war-crime 1971: bangladesh

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Much essential information will not be known until many years later.

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I, Major Zia, do hereby declare theindependence of Bangladesh; request all

the peace loving countries of the world, to

give immediate recognition to the Swadhin

Bangladesh and extend physical assistance

of all types to liberate the democratic

minded people of Bangladesh. Under the

circumstances, I hereby declare myself as a

provisional head of Swadhin Bangla

liberation Government. I urge upon the

people of Bangladesh to continue this

freedom movement with increased vigour

and intense sense of devotion.By the grace of God, the victory is ours.

Joy Bangla.tBB? BpGB..

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Osmani came to see Sheikh Mujib at his Dhanmondi residence and informed him of this secretmessage. Together they discussed, until the late hours of that night, about their upcoming plans. It

was decided that they would flee to India. But [on March 25, 1971] when Tajuddin Ahmed came

to see Mujib around 7:30PM, he found Mujib ready with his bed and bedding to go to jail. Mujib

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Politics is national,

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shifted from the traditional battle grounds of Europe to the undernourished Third WorldThe

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East Bengal (East Pakistan presently Bangladesh) is concerned. %s#8 !0N EP I3 $ | 8 8 7$ 9*EPEKD2(

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intelligence division of the IB, was appointed by Indira Gandhi as the head of the R&AW when it

was formed on September 21,1968. In the first few months after its formation, he gave it two

priority tasks--- to strengthen its capability for the collection of intelligence about Pakistan and

China and for covert action in East Pakistan.t%&:KN 0O$.O$*:!


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to follow. The meeting in Agartala had indicated to colonel Menon (which in fact was Sankaran

Nair), the main liaison man between the Mujib faction and the Indian intelligence, that the

group was eager to escalate their movement They raided the armoury of East Bengal Rifles

in Dhaka but this initial movement failed. In fact it was a total disaster.A few months later, on

January 6, 1968, the Pakistan government announced that 28 person would be prosecuted for

conspiring to bring about the secession of East Pakistan, with the Indian help (which is known as

Agartala conspiracy case in judicial history of Pakistan)_qB^%s"$8ayEFRAW(Research & Analytic Wing)#'#8VP!$!!$$E63J!#BpoHRAW&\!K.*0*2V%#K* RAW&\T@!K(8ay.


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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/ thumb/8/87/Calcutta_1946

_riot.jpg/300px- Calcutta_1946_riot.jpgaccessed on 17.06.2012

http://radhikaranjanmarxist.

blogspot.com/2010/04/direct-

action-day1946.htmlaccessed on 21.06.2012

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roaming the streets would step up their campaign of vengeance against collaborators with the

Pakistanis._][

125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal New York Times'&"At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers were found

murdered today in a field outside Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and

they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. They were among an estimated 300 Bengali

intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters."_]o

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A comprehensive law providing for the constitution of the tribunal, the procedureto be adopted and other necessary materials is expected to be passed this month. The

accused are expected to produce before the tribunal by the end of May 1973

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In the larger interests of reconciliation, peace and stability in the sub-continent

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sA tribunal shall have the power to try and punish any individual or group of individuals, orany member of any armed forces, defence or auxiliary forces person irrespective of his

nationality, who being a commits or has committed, in the territory of Bangladesh, whether

before or after the commencement of this Act, any of the crimes mentioned in sub-section (2)

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2

Maulana Abdul Awal, Taher Ahmed, journalist Kamal Lohani, poet Shamsur Rahman,

Professor Kabir Chowdhury, journalist Faiz Ahmed, writer journalist Shahriar Kabir,

Barrister Shawkat Ali Khan, Justice K M Sobhan, Advocate Gaziul Haque and other

leaders are seen in front of the rally.

Ref:Try the war criminals of 71 at a special tribunal

Edited by Shahriar Kabir// pp-40


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Full opinion of

the honourable Michael J Beloff QCBANGLADESH INTERNATIONAL CRIMES (TRIBUNALS) ACT 1973 ADVICE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 I am asked to advise the legal department of a political party called Bangladesh Jamaat-i-

Islami, represented by Mr. AHM Hamidur Rahman Azad MP, elected in 2008 fromCoxs Bazar-2 (National Constituency No 295)

(1) On the compatibility of the Bangladesh statute, the International Crimes

(Tribunals) Act 1973 Act XIX of 1973 (the 1973 Act) (as amended on 9th

July

2009, with:

(i) The Constitution of Bangladesh (The Constitution)

(ii) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Declaration)

(iii) The International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

(iv) The Statute establishing the International Criminal Court (the Rome

statute)

(2) As to subsidiary questions arising out of

(i) the Presidential Order No. 16 of 1973 (the Presidential Order);

(ii) the Tripartite BangladeshIndia-Pakistan Agreement of April 1974 (TheTripartite Agreement)

i.e. whether in any event Adders and Abetters of Pakistan forces can properly be tried

under the 1973 Act.

