warm-up / eoc prep 1. units ordered smallest to largest include: a millimeter, kilometer, centimeter...

Warm-Up / EOC Prep

1. Units ordered smallest to largest include:A millimeter, kilometer, centimeterB milligram, gram, kilogramC liter, milliliter, kiloliterD kilometer, meter, millimeter

2. The independent variable is the variable thatA is controlledB is measuredC mattersD is changed

Turn in the Final Exam Review packet assigned over break.

If not, TOMORROW is the last day to turn it in. It will be marked down for being late. This is a test grade. Take it seriously!

If you borrowed a textbook, return it before Friday!!

Agenda

Warm-UpExplain “Think Fast”Notes- Scientific Method and

SafetyReview worksheetsClean-UpCool-Down

DAY 1: SCIENTIFIC METHOD

EOC Review

Objective 1.02-Scientific methodBe able to read line and bar graphsMaterialsGraduated cylinder, eyedropper, bunsen

burner, watch glass, petri dish, tongs, hot plate, triple beam balance, beaker

Objective 1.01-Lab Safety

When heating a solution in a test tube, a student should point the test tube away from their face and wear goggles

Measurement-micrometermillimetercentimetermeter

10 cm = .1 m = 100 mm

Lab Safety

• Glassware Safety• Sharp Instrument Safety• Fire and Heat Safety• Animal Safety• Electrical Safety• Chemical Safety• Eye and Face Safety• Proper Dress

1. How should you pick up a piece of hot glassware?A. bare handsB. with heat-resistant glovesC. with the sleeve of your shirtD. With a spatula

2. How should you hold a test tube containing a chemical?A. pointed away from your faceB. pointed at your eyeC. held right up to your noseD. very close to your partner’s face

3. You should report a cut in your skin, glass breakage, or a chemical spillA. after the problem is handledB. neverC. immediatelyD. after you write down what happened

• 4. When you are done with an experiment, how should you dispense of any chimicals used?A. mix them all up in a waste container and dump them in the trashB. pour them all down the sink while running the water to diluteC. Follow the instructions given to properly dispose of the particular chemicalsD. Mix the chemicals in a flask and heat the mixture until it evaporates into the air

• 5. What is the best way to read the volume of a liquid in a graduated cylinder?A. read the level of the liquid going up the side of the cylinderB. make sure five people in the lab read it before you write it downC. Glance at the cylinder and write down the first number you seeD. read the level of liquid at the middle of the meniscus at eye level

Objective 1.01-Scientific Method

1. Make an observation2. Identify the problem/question3. Form a hypothesis4. Design an experiment5. Perform an experiment6. Analyze Data7. Make conclusions

Objective 1.01 Scientific Method

• 1. Observation: Observe birds in flight• 2. Question: How do birds fly?• 3. Hypothesis: The wing designs of birds catch

air differently • 4. Experiment: Make and fly different designs of

paper airplanes to test the hypothesis• 5. Analyze Data: take notes on flight patterns of

paper airplanes. Create a data table on how each airplane flies.

• 6. Conclusion: The size and shape of the wing gives lift to the bird

Scientific Method

• Vocabulary• 1. Independent variable-variable that is changed• 2. Dependent variable-variable that is measured

or counted-changes in response to the independent variable

• 3. Control-things the investigator keeps in control in order to keep them the same for all samples

• 4. hypothesis-statement that gives the best possible response to the question and should be based on already known facts (educated guess)

Scientific Method

Quantitative Data: numbers Ex: 500, 6, tenQualitative Data: no number Ex: brown, big,

tallPrediction- forecast (educated guess) of the

possible results of events

1. A judgment based on data gathered in an experiment is…A. a skillB. a conclusionC. a hypothesisD. an observation

2. A forecast of possible or future events is a/an

A. AnalysisB. PredicationC. HypothesisD. Observation

3. The end products of your investigation or experiment are…

A. ResultsB. GuessesC. PredictionsD. Questions

Objective 2.01-pH and water

Water dissolves most molecules and ionspH scale = 1-141-6 = acids-the lower the pH, the stronger the

acid7 = neutral8-14 = bases-the higher the pH, the stronger

the base

Objective 2.01-microscopes

Total magnification = eyepiece x objectiveEyepiece = 10xObjectives = 10x and 40xGreatest possible magnification =

40ox (10 x 40)Under the microscope, letters get put upside

down and backwards

Objective 2.01-microscopes

Warm-Up / EOC Prep

1. Structures that give support and shape to plant cells are:A microbodies B golgi bodiesC nucleus D cell walls

2. Ribosomes A are the site of protein synthesisB are made by other ribosomesChave their own DNAD none of the above

If you have yet to do so, turn in the Final Exam Review packet assigned over break. It is late.


