10) Northcott C (2004). “Competition in Banking: A review of Literature”, Working paper 2004-24, Bank of Canada.

11) The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Selected Issues,”

IMF Country Report, no. 13/309 (October 2013), p. 14.

12) World Bank(2015), Ethiopia Economic Update II, p. 6.

13) World Bank(2015), Ethiopia Economic Update II, p. 41.

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EFFECT OF ACADEMIC MOTIVATION AND SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE ON ACHIEVEMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Brojogopal Chand Research Scholar

Department of Education The University of Burdwan

Burdwan,W B.

Bhim Chandra Mondal Principal

Nikhil Banga Sikshan Mahavidyalaya

P.O- Bishnupur Dist- Bankura, W.B.

Tuhin Kumar Samanta Professor

Department of Education The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, W.B.

Abstract

Present article tried to find out the effect of academic motivation and scientific attitude on academic achievement in Physical Science of secondary school students. A sample of 699 secondary school students of class IX participated in the study from 19 district of West Bengal by employing random sampling technique. The data have been collected by using self made scientific attitude Scale (SAS) after standardized the scale, academic motivation scale developed by D. D. Bhattacharyya(1980), standardized in West Bengal and another self developed standardized achievement test in physical science have been used by the investigator. The results have been analyzed by using both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics and found that both

academic motivation and scientific attitude significantly affect academic achievement in physical science.

Key Words: Academic Motivation, Achievement, Physical science,

Scientific attitude, ANOVA, t test

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Introduction

Academic achievement is the important end product of academic endeavors at all levels of education. Research studies on academic achievement indicate the influence of students socio-personal factors, family and parental characteristics, nature and type of school or educational institution, cognitive aspects, affective factors, learning style, personality characteristics, etc.

Krapp (1993) defined motivation as psychological processes

which explain the appearance and evolvement of learning activities and its effects. A suitable environment that nurtures the motivation to learn can be cultivated either in the home or in the classroom. Research, now-a-day mainly focus on educational motivation cantered on the classroom, where the majority of learning takes place and where students are most likely to acquire a strong motivation to gain new knowledge (Ames 1987, Brophy 1987, Grossnickle 1989, Wlodkowski).

Psychologists believe that motivation is an important element for learning (Biehler and Snowman, 1986). According to Fontana (1981) satisfactory school learning is likely to take place in the presence of sufficient motivation to learn. The issues of motivation of students in education and the impact on academic performance are considered as an important aspect of effective learning. So, there is a need to motivate pupils so as to arouse and sustain their interest in learning physical science.

Development of scientific attitude is considered as an important objective of science learning all over the world. It has also been shown that one of the most important factors in science teaching is the attitude which determines behaviour (Amjad & Muhammad, 2012). Munby (1983) defined scientific attitude as the thinking pattern that includes curiosity, rationality, willingness to suspend judgment, open-mindedness, critical-mindedness, objectivity, honesty and humility. It

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regulates behaviour that is directed towards or away from some object or situation, or group of objects or situations. It also helps in the formation of scientific concept which is essential to dispel social evils and helps in development of open mindedness, decision-taking ability. Training in scientific method thus improves the quality of thinking and consequently it affects academic achievement of students (Garg 2014).

So, academic motivation and scientific attitude may affect the academic performance of students.

Objectives of the study:

In order to conduct the study smoothly, objectives are framed as follows:

i. To compare the existence of relationship between achievement in Physical Science with academic motivation.

ii. To compare the existence of relationship between achievement in Physical Science with Scientific attitude.

iii. To study the interaction effect among academic motivation and scientific attitude in the achievement in Physical Science.

In order to get the answer of the above question the researcher tries to investigate a problem entitled “Effect of Academic Motivation and Scientific Attitude in the Academic Achievement of Physical Science.”

Hypotheses of the study :

Following hypotheses has been framed for the present study :

H01: There is no significant difference exist among different levels of

academic motivation in the achievement in physical science of secondary school students.

H02: There is no significant difference exist among different levels of

scientific attitude in the achievement in physical science of secondary school students.

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H0

3: There is no significant interaction exist between academic

achievement and scientific attitude in the achievement of physical science of secondary school students.

Samples and sampling :

In the present study descriptive survey method has been employed for data collection. A sample of 699 secondary school students of class IX participated in the study from 19 district of West Bengal by employing random sampling technique.

Tools used :

The data have been collected by using academic motivation scale of D. D. Bhattacharyya (1980), standardized in West Bengal. Scientific attitude scale as well as achievement test in physical science have been

used by the investigator.

Analysis and interpretation

Testing of H01

ANOVA results (Table 1) for academic motivation are found to be 4.90 which is significant at 0.01 level. It implies that effect of different levels of academic motivation on achievement in physical science differ significantly. So, H1

o is rejected. In order to observe the

effect of different levels of academic motivation on achievement in physical science, academic motivation levels has been classified into three category viz. highly motivated, average motivated and low motivated level on the basis of standard procedure. In order to know which pairs is significant, ‘t’ test has been employed and presented on Table 2. It has been observed from Table 2 that two pairs viz. high motivation – low motivation and average motivation - low motivation

group differ significantly on academic achievement. However, high motivation – average motivation did differ significantly on academic achievement of physical science.

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Table 1 Summary of two way ANOVA results

Source of variation SS df MS F ratio

A (Motivation)

B ( Scientific Attitude)

A B

Within group

1275.84

1345.476

131.83

89673.12

2

2

4

690

637.92

672.73

32.95

129.96

4.90*

5.17*

0.25

*Significant at 0.01 level

Table 2 Presenting ‘t’ critical ratio for different pairs of academic motivation

Thus, academic achievement depends on the extent to which they are motivated. Highly motivated and average motivated students perform better in academic affair than the low motivated students whereas

Pairs N Mean SD Mean diff

‘t’ value

Highly motivated

101 117.31 10.75 1.28

1.00

Average Motivated

477 116.03 11.77

Highly motivated

101 117.36 10.75 4.86 3.32

Low Motivated 121 112.50 10.74

Average Motivated

477 116.03 11.77 3.53 3.00

Low Motivated 121 112.50 10.74

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performance level did not differ significantly between high and low motivated students.

Testing of H02

Effect of different levels of scientific attitude on academic

achievement in physical science has been measured after classifying scientific attitude into three category viz. high attitude, average attitude and low attitude level. From Table 1, it is observed that F value for scientific attitude is found to be 5.17 which is significant at 0.01 level. It implies that effect of different levels of scientific attitude on achievement in physical science differ significantly. So, H2

o is

rejected. In order to know which pairs is significant, ‘t’ test was performed and presented at Table 3. It is observed from Table 3 that two pairs viz. high attitude– low attitude and average attitude - low attitude group differ significantly on academic achievement. However, high attitude – average attitude did differ significantly on academic achievement in physical science.

Table 3 Presenting ‘t’ critical ratio for different pairs of scientific attitude

Pairs N Mean SD Mean diff ‘t’ value

High attitude 148 117.03 11.01 0.12 0.13

Average Attitude 362 116.91 11.63

High attitude 148 117.03 11.01 3.02 2.95

Low Attitude 189 113.99 11.22

Average Attitude 362 116.91 11.63 2.92 3.18

Low Attitude 189 113.99 11.22

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Testing of H0

3

ANOVA results from Table 1 (F = 0.25) indicates that no significant interaction effect exist between academic achievement and scientific attitude in the achievement of physical science of secondary

school students. In the light of the above finding, H03 is accepted.

Results and discussion

Academic motivation

Achievement motivation could be seen as self determination to succeed in academic activities (Amalaha, 1975). According to the findings of this study, significant (p <0.05) relationship exist between different level academic motivation with academic achievement. The results supports the view of Bank and Finlapson’s (1980), Gotrified (1985;1990), Boggiano et al. (1992) who stressed that successful students have significant higher motivation for achievement than unsuccessful students. Johnson (1996), Broussard (2002), Tella (2007), Sandhu (2014) also found that academic achievement is highly correlated with student’s motivation which is also a good support to the

present findings. This finding may be due to motivation which may be serve as an activating force, a drive or an urge to achieve good results and recognition from the society.

Scientific attitude

Development of scientific attitude is considered as an important objective of science learning all over the world. The finding indicates that scientific attitude affects academic achievement. Success in academic activities especially in science depends on reasoning, accuracy in calculation, judgement, openness, criticalness etc. that are also the components of scientific attitude according to Noll (1935). Scientific attitude is also a process of examining the offered evidence and reasoning, and forming reasonable judgments about the facts. The

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result corroborates with the finding of Simpson (1978); Wilson (1983); Soyibo (1985), Sreenivasa & Baburao (1997), Vaslow (2000), Ellakakumar & Elankathirslvan (2001), Sandra (2002), Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2006).

Conclusion

This finding justified the importance of motivation to academic performance. It is important for both parents and educators to understand why promoting and encouraging academic motivation from

an early age is very important. Thus, teachers should try to motivate their students during the course of instructions. The parents as well as the government should engage in programmes that can motivate the students to improve their academic performance. As motivational factors have crucial role in academic achievement which is related to the society’s development, it is suggested that more attention be paid to the components of motivation by administrators and educational planners.

References

Amalaha BM (1975). Academic achievement motivation of Ibo fifth formers. Dissertational Abstracts Int. 36(1): 123-A.

Ames, C. (1987). The Enhancement of Student Motivation In Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol 5: Enhancing Motivation, edited by Martin L. M. and Douglas A. K., pp. 123-48. Greenwich, Connecticut: Academic Press.

Amjad I. P. and Muhammad F.(2012). Measurement of Scientific Attitude of Secondary School Students in Pakistan. Academic Research International 2 (2), 379-392.

Bank, C. and Finlapson, W. (1980). Successful Motivation of Students in Academic Activities in McClelland, D.C. Appleton-Century-Crafts.

Biehler, R. F. and Snowmnan, J. (1986). Psychology Applied to Teaching (5th Ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Boggiano, A. K., Shields, A., Barrett, M., Kellam, T., Thompson, E., Simons, J., and Katz, P. (1992). Helpless deficits in students: The

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role of motivational orientation. Motivation and Emotion, 16(3), 271-296.

Brophy, J. (1987). Socializing Students to Learn In Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol 5: Enhancing Motivation, edited by Martin L. M. and Douglas A. K.. pp. 181-210. Greenwich, Connecticut: Academic Press.

Broussard, S.C. (2002). The relationship between classroom motivation and academic achievement in first and third graders. Ph.D. Dissertation, B.C.J. Louisiana State University.

Ellakakumar, B. and Elankathirslvan, N. (2001). Achievement Motivation of Higher Secondary Students and their Achievement in Physics. Journal of Educational Research and Extension, 30(1), 27-35.

Fontana, D. (1981). Psychology for Teachers. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.

Garg, A. (2014). A Comparative study of Scientific Attitude of High and Low Achievers, International Journal of Research, 1(8), 1055-1062.

Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 631-645.

Gottfried, A.E.(1990).Academic Intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology;82(3), 525-538.

Grossnickle, D.R.(1989). Helping Students Develop Self-Motivation: A Sourcebook for Parents and Educators. Reston, Virginia: National Association of Secondary School Principals.

Johnson, J. O. (1996). Child Psychology. Wusen Press Limited. Calabar, Nigeria.

Krapp, A. (1999). Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological perspective. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14(1), 23-40.

Munby, H. (1983). Thirty Studies Involving the Scientific Attitude Inventory. What Confidence can we in this Instrument? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20 (2), 141-162.

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF SRI VIJAYANANDA GAJAPATHI TO

SEPARATE ANDHRA MOVEMENT

Dr. B.Syam Sundar Raju Senior Lecturer in History

Montessori Mahila Kalasala Degree College Vijayawada

In this article an attempt is made to discuss the role of vizianagaram zamindars in the development of nationalism in India, and especially in Andhra. Their participation in the national movement was indirect

until 1940 and later on the zamindars directly involved. These zamindars were progressive in all spheres of their life, their liberal policies and acts in the spheres of social, educational cultural and economic activities contributed much to the growth of nationalism in Andhra.