1.2 In my view for the reasons hereinafter set out.

(1) The 1973 Act is incompatible in various ways which I detail below with:

(i) The Constitution

(ii) The Declaration

(iii) The ICCPR

(iv) The Rome Statute

However I am assuming the (ii), (iii) and (iv) are relevant as measuring rods only unless in some

way incorporated into the domestic law of Bangladesh. (ii) is not a binding legal instrument at all,although it may be a source of customary international norms. (iii) is enforced by the Human

Rights Commission, (HCC:) an international body, unless, as is the case in Hong Kong,

specifically made part of the domestic law. The Rome Statute is enforced by the ICC. (i) naturally

stands on a different legal footing since it is the foundation of Bangladeshi domestic law.

I should add that I am not invited to address how any issues of such incompatibility of the 1973

Act could be tested in the Bangladeshi Courts; matters of procedure are quintessentially for

Bangladeshi lawyers.

(2) Assuming the validity of the 1973 Act, I see an argument as to why such aiders and abetters

should not be prosecuted if international law applies, but not otherwise.

2. BACKGROUND

2.1 On 16th

December 1971 Bangladesh became independent after a war ofindependence from Pakistan.

2.2 On the same day 95,000 members of the Pakistan Army surrendered in Dhaka, out

of which 195 were identified as was criminals.

2.3 On 16th December 1972 the Constitution came into force.

2.4 On 17th

April 1973 after an inquiry instigated by the Government of Bangladesh,

195 Prisoners of War (POWs), all being members of the Pakistan Armed forces

[and none of being of Bangladeshi origin] were identified as war criminals.


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2.5 On 15th July 1973 the Constitution First Amendment Act 1973 (the Amendment

Act) was passed.

2.6 On 20th

July 1973 the 1973 Act was passed primarily to enable trials of the

members of the Pakistan Armed Forces who committed war crimes in Bangladesh

to take place. The same Act provides that auxiliary forces might also be tried.

2.7 On 28th February 1973 the Presidential Order was enacted.

2.8 On 9th April 1974, after recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan and an improvementof relations between the two nations, the tripartite agreement was signed by which it

was provided that the 195 POWs be pardoned and repatriated to Pakistan.

2.9 Jamaat, as well as other political parties in what was the East Pakistan, supported

the cause of a united Pakistan; attempts are now being made by the present

Government of Bangladesh to try some of the leaders of Jammat as aiders and

abetters of the 195 POWs pardoned in 1974.

2.10 On 9th

July 2009 the 1973 Act was amended. The amendments to the text are

italicised at para 4.1 below.

3. ISSUES

3.1 Whether notwithstanding the fact that the 1973 Act is protected under the

Constitution, those provisions of the Act which are inconsistent with the

Constitution itself, can be chal lenged by way of Judicial Review (the first issues).3.2 How far the provisions of the 1973 Act are consistent with the various international

instruments: listed above i.e. (in chronological order the Declaration, the ICCPR

and the Rome Statute (the second issue).

3.3 Whether when principal offenders have been pardoned, aiders and abetters can be

prosecuted (the third issues).

3.4 Whether where was crimes have been perpetrated by both sides in armed conflict, it

is consistent with international law to try such perpetrators of one side only (the

fourth issue).

4. THE 1973 ACT

4.1 I set out its text in its entiretyooB

5. THE CONSTITUTION

Basic Provisions

5.1 The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and any other law which is

inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency. (Article

7)

5.2 Parliament (the Legislature) has the primary power of legislation. (Article 65 (1)

and 80)

5.3 When Parliament is not in session the President can legislate by means of

Ordinances (Article 93(1)). However, such Ordinances need to be placed beforeParliament it its first meeting for approval. (Article 93(2))

5.4 The State [the President or Parliament] has no power to make any law which is

Constitution and any law so made shall to the extent of such inconsistencies bevoid (Article 26)(2) save that, by reason of the Constitution (Second Amendment

Act 1973 (Act No. XXIV of 1973 Section 2) Article 26 does not apply to anyamendment of the constitution made under Article 142.