Agenda

Warm-UpNotes- Cells and BiomoleculesReview worksheetsClean-UpCool-Down

DAY 2: ORGANIC MOLECULES AND CELLS

EOC Review

Objective 2.02-Cell theory

The cell theory was developed with the help of the light microscope

The cell theory states that living organisms are composed of cells that arise from pre-existing cells and cells are the basic units of structure and function

Cell theory

1. All organisms composed of one or more cells.

2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.

3. New cells are produced from existing cells.

Two major types of cells:Prokaryotic:no nucleus, no organelles, smaller, came firstRibosomes, cell membrane, cytoplasmEukaryotic:Nucleus, organelles, bigger, came second

Types of CellsProkaryotic Eukaryotic

Organelles

• Organelles = little organs that perform specific jobs in the cell

• Organelles are found in eukaryotic cells but not prokaryotic cells

• Plant and Animal cells are both examples of eukaryotic cells with organelles

• Plant and Animal cells contain many of the same organelles, but there are several differences

Plant vs. Animal CellsPlant Cells1.Chloroplasts2.Cell wall3.Large vacuole

Animal Cells1.No Chloroplasts2.No Cell wall3.Small Vacuole

1. Structures that give support and shape to plant cells are:A microbodiesB golgi bodiesC nucleusD cell walls

Organelles

1. Nucleus2. Ribosomes3. Mitochondria4. Chloroplast5. Vacuole6. Endoplasmic reticulum7. Golgi Apparatus8. Plasma Membrane9. Cell Wall

Nucleus

Looks like: Central area where DNA is found

Job: controls the cellIn a factory: Boss

Ribosomes

Looks like: Small particles of RNA in the cytoplasm and on the ER

Job: make proteins (protein synthesis)In a factory: workers

Mitochondria

Looks like: a beanJob: powerhouse of

the cell-it produces the energy in the form of ATP

In a factory: generator (energy source)

Mitochondria

Chloroplast

Looks like: green stacks of membranes the contain chlorophyll

Job: perform photosynthesis (convert sunlight into energy)

In the factory: greenhouse

Vacuole

Looks like: sac-like organ. HUGE in plant cells

Job: stores water, food, and wasteIn a factory: storage room

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Looks like: internal membrane system next to the nucleus (rough ER has ribosomes, smooth ER does not)

Job: transports materialsIn a factory: conveyor belt

Golgi Apparatus

Looks like: stack of membranesJob: Packs, sorts, and shipsIn a factory: packaging center

Plasma Membrane

Looks like: layered membrane (called a lipid bilayer) surrounding the cell but inside of the cell wall

Job: “the regulator”-controls what comes in and out of the cell, protects, and supports the cell

In a factory: security guards

Cell Wall

Looks like: thick layer outside the plasma membrane

Job: structure and support In a factory: Cement wall

1. Ribosomes A are the site of protein synthesisB are made by other ribosomesC have their own DNAD none of the above

2. The mitochondrion of the cell A has only one membrane B has no membrane C is circular D is where cellular respiration occurs

3. The storage of hereditary information in a eukaryotic cell is in the A cytoplasmB nucleusC centriolesD lysosomes

Objective 2.01-Organic Molecules

• “Organic” = has carbon• “Inorganic” = no carbon• Monomer + Monomer + Monomer = Polymer

• Monomer of proteins = amino acids• Monomer of lipids = fatty acids• Monomer of nucleic acids = nucleotides• Monomer of carbohydrates = sugar

• Example: starch is made up of glucose

Testing for organic molecules

Benedicts-test for sugarIodine-tests for starch-turns blueBrown paper test-tests for lipids-becomes

translucent with lipids

1. Nucleotides are to nucleic acids as amino acids are to…A DNAB polypeptidesC proteinsD carbohydrates

Objective 2.04-Enzymes• Enzymes are proteins that act as biological

catalysts to speed up chemical reactions• Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering

activation energy• Enzymes can be affected by the following

factors:1. Temperature2. pH

• Extreme temperature or changes in pH cause enzymes to denature (become destroyed)