The vizianagaram zamindars suffered heavily due to British policies and activities, and they never forget their glorious past. The background of Vizianagaram zamindars was the main reason why these zamindars even though apparently very loyal to the British were Pro-nationalist in the early days of the development of nationalism.The tactics played by the colonial government , the conservative attitude of the zamindars and the development of extremist and socialist tendencies in national movement in the later phase were mainly responsible for the isolation of almost all the zamindars like vizianagaram remain constantly friendly to nationalist

movement.This artical focused mainly on the efforts made by the vizinagar zamindar sri vijayananda gajapathi strive for the separate Andhra movement

After the introduction of India act of 1935 elections were held to madras legislative assembly. Alakah Narayana Gajapathi was elected as an independent from vizianagaram constituency and secured large

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number of votes, than any other elected representative throughout India. He entered into the madras legislative assembly with great enthusiasm to fight for independence. But the deteriorated health did not allow him to live for more years. In the same year he accidently fell from the corridor of his house (admiralty house) at madras and died on

October 26, 1937. 1 By that time congress came out victorious and assumed office in July, 1937, and the election of Pattabhi sitaramaiah as president of Andhra congress committee, boosted and Andhra to intensify the demand for seperate Andhra province. In February, 1938 Muniswamy pillai, the agricultural minister stated that the formation of Andhra Province could be discussed after the federation issue was settled. 2 Andhra leaders felt that the linking of the Andhra issue with the Federation was to post phone the issue. Kala venkata Rao got a petition signed by all the Andhra legislators, 373Requesting the government to pass a resolution on Andhra Province. 3

The assembly passed a resolution on March 30, 1938. The madras government forwarded the resolution to the government of India on April 21, 1938, on May 11; the government of India informed it that the resolution had been forwarded with recommendation to the secretary of

state for India. 4 Lord Stanly stated in the House of Commons it was rested with the crown not with the secretary of State. Lord Zetland did not regard it as in the intrest of India to embark on a policy of creation off new provinces at that time5 these statements hurt many Andhra leaders, samba Murthy, the speaker assembly sought for permission of congress to resign his office and his Membership It was also reported he wanted to take an active part in the agitation fro separate Andhra Provience.6 The working committee of APPC decided to send deputation to congress working committee consisting of K.Venkatappaiah and M. Pallam Raju for the coastal Districts and Koti Reddy and Kalluri subba Rao from Rayalaseema. 7 It met the working committee at wardha , after hearing deputation, assured the people

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the solution of linguistic provinces would but under taken as a part of the future scheme of government of India as soon as the congress had the power to do so and called upon the people of these areas to desist from any further agitation in this behalf which might divert the attention from the main issue then before the country. Thus the

question was indefinitely post phoned. The ASPC executive ceased to agitate for Andhra province. The Andhra felt that they were being exploited of their surplus revenue and discriminated against matters like irrigation, education and the services, while these feelings were growing C.Rajagopala chair the premier of Madras toured the Andhra districts till July, 1938. During his tour he understood the resentment against government. The crowds thronged round him only demand Andhra Province and due share in public services and expanding Andhra revenue on Andhra alone. 8.

Soon he returned from tour , he convened a cabinet meeting to prepare a detailed memorandum where in all facts concerning the advantages of a separate province were included as also the opinion of the cabinet , that for administrative convenience and for preventing further bitterness among the rival intrest as Andhra province should

be formed, and placed if before the cabinet meeting under Eriskin’s president ship. Erskine volunteered a solution for the problem of locating the capital the only point of disagreement. The Andhra members had insisted that the Madras city should be the Andhra capital, while the Tamil members urged its retention as Tamil Capital. lord Erskine suggested that for administrative convenience Madras might be the capital of both provinces with the same governor presiding over the cabinets. All beloved that a separate providence would be formed as soon as the secretary of the state for India received the cabinets memorandum with the governor’s covering letter.9 March , 1939 C.Rajagopalachari informed that he received an averse reply from the secretary of state to the creation of Andhra province.

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The Andhra Mahasabha (AMS) met at Guntur in August, 1939, in which a resolution was drafted, which suggested that, the boycott of British goods and picketing throughout the Andhra districts if Andhra was not separated. 10 the Chairman of the reception committee suggested the Satyagraha and non-payment of taxes from January,

1940 or 41 and to start a campaign independently of the congress for the realisation of Andhra provinces. 11 The conference discussed the resolution of Andhra province for six hours, and it resolved that if within six months there were no signs of getting the Andhra province, that this standing committee should be authorised to start a civil disobedience movement against the government. 28 the Andhra congress did not approve of this ultimatum given by the Andhra Mahasabha.12 In the month of October , 1939, the madras ministry resigned in competence with the resolution of working committee ‘s resolution to refuse support to great Britain in the second world war.

In October 17, 1940 the congress launched individual civil disobedience movement and called upon the people throughout the country not to assist the British war efforts. The president of A.M.S went to jail. By that time subba Rao strived hard to resurrect the AMS.

The Government realised the prisoners in October 1940. In such a situation the Andhra wanted the ministry should once again take up the question of Andhra province.

The secessions of A.M.S held at Vizapatam heralded a new chapter in the history of AMA. It was organised by Subba rao in November, 1941 and presided over by vizinagaram Maharaja kumar Viziananda Gajapathi, popularly known as Vizzi. He had never been a prominent figure in Andhra because of his stay at Benares. He was a son of Vijayarama Gajapathi IV. He was given property and the estate at kasi, while Vizianagaram Zamindary was looked after by Alaka Narayana. He was educated at Hales bury at London. Soon after his education he married the daughter of zamindar of Nainital and he

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secured fame to the country through his377P) Talent in sports. He led the Indian Cricket team to London and for some time he worked as a commentator. 13.

Sri vijayanand of Vizianagaram who, living in far –off Benares, had never been a prominent figure in Andhra Politics. In 1937 elections

he defeated the congress candidate in U.P and was a minister in the interim cabinet.

Maharaja Kumar sir vijaya of vizianagaram, of Benares, was elected as the president of Andhra Mahasabh at Vizagapatam session of Mahasabha held on 22nd and 23rd of November, 1941. In his first address he told the gathering that, though he had been away from them for twenty years, “The fact remains that an Andhra I am, and an Andhra I shall always be. People in the U .P.man; but I have always told them that I am an Andhra first and anythingeles afterwards’. Such was his attachment towards Andhra. Regarding the Andhra Province, explaining the difficulties, he observed that “the present situation, from the point of view of the Andhra, seems to be rather gloomy... the British government frankly fear that the Andhras are too loyal to the congress to play the British regime. They do not

want another congress or Pro- congress Province... 14 such was his analytical observation regarding the British policy towards granting separate 378Andhra province. In his speech he also strongly rebutted the charge that the Andhra separation stands on the same footing as the demand for Pakistan.

The sessions held under his president ship were, well attended by prominent congress-men and there was a realisation that they unitedly work for separate Andhra province removing every impediment in the creation of Andhra province and if their efforts failed to make all sacrifices for its realisation. 15.

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Sri Vijayananad being a shrewd politician made himself busy with the objective of bringing about conciliation between the leaders of Rayalaseema and circars for the realisation of Andhra province. Though there was a no signal representation from Rayalaseema to Vizagapatam secession he stressed in his speech he offered blank

cheque to Rayalaseema. 16 he declared he would abide by the Sri Bhag pact until modified by agreement. He toured the famine affected areas of Rayalassema and collected donations to relief measures, and offered 70,000 rupees on behalf of Andhra Mahasabha. Later he met the governor to take relief measures for Rayalaseema. 17.

Vijayanand’s efforts were sympathetically appreciated by the congressmen of Rayalaseema. Still the Rayalaseema. Maha- sabha expressed their distrust of the circars. Among them sitaram reddy, a signatory to sri Bhaga pact remarked that “ It is very convenient to be generous when they have nothing to give” and they requested the government to appoint a special offer to investigate the financial implications of the proposed province keeping in view the economic development of Rayalaseema.

Vijayananda Gajapathi was so serious towards the question of

Andhra Province that time and again he met the governor of Madras and conveyed the resolutions of working committee. 18. he discussed with the governor on separate budget, for Telugu districts, preferential treatment to Andhras in employment, the establishment of a radio station in Andhra and for the construction of sea port at Masulipatnam. 18 vijayananad requested the governor if the popular government were formed at center and in the provinces, the members of the legislature and the government should take necessary steps for the establishment of separate Andhra Province. 19

In the meanwhile sir Stafford Crips visited India to discuss constitutional reforms. Sir Vijayananda met him as the president of

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AMS and submitted a memorandum for taking steps for formation of Andhra province. 20 Cripps replied that the resolution on the Andhra province passed by the madras legislature was held up at Indian office and could not be considered at all. And he advised the Indian leaders that it was to be solved by themselves through their constitution

making body. 21 later on vijayananada raised the question on separate budget for Andhra districts and discussed with the governor. Ultimately, he agreed to it, but it did not materialise.

But in August, 1942 the quit India movement started, the AMS Executive met at Bellary on August 16, 1942 to discuss on their further action. The government followed repressive policy towards the government. The AM.S session was scheduled to be held It Rajahmundry on 27th and 28th February, 1943. But due to the restrictions vijayananada met the governor to get permission. The governor accepted to permit him, on condition that if he agreed to restrict the agenda to the question of the Andhra province and guaranteed that political discussions would be avoided. He did not like such restrictions and post opened the secession. 22 After one year it met at Bellary in October, 1943 in which he suggested that ‘Although the

Mahasabha as such is not a political body of the type of the congress or the league , or Hindu Mahasabha, yet it should be the unwritten law among us, Andhra, that the feature representatives of the legislatures should be chosen form out of the Mahasabha ranks and it should be the duty of every elector to make sure that man and women he is choosing is going to do his or her best to further our cause... Every Andhra should make a point of seeing the only those who are pledged to help in solving our problem are returned as members of the legislature”23.

The statement made by him at A.M.S secession of Bellary was criticized as some felt the leaders of A.M.S intended to make it a political organisation. Its standing committee authorised him to

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convene an all –party conference to discuss measures for the release of political prisoners ending the dead-lock and ushering in a popular government. He started to contact leaders of different parties. But as malaviya was thinking of convening such conference he abandoned his efforts to convene all- party conference. 24. The announcement of

Wavell in 1945 and at subsequent elections to the constitution-making body the congress; ledged to the reopening o provinces on a linguistic and cultural basis. Within short time in the winter 1945, a parliamentary delegation visited India. Vijayananad submitted a memorandum along with its secretary urging them for creation of Andhra province and they agreed with the idea. The adviser of Madras governor sir Norman Strathy announced that the madras province was too big and it should be divided on these lines: madras city was to be separate province, and the Tamilnadu province with the capital at Trichy, and Andhra Province with capital at Bezwada. Again the council of states passed a resolution on the lines of Strathy, but as constitutional issues were involved in the resolution was not accepted.

Vijayanand Gajapathi reiterated in his speech at 1946 session A.M.S. at Guntur that the Andhras should realise the necessity to elect

those candidates who pledged to fight for the formation of an Andhra province. Congress won the election and assumed office in April, 1946. Vijayanad resigned his president ship of the A.M.S owing to illness. This ended his active particiapation for Andhra provience. It was only in October, 1953 at Andhras were able to have a separate state for themselves.

Vijayananad’s stewardship of the Mahasabha lasted for nearly five years- from November 1941 to 1946 August. He was elected thrice for its president ship, during 1941, 1943, and 1946. During this period, for one year, he was too ill to do anything and during the remaining period, he visited Andhra on several occasions, met sir S.Cripps, the governors of madras and Orissa and other high dignitaries, as well as

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important non-officials leaders, presided over its meetings , undertook several tours and guided the Mahasabha and contributed to its funds as no other president had done. But in the end “this gem f a president had to retire rather disgustedly, and the mahasabha was deprived of his invaluable services at the very moment when they sere needed most”. 25

Thus the vizianagaram Zamindars played a notable role in the struggle for the freedom within the limitations imposed by the colonial government and their aristocratic traditions.