5.5 Generally, the Constitution can be amended by a two-third majority of the votes of

the MPs (Article 142(1)(ii). However, for amendment of certain Articles 8

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(fundamental principles) 48 (the President), 56 (Ministers) and 142 (Amendment of

the Constitution) or of the preamble, a referendum is necessary (Article 142[1A]).

The status of the superior judiciary:

5.6 There is in Bangladesh an integrated Supreme Court comprising of the Appellate

Division and the High Court Division (Article 94(1)).

5.7 The Chief Justice and the Judges of both the Divisions are appointed by thePresident (Article 95(1)) and, subject to the provisions of the Constitution are

independent in the exercise of their judicial functions. (Article 94(4))

5.8 From the judgment of the subordinate Court, appeal lies to the High Court Division

Article 101(1) and thereafter to the Appellate Division by leave. (Article 103(3))

5.9 For the purposes of Judicial Review, the Court of first instance is the High Court

Division (Article 102). In particular the High Court may give directions or orders

as may be appropriate for the enforcement of any of the fundamental rights

conferred by Part III of the Constitution. (ditto)

5.10 Thereafter, appeal lies to the Appellate Division under Article 103, by leave of the

Appellate Division (Article 103(i)) the Appellate Division has also power to review

its own judgment under Article 105.

5.11 I am advised that unlike the equivalent bodies in India and Pakistan, the AppellateDivision of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh cannot entertain an application for

Judicial Review by-passing the High Court Division.

Material Amendments

5.12 Under the Constitution (First Amendment Act Section 2) a new Clause (3) was

added to the existing Article 47 of the Constitution, which provided for the saving

of certain laws. Clause 3 provides as follows:

(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Constitution, no law nor any

provisions thereof providing for detention, prosecution and punishment of any

person, who is a member of any armed or auxiliary forces, or who is a prisoner of

war, for genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes, and other crimes under

international law shall be deemed void or un lawful, or ever to have be come voidor unlawful, on the ground that such law or provision of any such law, is

inconsistent with, or repugnant to, any provisions of this Constitution.

5.14 Further, a new clause, namely, Article 47A was incorporated in the Chapter of

Fundamental Rights of the Constitution.

5.15 The new Article 47A provides as follows:

(1) The rights guaranteed under article 31, clauses (1) and (3) of article 35 and

article 44 shall not apply to any person to whom a law specified in clause (3)

of article 47 applies.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Constitution, no person to whom a

law specified in clause (3) of article 47 applies shall have the right to move the

Supreme Court for any of the remedies under this Constitution.

Fundamental rights

5.16 The following fundamental rights should be noted

26. (2) The State shall not make any law inconsistent with any provisions of this

Part, and any law so made shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.

[(3) Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made

under article 142.]

27. All citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law.


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31. To enjoy the protection of the law, and to be treated in accordance with law,

and only in accordance with law, is the inalienable right of every citizen, wher

ever he may be, and of very other person for the time being within

Bangladesh, and in particular no action detrimental to the life, liberty, body,

reputation or property of any person shall be taken except in accordance with

law.

32. No person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty save in accordance with

law.

33. (1) No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being

informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall he

be denied the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of

his choice.

(2) Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced

before the nearest magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of

such arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place

of arrest to the court of the magistrate, and no such person shall bedetained in custody beyond the said period without the authority of a

magistrate.

35. (1) No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of law

in force at the time of the commission of the act charged as an offence,

nor be subjected to a penalty greater than, or different from, that which

might have been inflicted under the law in force at the time of the

commission of the offence.

(2) No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more

than once.

(3) Every person accused of a criminal offence shall have the right to a

speedy and public trial by an independent and impartial court or tribunalestablished by law.

(4) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness

against himself.

(5) No person shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading

punishment or treatment.

44. (1) The right to move the [High Court Division] in accordance with [clause

(1)] of article 102, for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this Part

is guaranteed.

6. First issue6.1 I agree that the material amendments referred to (if themselves valid) prevent the

members of Jamaat, threatened with prosecution under the 1973 Act, from invoking

the remedy of judicial review to challenge the constitutionality of any of its

provisions. This is the clear purport of Article 47A(2) and indeed of Article 47A(1)

with its reference to the disapplication of Article 44 (enforcement of fundamental

rights).