1. enzymes are A catalysts used by living thingsB catalysts used in all reactionsC chemicals used to increase activation energyD fats used by living things to help speed up chemical

reactions

2. EnzymesA function at any temperature and pHB function at an optimum temperature and pHC function at a temperature of 98.6F and a pH of 7D function at a temperature of 96.8F and a pH of 1-14

Levels of organization:Celltissueorganorgan systemMuscle cellheart

muscleheartcirculatory system

1. A ______________ is a group of different tissues that work together to perform a certain function

A organ systemB organC cellD tissue

2. Which of the following is part of the cell theory?A are eukaryoticB are prokaryoticC have nucleiD come from other cells

Objective 2.01-BiomoleculesBiomolecule

Building Block Elements Function Examples

Carbohydrate

Monosaccharide (simple sugar)DisaccharidesPolysaccharides

Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen

Primary (fast) source of energy

Sugar, starch

Lipid Fatty acids (insoluble in water –hydrophobic)

Carbon, hydrogen

Insulation, protection, long term energy source

Oil, wax

Protein Amino Acids (held together by peptide bonds)

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Growth and repair of tissuesSpeed up reactions

enzymes

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

Carries hereditary information

DNA/RNA

Cool-Down

Name one part of the cell theory.

What is the subunit (building block) of proteins? Of carbohydrates?

Warm-Up / EOC Prep

1. Nucleotides are to nucleic acids as amino acids are to…A DNA B polysaccharidesCproteins D carbohydrates

2. Which of the following is part of the cell theory?A are eukaryoticB are prokaryoticC have nucleiD come from other cells

Agenda

Warm-UpNotes: Transport and Bioenergetic

ReactionsReview WorksheetsOnline Review GamesUpdating portfoliosFlip FlopClean-UpCool-Down

Announcements

Post-Assessment Thursday- 3rd period Friday- 2nd period

Final (25% of total grade) Wednesday- 2nd period

Exemption Notices will given out on Monday!

DAY 3: TRANSPORT AND BIOENERGETIC REACTIONS

EOC Review

Cell membranes and Transport

Cell membrane

The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also provides protection and support

The cell membrane is made up of two layers of lipid, which is why it is called a lipid bilayer

This lipid bilayer gives the membrane a flexible structure, but also makes it a strong barrier

Cell Membrane

The lipid bilayer contains phospholipid molecules with phosphate, a polar head, and nonpolar tails

The polar heads are hydrophilic or “water loving” and the nonpolar tails are hydrophobic or “water hating”

Cell membranes

Proteins can also be found embedded in the membrane

These proteins can act as receptor proteins that receive messages from signal molecules, however, they can also act as channels and pumps that help move material across the cell membrane

Cell membranes

Cell MembranesThe channels can open and close to allow

material to pass in and out of the cellThe pumps can pump ions or small charged

molecules across the membrane

Cell membranes

If a substance can diffuse across the membrane, the membrane is permeable to it

Most biological membranes are “selectively permeable” or some substances can pass across the membrane and some cannot

Cell Membrane

Transport

There are two main types of transport:1.Passive-Does NOT require energy2.Active-Does require energy

Passive Transport

There are three important examples of passive transport:

1. Diffusion2. Osmosis3. Facilitated diffusion

Passive Transport

Diffusion is the process by which a substance moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

(Concentration = how much stuff is in a given amount of liquid)

Passive Transport

Going from high concentration to low concentration can also be called going down their concentration gradient

Diffusion does not require energy, because it is an example of passive transport

Diffusion

Equilibrium

Equilibrium-the concentration of the dissolved substance is the same throughout the system

Osmosis

The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis

Osmosis

The particles cannot get through the membrane

To reach equilibrium, the water must move the right

Osmosis

Passive Transport

Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of substances across a membrane that requires the help of protein channels

Facilitated diffusion, just like regular diffusion, does not need energy

Passive Transport

Active Transport

Active transport moves materials against their concentration gradient, or from low concentration to high concentration

Active transport often uses protein pumps

Transport

Types of solutions

There are 3 types of solutions:1.Hypotonic2.Isotonic3.Hypertonic

Hypotonic

1. Hypotonic = “below strength”

A cell in a hypotonic solution will swell and burst

High concentration of solute inside the cell causes the water to move inside the cell