References

1. 1. Sri andhr Kshatriy vamsa Ratnakaram.p.82.

2. Andhpatrika, Feburuary 7,1938.

3. The Hindu ,March 14, 1938.

4. G.O.No.1427 Public (service ) september2, 1939.

5. The Indian Express, May, 1938.

6. Ibid.,May 11, 1938, the hindu ,May 17, 1938.

7. Andhra patrika, july 6, 1938.

8. Ibid.,July 18,,1938.

9. Indian Express, November 25, 1941.

10. The HINDU.. August 26, 1939.

11. Ibid., Aug 26,1939.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.,august 30, 1939.

14. Andhra Kshatriya samstanamulu, Vijayanagaramu, p.83.

15. G.V. Subba Rao (Ed.) History of Andhra Movement, Vol .II, PP.191,192.

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16. Ibid.., p.192.

17. Indian Express. Nov,23, 1941.

18. Ibid., December 20,1941.

19. Ibid., August 15. 1943 and Ibid., July 25, 1943.

20. Proceedings of Andhra Mahasabha.

21. Andra Patrika, January 3, 1944.

22. The Indian Express.july16,1944

23. Presidential Address of Sri vijaya at Ballary,

1943.sessions of A.M.S., pp 17-22

24. Indian Express, Aprilk 4, 1942, April 6, 1942.

25. Indian Express, Febuary13and 15 and march 5,

1943.

26. Presidential Address of sri vijaya at ballary, G.V. Subba Rao, op.cit., pp 282-83

27. Andhra Patrika, October 24, 1943, and Andhra Patrika. February 21, 1944.

28. G.V. Subba Rao (ed) ., History of Andhra Movement, Vol .II, P. 280.

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A STUDY ON THE CREATIVITY OF TEACHERS IN RELATION

TO THEIR JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE TEACHERS IN VIZIANAGARAM DISTRICT OF

ANDHRA PRADESH.

Dr.N.Sujata Assistant Professor

University College of Education Adikavi Nannaya University, Rajahmundry

What is Creativity ?

“Creativity is the process of bringing something new into being. Creativity requires passion and commitment. It brings to our awareness what was previously hidden and points to new life.” – Rollo May.

Creativity is a complex terms and embraces many aspects. No single definition would be able to cover all the aspects. The following are some of the views and definitions given by pioneers in the field.

(a) Creativity is a mental process whereby an individual process something uniquely new to him.

(b) It is a capacity, which leads to innovations in various fields of knowledge. It is an aptitude tact and and way of life.

(c) Dr. E.P.Torrance (1960) defined it as the process of sensing gaps and discovering missing elements, forming hypotheses or ideas concerning them, testing these hypotheses and communicating their results, probably modifying and retesting these hypotheses.

(d) Gangue viewed it as problem solving.

(e) Drevdhal (1956) defined it a capacity of persons to produce compositions.

(f) It is the capacity of the individual to avoid the usual routine conventional way of thinking and doing things and producing a

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quantity of ideas, which are original, novel and which are workable (Peers, Dames and Quack and Bush, 1960).

Dimensions of teacher’s Creativity :

Every psychological concept can be analyzed or understood basing on its dimensions. The concept of creativity can best be explained clearly with the help of its dimensions of creativity perhaps be meaningfully presented by considering its major dimensions. Psychologists addressed more than two dozens of such dimensions. For

example – fluency, originality, flexibility, elaborations’, divergent thinking, convergent thinking, novelty, ability to produce greater and total number of ideas, uniqueness, usefulness, independent in judgment, resourceful, independent in thought and action.

Creativity – Its Measurement:

Since creativity is a psychological construct, measurement of it involves psychometric principles. The measurement is based on the principles of quantifying the quality. In no way, it differs from the measurement of certain dimensions. It is mentioned earlier that of creativity dimensions fluency, originality, flexibility and personality traits are major. Hence, any psychometric an would pay his labour in measuring these four major dimensions would pay his labour in measuring these four major dimensions.

What is JOB SATISFACTION ?

The term Job Satisfaction is generally used in organizational behavior in business management. One of the senses signs of deteriorating conditions in an organization is low job satisfaction (Keith Davi, 1993). Job Satisfaction is the favorableness or unfavorableness

with which employees view their work (Bruneberg, 1976). It signifies the amount of agreement between one’s expectations of the job and the rewards to the job provides. Job satisfaction is concerned with a person

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or a group in the organization. Job Satisfaction can be applicable more to parts of an individual’s job. If each person is highly satisfied with his job then only it will be considered as group job satisfaction.

Dimensions’ of Teacher Job Satisfaction:

Of so many dimensions, the researcher considered the following dimensions for measuring job satisfaction. They are

(1) Professional (2) Teaching Learning (3) Innovation (4) Inter-personal relations.

Professional relates to job security and social prestige, moulding the young minds, getting appreciation from others, reaching problems of the students.Teaching learning refer to problems of the students, new situations, successfully managing the classes, students active participation in the classes, innovative technique in teaching, systematic plan of the work. Innovation relates to creativity, innovative technique in teaching, participation of cultural activities, co-curricular and social welfare activities. Inter-personal relations refer to relations with colleagues, parents, students, higher authorities (or) any personnel confined to school.

Measurement of Teacher Job Satisfaction:

Job satisfaction measuring procedures appear to be complicated at a first glance. It seems simple to go to the employees and get data from them and then interpret. But experiences are shown that careless procedural class can limit seriously the validity and usefulness of the survey. Keen attention should be given to question construction, maintenance of anonymity for employees and sampling procedures

(Donald and Charlies, 1975). Even in Education field it is very difficult to measure the teacher job satisfaction.

After careful observation of the literature it is found that teachers job satisfaction can be measured mainly in two ways. (1)

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Observation and Interviews (2) Use of tests including inventories and writing scales developed by some psychologists and educational researchers like Crook, Maslach, Herhier and others, and Gaba Teacher job satisfaction scale, Gupta and Srivatsava teacher job satisfaction scale, Lodahl and Kejher’s job involvement scale and job satisfaction scale developed by Dixhit are some of the tools available for measuring

job satisfaction. However, they are context specific and may not be suitable for the present study. Hence, the researcher developed a teacher job satisfaction self-rating scale.

Methodology :

Method: The present study adopted Survey method of Research and

Descriptive in nature.

Objectives: To compare the Strength of Teachers creativity in

relation to their job satisfaction between male and female teachers in Vizianagaram Districts.

Hypothesis: There is no significant difference among the male and

female teachers, in relation to Teacher creativity and their job satisfaction.

Sample of the Study: For the present Study, Investigator selected

total sample of 200 teachers covering different primary, upper primary and secondary schools in Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh. Thus it is found to be a satisfactory sample and the sample is believed to be adequate to test the hypothesis.

Variables of Study: Male and Female teachers of Degree, Post

graduates, B.Ed, M.Ed, and other teachers.

Administration of the tool: After developing and standardizing the

two tools of the present study following the predictive validity as suggested by John.w.Best and James.v.Khan, the final and fresh scales are prepared for the final study and to administer with an specific

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instruction. Each statement in the both the tools are followed five alternatives as suggested by likerts method of summated rating technique. This technique is used because it is most straight forward technique. Those five alternatives are strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral (N), Disagree (DA), and Strongly Disagree (SDA). A clear instruction was given to the respondents to express their opinion by

putting a tick mark against the response category to which they are agree with. Each scale is started with Personal data page. These two scales are administrated to 200 teachers of the different schools in Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh.

Collection of Data :

For collecting the date the investigator visited each school and administered this scales to the teachers personally. The investigator requested the Teachers to follow those instructions, which responding to the tools. Teachers are further advised not to leave any item of the tool. Most of the teachers filled the tools on the spot and return to the investigator. Thus these two tools collected are scores according to the scoring procedure.

Scoring :

The responses scored according to the key. For all the positive items score from 5 to 1 for five responses i.e., Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral (N), Disagree (DA) and Strongly Disagree (SDA) respectively are given. For all negative statements scores 1 to 5 are given separately for SA, A, N, DA, SDA. Basing on the above scoring procedure both the tools were scored and computed as required and

stated in the analysis of data.

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Analysis of Data :

After collection of the data and computation of the scoring procedure the following statistical are used to analyze the data. Means and Standard Deviations for all the distributed items are calculated.

Verification of Hypothesis:

The hypothesis states that ‘there is no significant difference between Male and Female Teachers in relation to Teacher Creativity’ is tested and verified in Table 1

Table 1

Table showing the significance of difference of means between Male and Female Teachers in relation to Teacher Creativity

Variables Mean σ N df (N-2) ‘t’ Remarks

MALE TEACHERS

FEMALE TEACHERS

94.01

94.71

10.46

13.81

113

87

198 0.39 NOT

SIGNIFICANT

In this category, the ‘t’ value is 0.39, which is less than the table value i.e., 1.96; so it is not significant, hence, the hypothesis is accepted.

Verification of hypothesis:

The hypothesis states that ‘there is no significant difference between Male and Female in relation to Teacher Job Satisfaction’ is

tested and verified in Table 2.

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Table 2

Table showing the significance of difference of means between Male and Female Teachers in relation to Teacher Job Satisfaction

Variables Mean σ N

df

(N-2) ‘t’ Remarks

MALE TEACHERS

FEMALE TEACHERS

109.57

106.19

9.54

13.2

113

87

198

2.00

SIGNFICANT

In this category the ‘t’ value is 2.00, which is greater than the table value i.e., 1.96; so it is significant, hence, the hypothesis is

rejected.

While observing the mean values between Male and Female Teachers, it can be concluded that Male teachers (109.57) are more Job Satisfaction than the Female Teachers (106.19)

Conclusion:

An overall view of results it can be concluded that the male and female teachers creativity is not significant in nature . so both are very creative . And in the other view male teachers are showing more job satisfaction than female teachers. This supports the Theoretical frame work which has been presented in the above.

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References:

Thompson, E.R.; Phua F.T.T. (2012). "A Brief Index of Affective

Job Satisfaction". Group & Organization Management. 37 (3): 275–307.

Hulin, C. L., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Job attitUdes. In W. C.

Borman, D. R. ligen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 255-276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Uday Koundinya, ‘Professional Competency of Teacher Educators

and its on Professional Pleasure’, Research Paper presented in Regional Seminar at Mysore, NCERT, 1998.

Undurthy, L.N., ‘A Study of dimensions of Creativity in relation to Teaching in referable abilities’ (Unpublished) Ph.D., Thesis,

Andhra University, 1990.

M.S. Mani, ‘Creativity in relation to alienation ego-strength and intelligence in Arts and Science streams of Intermediate Students’, 1981.

Zargar, A.H., ‘A Study of Expression on Achievement in relation to

Creativity’, 1980.

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ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES AND THE SUCCESS

OF SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN MANUFACTURING SECTORS

Ammani Ammal Research Scholar

Bharathiar University Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

K.Malar Mathi BSMED

Bharathiar University Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract:

Entrepreneurship is of critical importance to the modern economy. Researchers have studies entrepreneurship for decades. In recent times, noteworthy relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and business success has been reported in empirical studies. In this research, we analysed the relationship between entrepreneurial competencies and entrepreneur’s business success in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) by taking into consideration of various competencies of entrepreneurs in managing their own ventures. This study was conducted with 30 SMEs owners using a structured questionnaire. The results of this study indicate that the entrepreneurial competencies do not have a significant relationship on SMEs success.

Keywords –entrepreneurial competencies, business success, SMEs

I. Introduction

Small business growth is a complex and multidimensional in scope and character. Research into small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) has grown during the last decade. A huge majority of firms

worldwide are SMEs, and they play a noteworthy role in the economy. Thus, the performance of the SME sector is closely associated with the performance of a nation. There is a universal acknowledgement that

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the success, performance and growth of SMEs is heavily dependent on the competencies of the entrepreneur. Competency is one of the most crucial factors to ensure the success of business ventures.