6.2 Article 47(3) also achieves the same result indirectly; purporting to give laws which

deny fundamental rights to certain persons (including materially, some members of


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Jamaat previously referred to) immunity from invalidation on constitutional grounds

is in substance, if not in form, also immunizing them from legal challenge.

6.3 I also agree that the 1973 Act would, without the protection of those amendments (if

valid) involve violation of those members fundamental rights; in particular, but not

only, those expressly referred to in Article 47A.

6.4 Therefore in order to mount a challenge to the 1973 Act as unconstitutional because

in breach of fundamental rights it will be necessary to disapply the materialamendments.

6.5 The material amendments all satisfy the formal requirements of the Constitution i.e.

were enacted in accordance with Article 142(I)(a), as I shall assume by the route

specified therein.

6.6 The issue then becomes whether the material amendments are ultra vires because

they are incapable by reason of their subject matter of engaging the power to

amend.

6.7 In the case of Anwar Hossain Chowdhury and others v Bangladesh 41 Dhaka Law

Report (Appellate Division) 165 (Hossain). in the Appellate Division of the

Supreme Court of Bangladesh, the issue revolved around an amendment to Article

100 of the Constitution resulting in the fragmentation of the High Court by the

creation of regional benches pursuant to which the President issued notificationswhich gave the High Court and the regional benches mutually exclusive

jurisdiction, and the Chief Justice framed consequential rules. The Appellate

Division by a 3-1 majority ruled that the amendments to the Constitution were void

on the basis that the High Court with plenary jurisdiction over the Republic was a

part of the basic structure of the Constitution. The Court held that the Parliaments

power to amend the Constitution under Article 142 is subject to certain implied

limitations. See e.g. Chowdhury J. total Abrogation of the Constitution which is

meant by destruction of its basic structure cannot be comprehended by the

Constitution (para 193).

6.8 No judge in Hossain expressly stated that judicial review itself was an unamendable

part of the Constitution.

6.9 There is however guidance to be obtained from jurisprudence in other countrieswhose legal roots lie in the common law.

6.10 In the celebrated Kesavananda Case (1973) Supreme Court Cases sup1] the Indian

Supreme Court recognized that the basic structure of the Constitution, was

impervious to legislative amendment but did not expressly decide that judicial

review formed part of the basic structure; [Khanna J. however considered obiter that

it did (751).]

6.11 Subsequently, the majority in the Indian Supreme Court in the case of Minerva

Mills Ltd. v Union of India (1981) 2 Supreme Court Cases 366] did not again

expressly hold that the concept of judicial review was, by itself, part of the basic

structure of the Constitution, but effectively so held. Chandraband CJ said It is the

function of Judges, nay their duty, to pronounce upon in the validity of laws (261-

2). If courts are to be totally deprived of that power, the fundamental rightsconferred upon the people will become a mere adornment because rights without

remedies are wit in water, 278-9 Bhagwati J said the power of judicial review is

an integral part of our constitution. (287F-H 288A-G)

6.12 The matter was, however, put beyond doubt, in the case of L. Chandra Kumar v

Union of India [(1997) SCJ 552] where it was held expressly that the power of

judicial review over legislative action vested in the High Courts is an integral part

of its basic structure. (para 55)


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6.13 In the United Kingdom in R (on the application of Jackson) 2006 1 AC 262 Lord

Steyn at pp302-3 observed obiter:

In exceptional circumstances involving an attempt to abolish judicial review ...the

Appellate Committee of the House of Lords or a new Supreme Court may have to

consider whether is a constitutional fundamental which even a sovereign

Parliament acting at the behest of a complainant House of Commons cannot

abolish. (para 102)The Courts will treat with particular suspicion (and might even reject) any attempt

to subvert the rule of law by removing governmental actions affecting individual

rights from all judicial scrutiny. Baroness Hale (para 159)

See also Lord Hope of Craighead (para 126)

Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe recognised that the Appellate Committee were

divided on the issue of any ultimate restrictions on Parliamentary sovereignty

para 141 but noted correctly that the issue did not arise in the case before the House.

6.14 It is nonetheless striking that the sovereignty of Parliament, a constitutional

fundamental in the United Kingdom paramount European community law apart

should be the subject of serious analysis by judges involved in actual dispute

resolution rather than musing extra judicially in lectures or articles; and suggests

that, even without the buttress of a written constitution embedding fundamentalrights, the notion of abrogating judicial review may be unlawful.