Isotonic

2. Isotonic = “same strength”

Solute concentration is equal inside and outside of the cell

Movement of water inside = movement of water outside, so cell size stays the same

Hypertonic

3. Hypertonic= “above strength”

A cell in a hypertonic solution will shrink

High concentration of solute outside the cell causes the water to move outside the cell

1. The movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration is called…A. Active transportB. DiffusionC. OsmosisD. hypotonic

2. The movement of substances into and out of a cell without the use of energy is called…A. active transportB. Passive transportC. ExocytosisD. endocytosis

3. A type of membrane which allows only certain molecules to pass through is called... A. permeable B. semi-permeable C. Active D. porous

ATP and Photosynthesis Notes

(Bioenergetic Reactions)

ATP

Sunlight is the main energy source for life on Earth

When food is broken down, energy is released as heat and energy is stored as ATP

ATP

ATP: the basic energy sourceAdenosine triphosphate = (ATP)Energy is stored in ATP. Cells start with

ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate is added to produce ATP.

ATP is like a fully charged battery.ADP + P = ATP

ATP

How is energy stored in ATP released?It’s a must the bond between the 2nd and 3rd

phosphates causes energy to be released.ATP – P = ADP

ATP

What does the energy released from the breaking of this bond do?

ATP has enough energy to power a variety of cellular activities such as:

1. transport across the cell membrane 2. Protein formation 3. Muscle contraction

ATP

Energy flows throughout the living world and is temporarily stored in organisms as ATP

ATP can even be called “energy currency” as energy from ATP powers metabolism

Photosynthesis

Many autotrophs (plants and some protists) get their energy for metabolism through photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts and the sunlight required for the reaction is absorbed by the chloroplast pigment chlorophyll.

Photosynthesis

Eq: carbon dioxide + water carbohydrates (sugars) + oxygen

Eq: CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 (glucose) +O2

Light energy

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis releases oxygen gas into the air for us to breath and takes out carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis can be dependent on temperature. Low temperatures may cause photosynthesis to occur more slowly

Photosynthesis

The majority of the weight in trees comes from carbon. Specifically this carbon comes from taking in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.

ATP

ATP Cycle

Photosynthesis

1. What is released when ATP is broken down into ADP and one phosphate? A. oxygen B. water C. energy D. hydrogen

2. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide, water and light to produce A. carbon monoxide B. energy C. glucose and oxygen D. chlorophyll

What form of energy is used by cells? A. enzymes B. cofactors C. ATP D.DNA

Cellular Respiration


Cellular respiration-the process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen


Cellular respiration has 3 stages:1. GlycolysisOccurs in the cytoplasm2. Kreb’s CycleOccurs in the mitochondria3. Electron Transport ChainOccurs in the mitochondria


Eq: oxygen + glucosecarbon dioxide + water + energy

O2 + C6H12O6 CO2 + H2O + ATP


Photosynthesis produces oxygen, while Cellular Respiration produces carbon dioxide

Comparing photosynthesis and cellular respiration:

Cellular RespirationPhotosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Function Energy capture Energy release Location Chloroplasts Cytoplasm, then

mitochondriaReactants CO2 and H2O C6H12O6 + O2

Products C6H12O6 + O2

CO2 and H2O

Equation CO2 and H2O C6H12O6 +

O2

C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 and

H2O

ATP formed Aerobic - 36 Anaerobic-2


The presence of oxygen determines what follows glycolysis. When oxygen is present, the Kreb’s Cycle and ETC occurs-this is called aerobic respiration. When oxygen is not present, fermentation occurs-this is called anaerobic respiration.


Oxygen=aerobic respiration=Glycolysis + Kreb’s cycle + Electron Transport Chain= more ATP

No Oxygen= anaerobic respiration = Glycolysis + Fermentation = less ATP


The word aerobic means “in air”, therefore anaerobic means “without air”


Fermentation-the process of breaking down organic compounds without oxygen.

The two main types of fermentation are lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation.


Cells produce ATP most effectively and efficiently with oxygen, therefore more ATP is produced in aerobic respiration than in anaerobic respiration.