Venkataraman (1997) and Shane and Venkataraman (2000) have recently advocated that a key focus for the field of entrepreneurship

should be ‘why, when and how some people and not others discover and exploit opportunities.’ In this research we focus on a question closely related to this suggestion, why are some entrepreneurs more successful than others in exploiting oppourtunities they have discovered?

Man et al., 2002; Kiggundu, 2002; Ahmad et al., 2010; Man &Wafa, 2008), all claims that owners is the key factor the performance of a business. Kiggundu (2002) argue that the overall entrepreneurial competencies are qualities of entrepreneurship which include attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, skills, abilities, personality, and behaviour which is directed to achieve success. Further stated that entrepreneurial competencies could offer impracticable views about how somebody know running a business. Ahmad et al. (2010) found that entrepreneurial competencies predict the business success of SMEs. Man and Lau (2005) showing that entrepreneurial competencies

influential significant for the success of the business. Our research used tools that are similar to those that were used by some of the previous researchers (Man et al 2002; Ahmed et al, 2010).

1.2 Entrepreneurial Competency

A pertinent starting point in theorising entrepreneurial competencies is to first define competence. Competence is what people can do whereas competency focuses on how they do it (Sanghi, 2004). Spencer and Spencer (2008) proposed that competences refer to the range of skills which helps in satisfactory performance and competencies refer to the behaviour adopted in a competent performance. Entrepreneurial competency is defined as the individual

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characteristics including attitude and behaviour, which allows the entrepreneur to achieve business success. Bird (1995) defined entrepreneurial competencies as underlying characteristics such as specific knowledge, motives, traits, self-images, social roles and skills which result in venture birth, survival and/or growth. Man et al. (2002)

demarcated entrepreneurial competencies as the total ability of the entrepreneur to perform a job role successfully.

1.3 Objectives of the study

To identify and examine the influence of entrepreneurial competencies on business success of SMEs.

1.4 Conceptual Framework of the study

II. Literature Review

2.1 Entrepreneurial Competency

Understand the role of entrepreneur gives a better insight about what competencies needed by entrepreneurs to ensure the survival of the business as well as business success. In the literature, term such as

Entrepreneurial competencies

Strategic Commitment Conceptual

Oppourtunity Relationship Organising and

Leading Learning Personal Technical Ethical

Business Success

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competencies, capabilities, resources, assets and skills are often used interchangeably (Colombo and Grilli, 2005). Prior work on entrepreneurial competencies has focused on the individual entrepreneur (Chandler & Hanks; 1994; Man et al; 2002). There is more research into entrepreneurial competencies in general. Here we

identify some of the most significant studies, and reflect on the different approaches adopted in previous studies to the measurement of entrepreneurial competencies. Ahmad et al. (2010) using the measurement of entrepreneurial competence covering: strategic, conceptual, opportunity, relationship, learning, personal, ethical, familism. Smith and Morse (2005) observed that there are two broad themes in managerial competencies: (1) functional competencies, such as marketing and finance; and (2) organisational competencies, such as the skills related to organising and motivating, personal skills and leadership. In a similar functional approach, Orser and Riding (2003) developed 25 competency scales, which were grouped into nine functional areas. Man et al. (2002), in their process/behavioural approach based on the view of previous empirical studies, identified six competency areas under entrepreneurial competencies. These were: (1)

opportunity; (2) relationships; (3) conceptual; (4) organising; (5) strategic; and (6) commitment competencies. Baum et al. (2001) formed the entrepreneurship competencies as knowledge, cognitive ability, self-management, administration, human resource, decision skill, leadership, opportunity recognition, opportunity development and organisation skill. It is important to observe that the approaches taken by the various researchers to measuring competencies are varied, and are underpinned by different assumptions.

2.2 Business Success

The objective of every business is to be successful and success is defined in different ways. Some researchers focused on use of financial indicators while others considered non-financial indicators of success.

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The former asserted on traditional financial measures of performance such as turnover of sales, profitability, return on investment to predict the success and failure of a firm (Bruderal & Preisendorfer, 1998). Wilkund (1999) suggested that both aspects of performances i.e., financial and non-financial complement each other and indicate the

actual performance of business. Thus, it is not sufficient to focus only on financial performance while neglecting the other measures that indicate the business success as well (Buttner & Moore, 1997, Kuratko et al., 1997; Parasuraman et al., 1996). Murphy et al (1996) argued that both the financial and non-financial dimensions of organisational performance are needed to be emphasised in the future studies to capture total organisational performance. Thus this paper also includes both financial as well as non-financial indicators of SMEs business success in its proposed conceptual model.

III. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Data Collection Methods

Structured questionnaires were used to collect data for the study. The survey focuses on the SMEs owners, a total of 30 owners were selected from Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu those who are in manufacturing sector. The questionnaire was adopted from previous sources. In this study the researcher used variables like entrepreneurial competencies and business success. Items selected to measure these variables were adopted from previous studies. All the variables were

measured using five point Likert scale with level 1= strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree.

3.3. Methods of Data Analysis

The data gathered was analyzed using SPSS version 19 statistical package. Prior to conducting least squares regression analysis, the Cronbach’s alpha and KMO tests were undertaken to determine the scale reliability. The regression analysis was conducted

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to analyses the influence of entrepreneur competencies on business success.

IV. RESULTS

Reliability analysis was applied to measure the consistency in data (Table 1). The Cronbach’s Alpha was computed to measure the inter-item consistency and reliability of how well items were positively correlated to one another.

Table 1: Cronbach

Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items

.873 77

In Table 1, the value of the Cronbach’s alpha (= 0.873) indicate that the survey items are statistically reliable; thus the items measured a single unidimensional latent construct. Therefore, the data that were collected for this research survey were considered internally stable and consistent.

The structural validity and suitability of the sampling items was analyzed using the Keiser-Meyer-Olkin; which was statistically significant for the analysis.

Table 2: Regression Analysis

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 .975a .950 .919 .175

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From Table 2, the estimated model indicated that about 97.5

percent (Adj. R2 = 0.975) influence of competency variables on the success of business

Table 3: ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square

F Sig.

1 Regression 10.406 11 .946 31.010 .000

Residual .549 18 .031

Total 10.955 29

In Table 3, the model’s F-test value (= 31.010; significant at 0.05 level) also indicated that the model was highly significant.

Table 4: Influence of Competencies on Business Success

Model Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error

Beta

1 (Constant) 7.629 1.367 5.581 .000

Strategic -.038 .119 -.041 -.318 .754

Commitment

-.224 .322 -.151 -.696 .496

Conceptual 1.657 .387 1.292 4.280 .000

Opportunity -.692 .218 -.667 -3.170 .005

Relationship

1.115 .358 .789 3.115 .006

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Organization

-.378 .198 -.252 -1.910 .072

Learning -1.540 .141 -1.550 -10.916

.000

Personal -.934 .206 -.629 -4.534 .000

Technical .235 .128 .194 1.830 .084

Ethical .176 .195 .133 .900 .380

Social -.094 .073 -.148 -1.288 .214

Based on the standardized results (Table 4), the competencies conceptual, opportunity, relationship, learning, and personal have statistically significant influence (P<0.05) on the success of the SMEs. The variables strategic, commitment, organization, technical, ethical, and social have no significant influence on SMEs success.

VI. CONCLUSION

The results of the study illustrate that entrepreneurial competencies gives the role of business success, the higher the competence that small and medium business owners will cause the higher business success. Although research has managed to test empirically the proposed model, there are still some limitations that should be considered. First, the study only focused on SMEs in the

Coimbatore District. Therefore, to get the results more widely, further research could develop a research location in some areas. Second, this study did not consider the demographic factors of the owners of SMEs, therefore further research might consider testing entrepreneurial characteristics based on gender differences, to find out the entrepreneurial competencies and business success of the male and female as the owner of the SMEs.

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References

[1] Ahmad, N.H., Ramayah, T., Wilson, C., and Kummerow, L. Is Entrepreneurial Competency and Business Success Relationship Contingent Upon Business Environment? A Study of Malaysian SMEs. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour &Research, 16(3), 2010, 182-203.

[2] Ahmad, N.H., Halim, H.A., and Zainal, S.R.M. Is Entrepreneurial Competency the Silver Bullet for SME Success in a Development Nation? International Business Management, 4(2), 2010, 67-75

[3] Bird, B. (1995). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial competency. Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence, and Growth, JAI Press, 2, 51-72.

[4] Baum, J.R., Locke, E.A. and Smith, K.G. 2001. A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal. 44(2), 292–302.

[5] Bruderal, J. & Preisendorfer, P. (1998). Network Support and the Success of Newly Founded Business. Small Business Economics 10, 213-225.

[6] Buttner, E., & Moore, D. (1997). Women's organisational exodus to entrepreneurship: Self-reported motivations and correlates with success. Journal of Small Business Management, 35 (1), 34-46.

[7] Chandler, G.N. & Hanks, S.H. 1993. Measuring the performance of emerging businesses: A validation study. Journal of Business Venturing, 8(5): 391-409.

[8] Kiggundu, M.N. Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in Africa: what is known and what needs to be done, Journal of DevelopmentEntrepreneurship, 7(3), 2002, 239-258.

[9] Kuratko, D. F., Hornsby, J. S., & Naffziger, D. W. (1997). An examination of owner's goals in sustaining entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 35(1), 24-34.

[10] Man, M.M.K, and Wafa, S.A. Distinctive Capabilities and The Performance of Small and Medium-Size Enterprises (SMEs) in Malaysia. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 7(6), 2008, 45-59

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[11] Man, T.W.Y., Lau, T. and Chan, K.F. The competitiveness of small

and medium enterprises a conceptualization with focus on entrepreneurial competencies. Journal of Business Venturing. 17 (2), 2002, 123–142.

[12] Man, T.W.Y. and Lau T. The Concept of Entrepreneurship in Hong kong: an investigation through the patterns of entrepreneurial competencies in contrasting industrial environments, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12(4), 2005, 67-92.

[13] Murphy, G. B., Tailer, J. W., & Hill, R. C. (1996). Measuring performance in entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Research , 36 (1), 15-23.

[14] Parasuraman, S. P., Purohit, Y. S., Godshalk, V. M., & Beutell, N. J. (1996). Work and family variables, entrepreneurial career success and psychological well being. Journal of Vocational Behaviour , 48 (3), 275-300.

[15] Shane, S., Locke, E.A., and Collins, C.T. Entrepreneurial Motivation, Human Resources Management Review, 13, 2003, 25-279

[16] Shane S, Venkataraman S (2000) The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review 26 (1), 13-17.

[17] Venkataraman, S., 1997. The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research: an editor’s perspective. The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research. In: Katz, J. (Ed.), Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence, and Growth, vol. 3. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 119–138.

[18] Wiklund, J. (1999). The sustainability of the entrepreneurial orientation-- performance relationship. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 24(1), 37-48.

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ROLE OF ECOMYSTICISM IN ELT IN MIDDLE EAST

Haris .K Assistant Prof. of English

PSMO College, Tirurangadi & Research Scholar

University of Calicut

The importance of environmental studies and mystical inclination in education cannot be disputed in an age of materialist concerns.. The need for sustainable development is a key to the future of mankind. Continuing problems of pollution, solid waste disposal, degradation of environment, issues like economic productivity and national security, Global warming, the depletion of ozone layer and loss of biodiversity have made everyone aware of environmental issues. The

United Nations Coference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and world Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the globe to the deteriorating condition of our environment. It is clear that no citizen of the earth can afford to be ignorant of environment issues.