6.15 The same philosophy has been expressly extra-curially by distinguished judges. See

Lord Woolf Droit Publique English Style 1994 Public Law 57 at p.69 suggesting

that a Court could strike down a challenge to the reviewing power of the High

Court by Parliament and Sir John Laws Law and Democracy 72 at p.8. Sir Robin

Cooke, as he then was, has also opined judicially to the same effect.

[Fundamentals 1988 NZLJ 158]

6.16 In my view the same approach ought logically and as a matter of principle to apply

in Bangladesh. Indeed the statements of the majority of the Court in Hossain seem

to me to be entirely consistent with the proposition that judicial review cannot be

abolished by a purported constitutional amendment.

6.17 In Hossain Chowdhury J identified some basic features of the Constitution as beingunalterable and unamendable paras 254, 255 and 266, and stated that the

impugned amendment was invalid inasmuch as the basic structural pillar, that is

the judiciary, has been destroyed and plenary judicial power of the Republic vested

in the High Court Division has been taken away (para 257) since, as he had earlier

opined To deny the power of the Judiciary to preserve the Constitution is to

destroy the independence of the judiciary, thereby dismantling the Constitution

itself (para 246).

6.18 Ahmed J. also subscribed to the proposition that there is no dispute that the

Constitution stands on certain fundamental principles which are its essential pillars

and that if these pillars are demolished or damaged the whole constitutional edifice

will fall down [para 376]. He dismissed the argument that the doctrine of basic

structure is uncertain in nature; and instance its elements, including independenceof the judiciary noting that the judiciary cannot be abolished although there is no

express bar to the amending power given in the Constitution [para 377]; He also

ingeniously derived support from the very word amendment observing

Amendment is subject to the retention of the basic structure. The Court therefore

has power to undo an amendment if it transgresses its limit and alters a basic struc

true of the Constitution (para 388). (See too Chowdhury J (para 192) to the same

effect.


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6.19 Rahman J added In this case we are concerned only with one basic feature the

rule of law, marked out as one of fundamental aims of our society in the preamble.

The validity of the impugned amendment may be examined with or without

resorting to the doctrine of basic feature, on the touchstone of the Preamble itself

(para 443).

6.20 Although no judgment in that case expressly identifies judicial review as part of the

basic structure of the Constitution, it is implicit in their reasoning that it must be.Judicial review is the means for ensuring the rule of law. [See Chowdhury J. citing

Indian authority para 240.] As Rahman J later stated the doctrine of basic structure

is a new one and appears to be an extension of the principle of judicial review

(para 438). But absent judicial review, the doctrine of basic structure would lack

substance: since the Courts would be impotent to give effect to the doctrine. There

would be jus without remedium.

6.21 In so far as the material amendments purport to deny fundamental rights to inter

alia, member of auxiliary forces, I draw attention to the dictum of Ahmed J in

Hossain that ... fundamental rights are basic structures of the Constitution ... [para

377], and that if there is indeed a hierarchy of fundamental rights to the right not to

be prosecuted for a crime which does not exist at the time of its alleged

commission, and to make use of the remedy of judicial review to challenge theconstitutionality of such provision must rank at the summit of such hierarchy. The

Declaration Article 8 states: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the

competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him

by the constitution or by law.

6.22 I therefore conclude that Article 47(3) and 47A are unconstitutional in so far as they

abrogate judicial review in the circumstances therein defined.

7. THE SECOND ISSUE

7.1 The Declaration provides so far as material, as follows:

Article 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protectionof the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of

this Declaration.

Article 8

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts

violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 10

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and

impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations of any criminal charge

against him.

Article 11

(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until

proven guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the

guarantees necessary for his defence.

(2) No one shall be held guily of any penal offence on account of any act or omission

which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the

time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one

that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.


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(3) The ICCPR (whose provisions were substantially reflected in the European

Convention on Human Rights, and then into the Human Right Act 1998 (HRA)

[which each accordingly supply a rich source of jurisprudence provide], so far as

material:

Article 3

The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men andwomen to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights set forth in the present Covenant.

Article 14

1. All persons shall be equal before the courts and tribunals. In the determination of

any criminal charge against him, or of his rights and obligations in a suit at law,

everyone shall be entitled to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent

and impartial tribunal established by law. The press and the public may be excluded

from all or part of a trial for reasons of morals, public order (order public) or

national security in a democratic society, or when the interest of the private lives of

the parties so requires, or to the extent strictly necessary in the opinion of the court

in special circumstances where publicity would prejudice the interests of justice; but

any judgment rendered in a criminal case or in a suit at law shall be made publicexcept where the interest of juvenile persons otherwise requires or the proceedings

concern matrimonial disputes or the guardianship of children.