Ojbective-2.02 bioenergetic reactions

• Carbon Cycle• Photosynthesis-Takes in carbon dioxide (removes

carbon dioxide from the air and uses it to make organic compounds) and releases oxygen for us to breath

Sun +Carbon dioxide + water oxygen + glucose

• Cellular Respiration-Takes in oxygen (removes oxygen from the air) and releases carbon dioxide

Oxygen + glucose Carbon dioxide + water + energy

1. Cellular respiration takes place inside A. an animal cell only B. a plant cell only C. both plant and animal cells D. neither plant or animal cells

2. _____________ are the main product of the cell. A. lipids B. amino acids C. proteins D. carbohydrates

3. Cellular energy is stored in the form of A. chemical bonds B. enzymes C. membrane potential D. protein shapes

4. Complex carbohydrates break down into A. enzymes B. amino acids C. simple sugars D. ATP

Cool-Down

1. What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution (the concentrations inside and out of the cell are equal.)

2. What are the reactants and products for both photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

Warm-Up / EOC Prep

1. The mitochondrion of the cellA has only one membraneB has no membraneC is when photosynthesis occursD is where cellular respiration occurs

2. The storage of hereditary information in a eukaryotic cell is in the A cytoplasm B nucleusC centrioles D lysosomes

Agenda

Warm-UpNotesReview WorksheetsPractice Multiple Choice QuestionsClean-UpCool-Down


Post-Assessment

DAY 4: GENETICS

EOC Review

The cell cycle is the sequence of stages through which a cell passes between one cell division to the next.

Cell cycle: 1. G1-first growth 2. S-DNA replication 3. G2-second growth, prepares for mitsois 4. M-mitosis5. C-cytokinesis

1. Chromosomes line up on spindles in the center of a cell during A. anaphase B. telophase C. prophase D. metaphase

2. When preparing for cell division, the chromatin condenses and becomes a A. gene B. chromosome C. protein D. codon

3. Mitosis generates A. daughter cells identical to the mother cell B. many reproductive cells C. diseased cells D. gametes

Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase = G1, S, G2

S phaseDNA replication occurs

Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction. Mitosis includes one division that produces two cells that identical to one another and to the parent. There is no crossing over and no variation created because the cells are identical. Mitosis includes four phases:

Prophase-chromosomes become visible and the spindle forms

Metaphase-chromosomes move to the center of the cell and line up along the equator

Anaphase-centromeres divide and the two chromatids move to opposite poles attached to spindle fibers

Telophase-nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes at each pole, the chromosomes uncoil, and the spindle dissolves

Meiosis is a form of sexual reproduction. Meiosis includes two divisions that produce four cells that are different from one another and to the parent. There is crossing over and variation created because the cells are different. Meiosis includes eight phases:

1. What process of reproduction brings with it the greatest potential for genetic variability? A. mitosis B. meiosis C. cell differentiation D. interkinesis

Prophase I-crossing over occurs-chromosomes become visible and the spindle forms

Metaphase I-chromosomes move to the center of the cell and line up along the equator

Anaphase I-centromeres divide and the two chromatids move to opposite poles attached to spindle fibers

Telophase I-nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes at each pole, the chromosomes uncoil, and the spindle dissolves

Prophase II 6. Metaphse II 7. Anaphse II 8. Telophase II

Meiosis produces the gametessperm and egg. The sperm and egg are haploid, which means they contain half the number of chromosomes. When sperm are formed all 4 cells form sperm. When eggs are formed 1 cell becomes an egg and 3 become polar bodies. Mitosis produces the body cells, which are diploid, which means they have a full set of chromosomes. All body cells besides the egg and sperm are called somatic cells.

Haploid-half the number of chromosomesDiploid-full set of chromosomesBefore chromosomes form, the DNA is in long

strands known as chromatin

The spindle fibers are the hairs that pull the chromosomes apart. These spindle fibers are made by organelles called centrioles. Chromosomes (DNA wrapped in proteins) are made up of two identical sister chromatids. These chromatids are held together at the center by the centromere.

Cytokinesis, or the division of cytoplasm, follows mitosis to split the cells in half. Cytokinesis in animals occurs by pinching the cytoplasm, while cytokinesis in plants occurs by forming a cell plate between the two nuclei. This cells plate will later become the cell wall.