This paper aims to examine the ELT text books in the curricula in the schools and colleges in Middle East from an ecocritical and mystical perspective to find out how nature is represented in ELT books that are used in EFL classrooms worldwide. Course books are laden with political, ideological and cultural codes and meanings. In recent years, great importance has been attached to ecostudies which aim to draw attention to and raise awareness about the problems and issues about nature and environment. In order to be more effective and inclusive with an emphasis on the interrelatedness and

interdependence of different academic disciplines and fields of study, interdisciplinary studies have been encouraged in ecostudies. Global ecological enlightenment can be rendered possible for people through

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education by acquiring an ecological self and by recognizing how closely their human lives are linked to the non-human world. So, it will be a worthwhile attempt to find a way to integrate ecology into ELT to put it to useful service in reinforcing ecological consciousness. This study sets out to spark an interest in the potential of ELT coursebooks to generate green ideas when an ecologically-sensitive curriculum is

implemented especially in the countries of the Middle East.

This study intends to emphasize that cross-fertilization is possible between ecostudies and curriculum and materials development in ELT with a belief that textbooks can promote environmental agenda and bring about changes in learners’ attitudes toward the natural environment by nourishing their awareness of the physical world so that they can adopt more environmentally sound behavior.

While countless themes can spark the interests of language learners (and teachers), one of the most critical issues affecting people globally is the environmental degradation of the planet. Themes such as global warming, deforestation, and water pollution are regularly featured in the news, thereby raising our awareness of the troubled state of Mother Earth. When educational institutions—from elementary schools to university-based English foundation programs—recognize the value of environmental education, language teachers will

be in a unique position to promote environmental awareness while teaching English .

The term Ecology was introduced by Ernst Haeckel in 1860s to describe the relations between organisms and their environment with an emphasis on the mutual interdependence and interconnectedness of all living systems within the ecosystem. Ecocriticism, in a simplest sense, deals with the study of the relationship between the physical environment and texts, and focuses on how and to what effect nature is conceptualized and represented in various literary, cultural, critical and

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disciplinary contexts (Gersdorf and Mayer, 2006, p.13). Ecolinguistics, on the other hand, has been defined as “the ecological study of language and the linguistic study of ecology” (Busse, 2006, p.133). The linguistic study of ecology acknowledges that language use is always correlated to socio-cultural practices and ideologies in a given historical context. Hence, it sheds light on the interaction between language,

nature and environment by elaborating the role of language in the cultural shaping of the natural environment.

The aim of education for sustainable development (ESD) is to enable the people to develop necessary attitudes, skills, and knowledge for decision making to reach at beneficial outcomes for the self and others (UNESCO, 2010b). Environmental education has six objectives identified by the United Nations (UNESCO_UNEP, 1976 cited in Jacobs and Goatly, 2000, p.256).

1. Awareness of environmental problems.

2. Basic understanding of the environment and its problems and human beings’ role in relation to the environment.

3. Attitude of concern for environmental problems.

4. Skills in overcoming environmental problems.

5. Ability to evaluate proposed solutions to environmental problems.

6. Participation in solving environmental problems.

From the light of these issues the following questions are posed to analyze the syllabi under consideration.

- How is nature constructed by human culture/perspective?

- Is this presentation/representation based on anthropocentric or eco-centric/bio-centric worldviews?

- Do the texts offer environmentally focused and ecologically sensitive perspectives?

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- What kind of relationship between nature and human is established and promoted? What roles are assigned to both parties in this relationship?

- Do the texts emphasize the mutual interdependence and interconnectedness between human and non-human? Do the texts emphasize unity, connection and wholeness within the ecosystem?

- Do the texts present nature independently of human culture/civilization? Do the texts keep nature and human society/culture separate?

- Do the representations nourish, reinforce or challenge the patriarchal and anthropocentric culture’s dualistic conception of culture/nature, human/nature, human/animal dichotomies?

- Do the texts cover ecology and ecological issues in relation with political, ideological and cultural issues?

- Do the text raise consciousness about green agenda?

The common characteristic of environmental problems is that they are “global” (Erten, 2004). This is why the environmental efforts should not focus on individual regions, countries, or places and, in addition, it should not be considered as the problem and responsibility of specific people or institutions. Global understanding of the environmental issues could only be developed with common efforts of countries all

around the world.

As the present study is narrowed to Middle East, it discusses some of the major developments seen in the countries under reference. Turkey is example in the current parlance of thinking that ventured environmental endeavors and points out some practices to integrate environmental education to foreign language teaching.

In the 1960s, along with the rest of the world Turkish government started its efforts to prevent environmental problems (Erdoğan et al.,

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2009) by emphasizing the importance of the protection of the people’s physical and mental health in its 1961 constitution (Özdemir, 2003). This was the first time environment was acknowledged in Turkish Republic’s constitution via article 49. Attention to the environment increased with the 1982 constitution (Erdoğan et al. 2009). Another major step was the replacement of the Prime Ministry Under-

secretariat for Environment with the Ministry of Environment in 1991 (Erdoğan et al. 2009). The result of the increased attention to the environment was reflected in the school curriculum. In the 1990s, at the primary level national projects supported environmental education (Erdoğan et al. 2009) in addition to projects that are developed and organized by nongovernmental organizations such as TURCEV (Turkish Environmental Education Foundation)

If we look at the syllabi in the Middle East academic circle we can the concern with ecocentred content is very substantial. From a philosophical platform of thinking, a question, why the east is more concerned with Nature rather than the west is be pondered. The spiritual and mystical inclination of the East as against the empirical and rational, positivist mindscape of the West, brings the curricula in the eastern countries closer to Nature. A poem like “Daffodils” by Wordsworth is commonly seen in almost all the syllabi in the curricula

in the Middle East. The mystical leaning towards nature in the poem is the factor that attracted these curricula.

In Saudi Arabia itself the Universities like King Saud University, Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University, Saudi Electronic University,Arab Open University, Prince Sultan University have the romantic poems by Keats and Wordsworth in ELT syllabus than any other kingdom across the globe. Ecomysticism in romantic poetry can be taken as the reason for these obsession with Keats and Wordsworth in the Syllabi.

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The ecoconcern in Wordsworth’s “Solitary Reaper” has

attracted almost all the school Curricula in the countries like Oman and Qatar. The line “stop here or gently pass” in the poem is a powerful call to invite the attention of the busy mankind to nature. Middle East educational system imbibes this “back to nature” philosophy and the syllabi gives ample scope for materials to make

students aware of the need of environmental consciousness. From American literature Thoreau’s “Waldon: A life in the Woods” becomes a favorite material for the syllabus in these countries. All these show the environmental concern the ELT process in Middle East.

In short, the syllabus under concern is enriched by dynamic, unprejudiced and balanced selection of texts from world classics, translated texts from their respective languages, keeping in view the target of teaching and learning all coloured with an ecoconcern to meet the need of the hour. The literary texts are widely used and selected categorically for the students of science, technology, and management keeping his sympathy with nature. In addition to the use of literature texts of the natives, Middle East and Libyan universities introduce the English writings of their countries and English translations of their writings if they have something to contribute to sustainable environment

References:

1. Akbari, R. (2008). „Transforming lives: introducing critical pedagogy into ELT classrooms‟. ELT Journal 62(3): 276 –83.

2. Alptekin, C. (1993). „Targer-language Culture in EFL Materials‟. ELT Journal, 47/2: 136-143.

3. Anderson, G.G. (1996). „Global Issues in the University ESL Classroom‟. The Language Teacher Online. http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/96/nov/univ.html[1 November 2004].

4. Banegas, D. L. (2010). Teaching more than English in secondary education. ELT Journal, 65(1), 80-82.

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5. Bardovi-Harling, K. (1996). Pragmatics and language learning:

bringing pragmatics and pedagogy together. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 7, 21-38.

6. Brinton, D., Snow, M.A., Wesche, M.B. (1989). Content based Second Language Instruction. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

7. Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

8. Cates, K. A. (1990). Teaching for a better world: Global issues and language education. The Language Teacher, 41-52.

9. [9] Cates, K. (2000). Entry for 'Global Education', in M. Byram (Ed.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge, 241-243.

10. Çakir M, Irez S, Dogan OK (2010). Understandings of current environmental issues: Turkish case study in six teacher education colleges. Educ. Stud. 36(1):21-33.

11. Barbosa, Luiz C. (2009). Theories in environmental sociology. In K. A Gould and T. L. Lewis (Eds.), Twenty Lessons in Environmental Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.

12. Burton, Deirdre. (1996). Through glass darkly: Through dark glasses. In Jean Jacques Weber (Ed.), The Stylistics Reader, (pp. 224-40). New York: St. Martin`s.

13. Busse, Beatrix. (2006). (Historical) ecolinguistics and literary analysis. In G. Catrin and S. Mayer (Eds.). Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies: Transatlantic Conversations on Ecocriticism (pp. 131-154). London: Rodopi.

14. Caperk, Stella M. (2009). The social constrruction of nature of computers, butterflies, dogs, and trucks. In Kenneth A Gould and Tammy L. (Eds.), Twenty Lessons in Environmental Sociology. Lewis. New York: Oxford University Press.

15. Clark, Timothy. (2011). The cambridge introduction to literature and the environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

16. Coates, Peter. (1998). Nature: Western attitudes since ancient times. Berkeley: University of California Press.

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REVIEW ON BIOFUELS PRODUCTION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Dr.Prem Kumar Dara

Associate Professor Dept. of Natural Resource Management

Gambella University, Ethiopia Abstract:

This paper presents a critical review of factors needed to be considered when deciding biofuels as alternative fuels. Biofuels are a subject that

has triggered sharply polarized views among scientific community, policy-makers and the public. The rapidly growing world population and rising consumption of biofuels are increasing demand for both food and biofuels. This exaggerates both food and fuel shortages. Using food crops such as corn grain to produce ethanol raises major nutritional and ethical concerns. Nearly 60% of humans in the world are currently malnourished, so the need for grains and other basic foods is critical. Growing crops for fuel squanders land, water and energy resources vital for the production of food for human consumption. Biofuels have been blamed for pushing up food prices, failing to meet environmental standards, increasing demand for water and nitrate fertilizers, and encouraging the destruction of natural habitats including rainforests. Worldwide, the process of turning natural resources into food requires large amounts of energy, land, and water resources. The objective of this article is to analyze the characteristics of the environmental

impacts caused by biofuel production.

Keywords: Biofuels, Environmental Impacts

Introduction:

With shortages of fossil energy, especially oil and natural gas, and

heavy biomass energy consumption occurring in both developed and

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developing countries, a major focus has developed worldwide on biofuel production. Emphasis on biofuels has developed globally, including those made from crops such as corn, sugarcane, and soya bean, considered by some researchers as renewable energy sources. Wood and crop residues also are being used as fuel. Though it may seem beneficial to use renewable plant materials for biofuel, the use of crop residues and other biomass for biofuels raises concerns about major environmental impacts.

Conflicts exist today in the use of land, water, energy, and other environmental resources required by both food and biofuel production. Although much of the land worldwide is occupied by grain and other

crops, malnutrition is still the leading cause of death in the world today. The World Health Organization reports that more than 3.7 billion people (56% of the global population) are currently malnourished and that number is steadily increasing. Grains make up more than 80% of the world food supply, and unfortunately the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations reports that per capita grain production has been declining for the past 23 years. This suggests that the nutritional needs of the human population will require an increasing amount of agricultural resources as food. Food and biofuels are dependent on the same resources for production: land, water, and energy.

Current and projected use and potentials of biofuels:

So far, “modern” biomass use constitutes only a negligible share of total global energy consumption. Primarily driven by government policies, world ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres, while biodiesel expanded eleven-fold from less than 1 billion to almost 11

billion litres (These fuels together provided 1.8% of the world’s

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transport fuel by energy value (36 Mtoe out of a total of 2007 Mtoe) (OECD 2008).

The main producing countries for transport biofuels are the USA, Brazil, and the EU Production in the United States was mostly ethanol from corn, in Brazil was ethanol from sugar cane, and in the European Union was mostly biodiesel from rapeseed. In recent years, production significantly increased in the United States, Brazil, the EU, Canada and China.