2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right to be presumed

innocent until proved guilty according to law.

3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled

to the following minimum guarantees, in full equality:

(a) To be informed promptly and in detail in a language which he understands of

the nature and cause of the charge against him;

(b) To have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence and to

communicate with counsel of his own choosing;

(c) To be tried without undue delay;

(d) To be tried in his presence, and to defend himself in person or through legalassistance of his own choosing; to be informed, if he does not have legal

assistance, of his right; and to have legal assistance assigned to him, in any

case where the interests of justice so require, and without payment by him in

any such case if he does not have sufficient means to pay for it;

(e) To examine, or have examined, the witnesses against him and to obtain the

attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same

conditions as witnesses against him;

(f) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak

the language used in court;

(g) Not to be compelled to testify against himself or to confess guilt.

4. Everyone convicted of a crime shall have the right to his conviction and sentence beingreviewed by a higher tribunal according to law.

Article 15

1. No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or

omission which did not constitute a criminal offence, under national or international

law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than

the one that was applicable at the time when the criminal offence was committed. If,


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subsequent to the commission of the offence, provision is made by law for the

imposition of the lighter penalty, the offender shall benefit thereby.

2. Nothing in this article shall prejudice the trial and punishment of any person or any

act or omission which, at the time when it was committed, was criminal according

to the general principles of law recognised by the community of nations.

7.3 The Rome Statute provides so far as material:

Article 11

1. Everyone shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty before the Court in

accordance with the applicable law.

2. The onus in on the prosecutor to prove the guilt of the accused.

3. In order to convict the accused the Court must be convinced of guilt of the ac cused

beyond reasonable doubt.

Article 64(7)

The trial shall be held in public. The Trial Chamber may, however, determine that special

circumstances require that certain proceedings be in closed session for the purposes set out

in Article 68 or to protect confidential or sensitive information to be given in evidence.

Article 67 (Right of the accused)

Is modelled on ICPR Article 14.3 and need not be set out in full.

However 1(g) of Article 67 adds to the privilege again self incrimination a rider without

such silence being a consideration in the determination of guilt or innocence.

7.4 Against the backcloth I come to consider the 1973 Act.

7.5 Section 3(1) offends the rule against retroactive criminal law (itself recognised in

Article 35 of the Constitution). It applies to acts committed before its coming into

effect. The rule is recognized in Article 11(2) of the Declaration; Article 15.1 of the

ICCPR and in Article 11 and 24 of the Rome Statute.7.6 There is an issue, not finally resolved, as to whether international crimes of the kind

described in the 1973 Act i.e. genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes

were recognized as engaging individual responsibility even at the time of coming

into effect of the 1973 Act see e.g. Brownlie Principle of Public International law

7th

ed pp595-7. The Rome Statute and the ICC ed Cassese and other (CAS) Ch 19.

The Genocide case ICJ reports 1996 617 para 34: Lord Browne-Wilkinson in

Pinochet No. 3 2001 1 AC 147 at p197.

7.7 On the hand

Article 15(2) is contains an apparent exception to article 15(1) in that it expressly

permits the trial and punishment of people on charges of violations of general

principles of international law regardless of the criminal status of such exceptions

in a States domestic law. Article 15(2) is clearly targeting those who havecommitted gave breaches of international humanitarian law such as war crime or

crimes against humanity.

(The ICCPR- Joseph et al) 2nd ed (J)

On the other hand the HRC has described Article 15 was including a requirement that

criminal liability and punishment (be) limited to clear and precise provisions in the law


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that was in place and applicable at the time the act or omission took place: General

Comment 29 para 7 cited J p.475.

7.8 In two cases the European Court of Human Rights has emphasised the need for

legal certainty when prosecutions were brought in domestic courts for war crimes

viewed through the lens of international law Konovov v Latvia Application No.

36376/04. Korbelev v Hungary Application No. 9174/02. See pras 70 and 73. Theequivalent provision to Article 15 in the ECHR (Article 7), there under

consideration, was targeted on laws which under the very exceptional circumstance

of World War II were passed to punish was crimes committed during the war.

Harris OBoyle and War-brick Law of the ECHR 2nd de p. 338-9. That criterion of

legal certainty was clearly not satisfied in Bangladesh in respect of genocide etc

prior to the 1973 Act.

7.9 I consider the better view is that, as t

war-crime 1971: bangladesh

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