Future potentials and projected use of biofuels

The potential of biofuels largely depends on the availability of land

appropriate for producing the various feedstocks. These estimates are sensitive to assumptions about crop yields and the amount of land that could be made available for the production of biomass for energy uses.

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Environmental impacts of Biofuels:

Biofuels are associated with various environmental impacts along the

production-consumption chain. Those impacts need to be attributed to different products, as biofuel production generally yields one or more co-products, like animal fodder or soy meal, or may be a co-product of some other, higher-valued process, like bagasse from sugar cane for heat or electricity production. Life-cycle-wide impacts of biofuels are usually studied in a comparative manner, in order to analyse which alternative – amongst fossil or bio-based options – has the lesser environmental burden. Moreover, the environmental impacts of biofuels are determined by the overall growing demand for fuel crops may only be supplied through the expansion of cropland. Indirect

impacts of biofuel production, like the destruction of natural habitats

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(e.g. rainforests or savannahs) to expand agricultural land, may have larger environmental impacts than the direct effects. In the worst cases, for example, the GHG emissions from biofuel production may be higher than from an equal amount of fossil fuels (Delucchi 2006; Farrell et al. 2006).

Biofuels may also change the geographical distribution of the environmental burden of feedstock production within a country or a region, across borders, and also from developed countries to developing countries. The extent to which the co-products of biofuel production displace other products and their environmental impacts (rather than

stimulate additional consumption) depends on the elasticity of demand in the relevant markets (the more inelastic the demand, the greater the substitution), the way in which the co-products affect supply curves, and other market and non-market (i.e. political and regulatory) factors.

The greenhouse gas balances of Biofuels:

In order to assess the net effect on greenhouse gas emissions of replacing fossil fuels by biofuels, we need to analyse emissions

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throughout the whole process of producing, transporting and using the fuel. Life-Cycle Analysis is the main tool used to do this. It compares a specific biofuel system with a reference system – in most cases petrol. Greenhouse gas balances differ widely depending on the type of crop, on the location, and on how feedstock production and fuel processing are carried out. Biofuels from some sources can even generate more greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels. A significant factor contributing to greenhouse gas emissions is the amount of fossil energy used for feedstock production and transport, including for fertilizer and pesticide manufacture, for cultivation and harvesting of the crops, and or in the biofuel production plant itself. Emissions of nitrous oxide are

another important factor. It is released when nitrogen fertilizers are used and its greenhouse gas effect is about 300 times stronger than that of carbon dioxide.

Most studies have found that producing first generation biofuels usually yields reductions in greenhouse gas emissions of 20 to 60% when fossil fuels are replaced provided the most efficient systems are used and carbon dioxide emissions from changes in land-use are excluded. However, changes in land use can have dramatic effects on greenhouse gas emissions. When forest or grassland is converted to farmland to produce feedstocks, or to produce crops that have been displaced by feedstock production, carbon stored in the soil is released into the atmosphere. The effects can be so great that they negate the benefits of biofuels. Repaying this ‘carbon debt’ could take decades or even hundreds of years. In some cases it would be more cost-effective to strive for greater fuel efficiency and carbon sequestration through

reforestation and forest conservation.

How will biofuel production affect water resources?

During biofuel production, water is used in large quantities for washing plants and seeds and for evaporative cooling. However, the biggest

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impact on local water availability stems from irrigation. Crops such as sugar cane, oil palm and maize have relatively high water requirements and are best suited to high-rainfall areas, unless they can be irrigated. Three quarters of the sugar-cane production in Brazil and slightly less of the maize production in the USA is rainfed. The availability of water resources may constrain the production of biofuel crops in countries that would otherwise have a comparative advantage. The amount of irrigation water needed in lower rainfall areas can be significant. Many irrigated sugar-producing regions in southern and eastern Africa and north-eastern Brazil are already operating close to the limits of the available water. Even plants like jatropha that can be grown in semi-

arid areas may require some irrigation during hot and dry summers. Producing more biofuel crops will also affect water quality. For example, converting pastures or woodlands into maize fields may increase problems of soil erosion and runoff of excess nitrogen and phosphorous into surface and groundwater. Pesticides and other chemicals can also wash into water bodies. Of the principal feedstocks, maize is the one requiring the greatest amount of fertilizer and pesticides per hectare.

How will biofuel production affect soils?

Land is a limiting factor for biomass production. Moreover, land use change for expanded agriculture may lead to increased GHG emissions and a loss of biodiversity. Ambitious targets of both industrial and developing countries for biofuel use are reflected by policies and trends to expand cropland. The expansion of cropland for biofuels may lead to large scale land conversion. Clearing the natural vegetation mobilises

the carbon storage in vegetation and soil, and may lead to a carbon debt which may render the overall GHG mitigation effect of biofuels questionable for coming decades. In addition,biodiversity would be severely affected.Changes in land-use and intensification of agricultural

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production both have the potential to harm soil condition, but these impacts depend on the way the land is farmed.

How will biofuel production affect biodiversity?

Biofuel production can affect wild and agricultural biodiversity in some positive ways, for instance through the restoration of degraded lands, but many of its impacts will be negative, for example when natural landscapes are converted into energy-crop plantations or peatlands are drained. Many current biofuel crops are well suited for tropical areas, and this creates an economic incentive to convert natural ecosystems into plantations causing a loss of wild biodiversity in these areas. The genetic diversity of crops (agrobiodiversity) can be compromised where

large-scale production is practiced. Most biofuel feedstock plantations are based on a single species, using a narrow pool of genetic material, with traditional varieties being used less and less. Such low levels of genetic diversity increase the susceptibility of crops to new pests and diseases. Crops which do well on fertile soils may not be as effective in poorer conditions. For example, switchgrass performs less well on poor soils than a diverse mixture of native grassland perennial plants. In addition, such diverse mixtures can provide better wildlife habitat, water filtration and carbon sequestration than maize or soybean alone.

Conclusion:

Options for more efficient and sustainable production and use of Biofuels:

The adoption of “good practices” in soil, water and crop protection, energy and water management, nutrient and agrochemical management, biodiversity and landscape conservation, harvesting, processing and distribution can contribute significantly to making bioenergy sustainable. For instance, good agricultural practices, such as

conservation agriculture, and good forestry practices, can reduce the

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adverse environmental impacts of biofuel production which can be done in following ways.

1.Increasing yields and optimizing agricultural production

The future potential of biofuels to contribute to energy supply is largely contingent on the ability to increase yields on existing farmlands. Yields may be increased by adjusting crops and cultivation methods.

2. Restoring degraded land

To avoid tradeoffs between expanding biofuel cultivation and conservation of biodiversity, three types of land have been suggested for potential agriculture expansion: “marginal” land, degraded land and abandoned land.

3. Using biomass for power and heat

Stationary use, for example to generate electricity for local use, is generally more energy efficient than converting biomass to liquid fuels. It is also thought to have the potential for much higher CO2 savings at lower costs.

4.Use of waste and production residues

The energetic use of wastes and residues could provide the double benefit of waste management and energy provision. However, removing agricultural residues has an opportunity cost as they help maintain soil carbon content and fertility and protect against erosion.

5.Cascading use of biomass

Using biomass as a production material first, then recovering the energy content from the resulting waste, can provide multiple benefits. Biomass use may be further improved by recycling it several times before a final energetic utilization at the end of its lifecycle. Such

cascading systems may provide general advantages for climate change mitigation and land use.

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6.Mineral-based solar energy systems

Biomass and photovoltaic technology both make use of the solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth. However, biomass in the open field can generally store only about 1 to 6% of the solar radiation input , which still requires transformation into useful energy. Whereas technologies such as photovoltaic’s (PV) and solar thermal power do far better.

Need for research and development

a) Explore and develop the various options to reduce fuel and resource

consumption of transport.

b) Develop solar technologies such as PV to become more economical,

while considering material resource intensity, implications of hazardous compounds, reducing production emissions, and enhancing the options for recycling.

c) Develop technologies and political mechanisms to reduce the demand

of energy, material, and land intensive activities.

d) Harmonize rules on how to carry out LCAs on biofuels

- Set reasonable guidelines and assumptions for methodological issues

- Determine how to deal with the associated uncertainty of key

parameters(e.g. allocation rules of impacts on co-products, N2O emission rates, land use, carbon stocks, technology progress, etc.)

- Include water-consumption and pollution issues.

e) Consider indirect land use change, GHG effects and other impacts,

such aseutrophication, more comprehensively.

f) Improve global land use

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- Further develop and implement ecologically friendly measures to increase yields, especially in developing countries such as Sub-Saharan Africa

- Identify the realistic production potential and consequences of using degraded land

- Determine extent and potential of land

References:

1. Barbara, J.S. The False Promise of Biofuels. Special Report from the International Forum on Globalization and the Institute for Policy Studies. 2007, 30 pages. http://www.ifg.org/pdf/biofuels.pdf

2. Cleveland, C.J.; Costanza, R.; Hall, C.A.S.; R. Kaufmann, R. Energy and the United States conomy: A Biophysical Perspective. Science 1983, 225, 890-897.

3. Hall, C.A.S.; Cleveland, C.J.; Kaufmann, R. Energy and Resource Quality: The Ecology of the Economic Process. Wiley Interscience: New York, 1986. 577 pp.

4. Pimentel, D.; Pimentel, M. Food, Energy and Society. CRC Press. Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida, 2008

5. Pimentel, D. Soil Erosion: A Food and Environmental Threat. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2006, 8, 119-137.

6. Alkemade, R., Bakkenes, M., Bobbink, R., Miles, L., Nelleman, Ch., Simons, H. and Tekelenburg, T. (2006) GLOBIO3: Framework for the assessment of global terrestrial biodiversity.

7. Arnold, K., Rahmesohl, S., Grube, T., Menzer, R. and Peters, R. (2006) Strategische Bewertung der Perspektiven synthetischer kraftstoffe auf der Basis fester Biomasse in NRW. Endbericht. Wuppertal: Wuppertal Institut fur Klima, Umwelt, Energie.

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Australian Biofuel Institute (2008) The sustainability of biofuels: Issues to consider.

8. Banse, M.A.H., van Meijl, J.C.M. and Woltjer, G. (2008) The Impact of First Generation Biofuels on Global Agricultural Production. Working Paper, Agricultural Economic Research Institute (LEI).

9. Banse, M., H. Van Meijl, A. Tabeau und G. Woltjer (2008b) Will EU Biofuel Policies affect Global Agricultural Markets? European Review of Agricultural Economics 35(2): 117-141.

10. Banse, M., H. Van Meijl und G. Woltjer (2008c) Consequences of EU Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Production and Land Use.

Choices: The Magazine of Food, Farm and Resource Issues 23 (3). pp: 22 - 27.

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HUMANISTIC ELEMENT IN TAGORE'S GORA

Dr.Podalapalli Babu Lecturer in English

Govt., Degree College for Men (A) Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh

Smt.Shodavaram Swarnalatha Ph.D –(PT)Scholar Lecturer in English S.V.V.Junior College

Muddanur Kadapa Dt., A.P

Abstract

Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941) the versatile personality of Indian literary scholar is considered as – the Rishi, the Gurudev and the Maharshi. He was a poet, dramatist, actor, producer, musician, painter, an educationist, reformer, philosopher, prophet, novelist, story writer, and a critic of life and literature. Rabindranath Tagore wrote primarily in Bengali and translated many of his poems and plays into English. Before he was eighteen, he had written more than 7000 lines of verse. For Gitanjali (1912) he won the noble prize for literature and became poet of the world. After that his other works and Gitanjali were

translated by literary scholars into major languages of world. To his credit, there is a long list of poems and plays, both in Bengali and English which had made his place among the world’s greatest writers. In Iyengar’s words “As the years passed, he became more and more a legendary figure; in his flowing bead and immaculate white robes he was truly in the line of the great Rishi of Upnishadic times, and indeed he was truly in the line of the great bearing witness to the triune Reality, seeing the way showing it to others.”

Bengal was epicentre for renaissance as it has given literary scholars who gave fame to mother India at globe. Among them, Toru Dutt is the first poetess in Indo-Anglian literature. She had English education and had a rich and respectable ancestry. Her family was rich and highly educated. Her father Govind Chunder Dutt was a good

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linguist and a civilized man with literary eye. The Dutt family moved to Cambridge in 1871 where she had attended lectures. In 1875, she had translated French writing in to English with the title A Sheaf Gleamed in French Fields. She had learned Sanskrit and translated Ramayana, Mahabharata and Sakuntala into English verse. She had attained command over Sanskrit language and transformed her interest from French to Sanskrit and translated so many Indian mythological works into English.

Key words : Versatile, Gurudev, Maharshi, legendary figure, mythological works.

INTRODUCTION :

Humanism is a life stance that affirms our ability to lead

meaningful, ethical lives capable of adding to the greater good of humanity. The humanist philosophy embraces everyone who believes in national thought and human means for comprehending reality and thinks that one can live a morally good and ethically sound life without religious or supernatural belief. A humanist ethos is crucial for any society that wishes to be stable progressive and peaceful.

Rabindranath Tagore was the discoverer and spokesman of traditional India who is basically humanist and universal, simple yet profound. He was a great Indian who was also more than merely autochthonous; of him it could be said: "Behold the Man, the image of the Universal Man." Richard Church writes of Tagore: "he was a unified man, a whole man, and as such was an example to his country and missionary to the west, who still points the way to the final harmonizing of our differences and therefore toward our mutual

strength through this coming phase of the struggle of the human race to understand itself and to make a clear reflection of that godhead out of which it has evolved toward a purpose greater than we know.

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Gora which was written between 1907 and 1909 and the English

translation of which appeared in 1924, is undoubtedly the masterpiece of Tagore and one of the greatest novels written by the Indians. Here in the author asserts without any reserve the importance of man above society and narrow minded sects. Binoy, a member of an orthodox Brahmin family and Lolita, a member of the Brahmo Samaj, decide to marry each other in spite of the tremendous opposition from both sects, because they feel :

Gora (literally, 'Gora' means a white man) is the fifth in order of writing and the largest of Tagore's twelve novels, was serialised in a

literary magazine, Probasi, from 1907 to 1909. Being a complex novel, it can be studied and interpreted at different levels. The various themes like friendship, motherhood, love, caste discrimination, woman-emancipation, the play of destiny, nation and nationalism, religion, spirituality, time and space provide a panoramic view of Tagore's vision.

Gora is more than a mere novel it is an epic of India in transition at a crucial period of modern history, when the social conscience and intellectual awareness of the new intelligentsia were in the throes of a great churning. No other book gives so masterly an analysis of the complex of Indian social life with its teeming

contradictions, or of the character of Indian nationalism which draws its roots from renascent Hinduism and stretches out its arms towards universal humanism.

When Gora raises his voice against the misfortune of the villagers of Ghoshpara, Haran Babu, an active member of the Samaj tells the British magistrate, "Most people are not yet,able to absorb the best aspects of English education. And some are so ungrateful that they are not willing to concede that the British rule is a matter of divine dispensation. The sole reason for this is they have learnt their lessons by heart while their moral training remains incomplete." The

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magistrate remarks on it, "Their moral training will never be complete until they accept Christ". In this case, Haran Babu is simply 'mimicing' (Bhabha) whereas the British I magistrate is striking the lash of ‘hegemony’ (Antonio Gramsci). It also alludes toil the teaching of English in India as a kind of politics for the construction and sustenance of the British colonies. Simultaneously, it deconstructs the original idea of Bharartvarsha, or, in other words, the contemporary condition makes the idea 'hybrid'. Hinduism appears to be at stake because of Raja Ram Mohan Roy's the Brahmo Samaj and the English Missionaries' evangelization.

Interestingly, Gora converts to Hinduism only when he feels bad about the humiliation of 'his' land and its people by the British. This

shift is noticeable for its motive it is not religion itself but the idea of a united nation that motivates him to go for Hinduism. Thus, he finds traditional customs and rituals as a means of national unity. When "a British missionary wrote a newspaper article attacking the Hindu community and its ancient texts, and challenged Hindus to engage in debate with him, Gora flared up as soon as he read this. He himself was given to condemning the shastras and popular Hindu customs whenever he found an opportunity to do so. But when it came to a foreigner denigrating the Hindu community, Gora felt goaded to retaliate".

Rabindranath Tagore was never actively involved in politics, ho never detached himself from current events either. On the contrary, he was unique in his attitude towards nationalism. He inaugurated the meeting of the Congress party that took place in Kolkata in 1896 by singing "Vande Matram" to his own tune. Nevertheless, he does not favour nationalism in its narrow sense; in fact, he has been cosmopolitan and universalistic in his approach towards humanism. He writes in Nationalism.

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India has never had a real sense of nationalism. Even though

from childhood I had been taught that idolatry of the nation is almost better than reverence for God and humanity, I believe I have outgrown that teaching, and it is my conviction that my countrymen will truly gain their India by fighting against the education which teaches them that a country is greater than the ideals of humanity."

For Tagore, humanity is indivisible and societies such as India's could redeem themselves by adopting the principles of 'sarvadharma samabhava' (deference to all religions) or the Upanishadic dictum of 'vasudhev kutumbakam' (the entire world as one family) which can be extended to political domain for a state of peaceful coexistence among all nations, and also within the national boundaries.

The heroines in the novel Sucharita and Lolita are the liberated young I women with a strong mind of their own. Lolita even approves

Gora's refusal of any legal help as a protest against the British magistrate. Perhaps, it is the fault of I characterization that these two girls appear elder and mature for their age. Anandmoyi has been viewed as the symbolic representation of Mother India. Gora, full of I emotions, finds Bharatvarsha within his foster mother "Ma, you are my only mother. The mother for whom I have looked everywhere all this time she was sitting in my house. You have no caste, you do not discriminate against people, you do not hate- you are the image of benediction. You are my Bharatvarsha.....'' Tagore glorifies her belief that people are above religion or caste of three cultures. Hindu,

Mohammedan, and British. Rabindranath's grandfather, Dwarkanath. was well known for his command of Arabic and Persian influences, an Rabindranath grew up in a family atmosphere in which a deep knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient Hindu texts was combined with an understanding of Islamic Editions as well as Persian literature". Perhaps, this is one of the sons for Tagore's universalistic attitude. His deep understanding of the Muslim religion is appreciative. The novel

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breaks the myth that Tagore was indifferent to Muslims. Gora reminds the old Muslim man, who has been whipped in face by a British, of the prophet's message: "Because he who submits to injustice is also guilty- he causes wrong-doing to grow. You may not understand but take it from me, being meek and tolerant is no dharma. It only encourages the wrong doer. Your prophet Muhammad knew this therefore he didn't go about in the guise of a meek person to preach his religion". Gora praised the Prophet of Islam for his vehement fight against injustice. Tagore also shows that there is unity among the Muslims because they do not have caste system like the Hindus.

Gora is one of the most important novels ever written in British India, for it is an allegory of Indian nationalism, partaking in a large measure Tagore’s own view of it, whereby religious division is replaced by the worship of India’s natural and cultural diversity. To remain confined within the fortress of a narrowly defined religion or sect is a denial of the pluralistic culture of the country, whose shrine is open to everyone for worship. The allegory is presented in the form of an adoption myth and a new hero, English by birth but Indian by adoption, questing for the essence of being an Indian.

The question of how a novel is related to the life and opinion of the novelist himself is one of the typical questions that are often asked about works of fiction. Often the way to a straightforward approach is

strewn with problems, not the least for the fact that the author allegorizes and freely invents, rather than documents, his personal life, or of others around him. Richard Ellmann, exploring the biographical element in George Eliot’s Middlemarch, made the apt remark that “the living originals of fictional characters are elusive because they have been obliged by the writer to answer purposes not their own.” That is to say that even though some characters in the novel could be seen as portraits of real people in the author’s own life, or of the author himself, the author nonetheless dealt with them in a subjective and

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reconstituting manner. The novel would then become an attempt to explore and define how the author has come to terms with his self-image.

A personal narrative is an attempt at recovering from the flowing river of time what the author regards as his self-identity. Tagore turned to this form of writing many times, leaving behind him at least three separate works of autobiography, and many travel diaries and letters. The historical events of his life are in focus in these narratives, but he once wrote that his subject was not the historical events of his life but his life as it has revealed itself through his poetic works. In other words, it is the inner history of the self, the history of the growth of his consciousness, which is of primary concern here. An autobiographical novel is merely the recreation of the self in the form of a legend or story. Free from the limits and conditionality of historical

writing, such a work of fiction, is an effort of the author to give, as Gusdorf wrote, ‘the meaning of his own mythic tale.

Conclusion:

Gora is in conflict of opinion with most of the characters, including, sometimes, his best friend and interpreter Binoy, but enunciates his views with astounding eloquence when faced with a contrary proposition. He finds his culture threatened from outside both by foreign rule and by missionary onslaught on the so-called unscientific beliefs of his countrymen. Indeed, he comes off not so much as a religious character as a fiery patriot. His religious orthodoxy is only a strategy to fight the incursion of foreign ideas; he upholds his Hindu religion with all its faults because he does not want to show weakness before the enemy. He even rejects reform movements like Brahmo-ism as surrender to the foreigner. The all-important question for a patriot

was whether such reforms were aimed at giving back to the people a purer form of their religion without teaching them to disrespect it.

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The paradox is that Gora is not born into Hinduism, and

therefore not entitled to the sacred rites according to his own orthodoxy. The author means it as an irony that Gora should be so blind to such repugnant Hindu customs as untouchability. He would not even eat in his beloved mother’s room because of her Christian maid. It is of course not a personal matter for him, but an article of his orthodox faith. The revelation that he himself is white, whose mother died shortly after he was born, and who was then brought up by Anandomoyi as her own son without any regard for untouchability, comes to him only towards the end of the novel. His father, a born-

again Hindu, reveals this long cherished secret to him only when he is faced with the prospect of his funeral rites being performed by Gora, a mlech-cho himself! Neither he nor Anandomoyi had quite managed to tell Gora the truth.

Work Cited

1. Aikant, Satish C. "Reading Tagore: Seductions and Perils of Nationalism." Asiatic Journal 1.1 (June 2010). Web. 2 Oct. 2010.

2. Azad, Abul Kalam. "The Other Side of Rabindranath Tagore." mdakazad.blogspot.com. 8 May 2011. Web. 15 June 2011.

3. Chakravorty, B. C. Rabindranath Tagore: His Mind and Art. New Delhi: Young India Publications, 1971.

4. Farooq, Mohammad Omar. "Reflections on Tagore's Gora: Layers of Ignorance and Voices against Prejudices." Homepage of Mohammad Omar Farooq. Globalwebpost.com, n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2010.

5. Kriplani, Krishna. Rabindranath Tagore- A Biography. India: UBS Publishers' Distributors, 2008.

6. Macaulay, Thomas. "Minute on Indian Education." Revolutions in Romantic Literature: An Anthology on Print Culture, 1780-1832. Ed. Paul Keen. Canada: Broadview Press, 2004.

7. Sen, Amartya “Tagore and His India” Mukto-Mona. 30 Sept.,2005.

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EFFECT OF YOGA PRACTICES ON EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AMONG KABADDI PLAYERS

E.Eswara Reddy NTR Govt. Degree College

Valmikipuram, Chittoor Dist Andhra Pradesh &

Lecturer in Physical Education

Gotlamitta Venkatramana Reddy STSN Govt. Degree College

Kadiri Anatapuram Dist. Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

The sport has a long history dating back to pre-historic times. It was probably invented to ward off group attacks by individuals and vice versa. The game was very popular in the southern part of Asia played

in its different forms under different names. A dramatized version of the great Indian epic. The Mahabharata has made an analogy of the game to surround on all sides by the enemy. Buddhist literature speaks of the Gautam Buddha to display their strength and win their brides.

The human psychology is very complex phenomena. Emotional intelligence of athletes has drawn more attention and emerged very interesting variable of sports psychology, scientifically understanding emotional intelligence might help to lead a productive life. Golman, 1995 has claimed it to be very important in achieving success in life that to more in an organized group. People having higher level of emotional intelligence are better placed to manage their affair with wisdom. Emotional intelligence has generated wide spread interest owing to the increasing personal importance attributed to the emotional management for people in modern society.

Emotion is the subjective experience associated with personality, mood, temperament and disposition. The English word

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'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir, but this is also based on the Latin word emovere. Emotion is a state of psychological arousal, an expression or display of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses

Amar:Amar literally means invincible. This is a form of Kabaddi,

which is played based on points scored by both sides. The play field has no specific measurements and nine to eleven players constitute each of the teams. In this form of Kabaddi, there is no out and revival system

or loans but time is the deciding factor. The main advantage of this form of the game is that the players remain in the court throughout the match and are able to give their best performance.

Gemini:This form Kabaddi is played with nine players on either side,

in a play-field of no specific measurements. The principle characteristic of this form of Kabaddi is that a player who is put out has to remain out until all his team members are put out. The team that is successful in putting out all players of the opponent’s sides secures a point. This is akin to the present system of ‘lona’. After all the players are put out, the team is revived and the game conti continues until five or seven lona are secured. The game has no fixed time. The main disadvantage of this form of Kabaddi is that the player is not in position to give his best performance since he is likely to remain out for the better part of the match until a lona is secured.

Sanjeevani:This form of Kabaddi is the closest to the present game. In

this form of Kabaddi, players are put out and revived and the game lasts for 45 minutes with a 5-minute break in-between. The team consists of nine players on each side. The team that puts out all the

players on the opponent’s sides scores four extrapoints for a lona. The winning team is the one that scores the maximum number of points at the end of stipulated time. The play field is bigger in this form of

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Kabaddi and the cant was different in various regions. Modern Kabaddi resembles this form of Kabaddi a great deal especially with regard to out& revival system and lona. The present form of Kabaddi is a synthesis of all these forms of Kabaddi with a good number of changes in the rules and regulations.points for a lona. The winning team is the one that scores the maximum number of points at the end of stipulated

time. The play field is bigger in this form of Kabaddi and the cant was different in various regions. Modern Kabaddi resembles this form of Kabaddi a great deal especially with regard to out& revival system and lona. The present form of Kabaddi is a synthesis of all these forms of Kabaddi with a good number of changes in the rules and regulations.

Patanjali’s eight-step discipline to yoga:

Yama: Restraining harmful thoughts and impulses.

Niyama: Cultivating good habits.

Asana: Learning sitting postures suitable for prolonged

contemplation.

Pranayama: Learning the technique of rhythmic breathing.

Pratyahara: Withdrawing the senses from their objects of

enjoyment.

Dharana: Fixing the mind on the object of contemplation.

Dhyana: Uninterrupted contemplation, also called meditation.

Samadhi: Total absorption of the mind in the object of

contemplation.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of Yoga

Practices on Emotional Intelligence among female Kabaddi Players.

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HYPOTHESIS

It was hypothesized that Yoga will have a significant Effect on the Emotional Intelligence in KabaddiPlayers

Yoga would improve emotional IntelligenceKabaddi players.

DELIMITATION

To achieve the objectives of the study, the investigator delimited the following factors:

1. The study was conducted on Physical Education Students only, ie. 30 Female studentsfrom NTR Govt Degree College Valmikipuram

2. Age of the subjects was ranged between 18 to 21 years only.

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of Yoga on

Emotional Intelligence among Kabaddi Players. In order to achieve this purpose, 30 students from NTR Govt Degree College Valmikipuram were taken as subject in the age group between 18 to 21 years at random. They are all normal healthy students and equally good in the game. The method of investigation and the analysis of data are explained in the chapter.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

The subjects were selected from NTR Govt Degree College Valmikipuram. The age group of the subjects was between 18 to 21 years. Thirty subjects were selected at random and subjects were divided into two equal groups designed one Experimental Group and the other Control Group. Thus each group consisted of 15 subjects. Each subject was oriented in the procedure to the administration of the

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test.All the subjects were tested on the selected and psychological variable and Emotional Intelligence variable.

CRITERION VARIABLES AND TEST

S.No. Dependent Variables Tastes/Instruments Unit of

Measurements

1 Emotional Intelligence

N.S. Malovff , J.M. Halls

Questionnaire Score

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE:

“t” ratio = DM/SDM

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to find out the Effect of Yogic on Emotional Intelligence among college level KabaddiPlayers.The statistical analysis of data collected from the experimental and control groups are presented in this chapter. On the basis of the statistical analysis result are discussed. For testing the significance of the differences between pre and post-test means of the control and experimental group, 0.20 level of significance was fixed. The mean difference between the pre and posttest of the control and experimental groups was tested using’t’ ratio to find out significance of the difference made by the experimental and control groups during the experimental period of six weeks. The mean difference between the experimental and control group after six weeks of yoga practices was tested by ‘t’ ratio

and determined the significance of the difference.

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Table 4.1

Analysis of T-ratio on Pre and Post-test for Control and Experimental Group on Emotional intelligence

Variables Group Mean SD

‘t’ ratio Pre Post Pre Post

Emotional intelligence

Control 124.13 124.6 5.76 7.04 0.20

Experimental 118.2 128.4 5.55 4.54 5.54

The Table 4.1 shows that the mean values of pre-test and post-test of control group on Emotional Intelligence level were 124.13 and 118.2 respectively. The obtained’ ratio was 0.20 since the obtained ‘t’ ratio was less than the required table value of 0.20 for the significant at 0.20 level with 14 degrees of freedom, it was found to be statistically insignificant. The mean values of pre-test and post-test of experimental groups on Emotional Intelligencelevel were 124.13 and 118.2 respectively. The obtained ‘t’ ratio was 5.54 since the obtained ‘t’ ratio

was greater than the required table value of 0.20 for significance at 14 degrees it was found to be statistically significant. The result of the study showed that there was a significant difference between control group and experimental group inEmotional Intelligence. It may be concluded from the result of the study that experimental group improved in Emotional Intelligencedue to six weeks of Yogic Practice.

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FIG- 4.1

CYLINDER DIAGRAM SHOWS THE T RATIO BETWEEN PRE AND POST TESTS OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL

GROUP ON EMOTIONALINTELLIGENCE

DISCUSSION

The result of this investigation showed a significant improvement in the subjects of the experimental group regular practice of Yoga Practice.The results of this study with the hypothesis of the investigation. Interest on the part of the subject used in this study to improve their Yoga Practice might also account for the results in decrease Emotional Intelligence levels and this inference is supported by the further fact that all previous studies of similar nature were conducted on Yoga Practice. The six week period for the experimental seen to be produce valid result. The results of the study reveal that there was a significant difference found among College women Kabaddi Players

CONCLUSIONS

Within the limitations and delimitations of this study, the

following conclusionswere drawn from the result.It was concluded that

controlt ratio

110

120

130

pretst

posttest

control

Experimental

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there was a significant improvement in Psychological Variable of Emotional Intelligence among Kabaddi Players due to Yoga Exercises.

References:

1. Fatemeh, Pasand. (2010). Emotional intelligence in athletes and non-athletes and its relationship with demographic variables. Retrieved from http:// bjsm. bmj. com/ content/ 44/

2. Acar, F.T. (2001). The relationship of emotional intelligence with leadership behaviors towards human and task.

3. Bhakta, R., Lawson, D.A., and Wood, C. (2010). The mathematical abilities and personality of undergraduate psychology students relative to other student groups. Psychology Teaching Review 16 (2), 96-110

4. Emotional intelligence: Could it be the answer to the age-old problem of emotions impacting on athletic performance? Retrieved from http:// www.ausport.gov.au/ sports coachmag /

psychology 2/ on 14th November, 2011.

5. Mayer, J. D. and Salovey, P. (1993). The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence, 17,433-42.

6. Narimani M. and Basharpoor S. (2009). Comparison of Attachment Styles and Emotional Intelligence between Athlete Women (Collective and Individual Sports) and Non-Athlete.

7. Michael J. Rosen (2009) No Dribbling the Squid: Octopush, Shin Kicking, Elephant Polo, and Other Oddball Sports [1]

8. Michael J. Rosen (2009) No Dribbling the Squid: Octopush, Shin Kicking, Elephant Polo, and Other Oddball Sports [1]

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9. Origin, History and Development of Kabaddi". Retrieved 20 April2008.

10. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13255740/Siddhi-TimesMarch-2009-DrCommander-Selvam

11. Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Management at Rice University,[email protected]

12. Tony Morrison +Author Affiliations

13. Accepted Correspondence to Tony Morrison, 3 Aintree Drive, Rochdale OL11 5SH, England. E-mail: Tonymorrison @btinternet.com February 1, 2006.

14. Pilar Ripolla1 c1,Miguel Sáncheza1 and Carla Carvalhoa2a1 Universitat de València (Spain) a2 Universidade de Coimbra (Portugal)

15. Published in:2009 International Conference on Management Science and Engineering 14-16 Sept. 2009 Direct reprint requests to: Peter Salovey, Department of Psychology, Box 11 A Yale Station, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-7447

16. BioPsychoSocialMedicineThe official journal of the Japanese Society of PsychosomaticMedicine20148:1DOI: 10.1186/1751-0759-8-1 Published: 3 January 2014

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g M H«$_… H$Xm{MV² {dn`m©{gV… ÑîQ>mo@{n g_mZm§ímm… EVo Ed ämdpÝV& AmJVm` Ho$Zm{n àÏm__² AmgZ§ Xr`Vo& H$mo@{n Hw$ímb§ n¥ÀN>{V& H$mo@{n ñdmJV§ ì`mha{V& `ÏmmH$Ïm{#mV² gd}îmm§ `Ïmmgåämd§ H$aÊmoZ Am{VÏ`ñ` nyÊm©Vm ämd{V& Šd{MV² EVoîmm_² Am§{ímHo$Zm{n gËH$ma… H¥$VH$ën… ämdË od&

ट प यः 1. ÜmmVw.(AXm.) 1064 2. ÜmmVw.({Xdm.) 1171 3. ÜmmVw.(VwXm.) 1432 4. ÜmmVw.(éÜmm.) 1451

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5. AîQ>m.3.3.121 6. G$.ämm.ämy.(X.)(do.C.{d.) n¥.15 7. G$.ämm.ämy.(gm.)n¥.105 8. G$.ämm.ämy.(X.)(do.C.{d.) n¥.31 9. G$.ämm.ämy.(X.)(do.C.{d.) n¥.15 10. d¡.X.1.3 11. ím.~«m.7.1.1.5 12. {Zé., A.1 13. _Zw.2.12 14. _Zw.6.92 15. _.ämma.(H$.n.)69.59 16. ÜmmVw.(ädm.)38 17. CÊmm.4.2 18. {Zé., A.4,nm.1 19. _Zw.3.70 20. Ð.(_Zw.3.77 ì`m.) 21. Òw.3.1;12.30 22. G$H²$.1.1.9 23. Òw.5.1 24. AÏmd©., H$m.9,gyH²$.6,n.3,_§.7 25. G$H²$., _§.1,A.12,gyH²$.73,_§.1 26. G$H²$.1.76.3 27. AÏmd©.96.1 28. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.2-5 29. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.6-17 30. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.18-30 31. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.31-39 32. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.40-44 33. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.45-48 34. Ð. AÏmd©.9.6.50-62 35. Ð. AÏmd©., H$m.15,gyH²$.10-13 36. AÏmd©.15.11.1 37. Òw.12-14 38. H$R>.(ímm.ämm.) n¥.12 39. Òw.12.34 40. Òw.33.16 41. gm_.(nydm©.) ànm.1,gy.9,_§.5 42. F$H²$.2.13.4 43. ÜmmVw.(ädm.)63 44. F$H²$.5.50.3

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volume 6, issue 4(1), april 2017 international journal of...

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