Mitosis MeiosisAsexual or Sexual? Asexual SexualNumber of divisions 1 2

Number of cells formed 2 4Identical or different

from parentIdentical different

Crossing over? No YesGenetic variation? No Yes

1. all body cells, except the sperm and ova are _______________ cells. A. germ B. reproductive C. somatic D. spindle

2. The type of nuclear division that produces gametes is A. meiosis B. cytokinesis C. interphase D. mitosis

3. When DNA is in long strands prior to calling, it is in the form of A. chromosomes B. centromeres C. chromatin D. chromatids

4. A type of nuclear division that takes place in somatic cells is A. meiosis B. cytokinesis C. interphase D. mitosis

5. During interphase, the cell A. splits its homologous pairs B. grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for cell

division C. divides the number of chromosomes in half D. becomes separated by a cellular membrane

6. In fertilization, gametes fuse to form a A. embryo B. soatic cell C. zygote D. reproductive cell

Gregor Mendel-father of genetics Mendel used pea plants because peas are…

1. Are easy to grow2. Produce a lot of offspring3. Mature quickly

TRAIT-a characteristicGENETICS-the study of (heredity) how traits

are passed from one generation to the nextHEREDITY-the passage of traits from one

generation to the next

GENE-the factors that control traits (found in the DNA)

Ex: gene for hair color ALLELES-different forms of a gene Ex: allele for brown hair, allele for black hair

DOMINANT-allele that is expressed when in the presence of a recessive allele (TT or Tt = tall)

RECESSIVE-allele that is expressed only when homozygous (tt = short)

Blue (B) is dominant to gold (b). BB =blue Bb=blue bb=gold

bB= blue

HOMOZYOUS-organism with two identical alleles for the same trait Ex: TT or tt

HETEROZYGOUS-organism with two different alleles for the same trait Ex: Tt

PHENOTYPE-physical characteristics Ex: Tall, Brown GENOTYPE-the genetic makeupEx: TT, Tt, Hh (the letters!)

PUNNETT SQUARES-chart showing the possible combination of alleles in a cross

Independent assortment-each trait is inherited independent of other traits (chance) Ex: hair color is inherited independent of height

Segregation-in meiosis two alleles separate so that each gamete receives only one form of the gene from each parent

Ex: Mom is heterozygous for brown hair B = brown, b = blonde. Each of her eggs either has a B or a b not both!

Test Cross-A cross between an unknown and a homozygous recessive

Incomplete Dominance-When a combination of the dominant and recessive creates a new phenotype.

Codominance-when two alleles are expressed together

Polygenic traits-traits that are the result of the interaction of multiple genes

Blood types-there are four blood typesA, B, O, and ABuse I alleles

1. The combination of alleles inherited is called the A. heterozygote B. phenotype C. genotype D. punnett square

2. The expression of traits is called the A. phenotype B. genotype C. mutation D. allele

3. If an individual inherits one dominant allele and one recessive allele, the genotype is A. homozygous B. recessive C. heterozygous D. phenotype

4. If an individual inherits two of the same allele, either both dominant or both recessive for a particular characteristic, the individual’s genotype is A. heterozygous B. phenotypic C. homozygous D. mutated

DAY 5: GENETICS/DNA

EOC Revew

Humans have 46 chromosomes. Sperm and egg cells have 23 chromosomes. Sperm + egg = fertilization-which forms a zygote.

A karyotype is a picture of your chromosomes and they can sometimes show chromosome abnormalities and the sex of the individual. XY = male and XX = female

A pedigree is a diagram the shows the inheritance of traits in a family. If a pedigree shows mostly males with a certain trait, that trait is most likely sex-linked. Examples of sex-linked traits include hemophilia and colorblindness. Individuals that carry a trait and can pass it on to their offspring, but do not have any symptoms of the disease (they are physically normal) are called carriers.

DNA fingerprinting-match up picturesCloning-creation of genetically identical

organismsGene therapy-replacing bad genes with good

ones to help cure diseasesGenetically modified crops-crops that have

been genetically changed to become better ex: crops that are resistant to insects

1. A person with a defect in a gene that codes for a specific protein could be a candidate for which of the following? A. cloning B. DNA fingerprinting C. gene therapy D. protein injections

2. Strawberries have been created to resist the harmful effects of frost. This is an application of what? A. genetic engineering B. gene therapy C. DNA fingerprinting D. cloning

Electrophoresis-separates molecules based on size

Human genome project-wanted to identify all human genes and determine all of the base pair sequences in all human chromosomes

Chromosomes-DNA wrapped in proteinsCentromere-holds chromatids together to

form the chromosomesHomologous chromosomes-matched pairs of

chromosomesGenes-pieces of the DNAmolecule that code

for specific proteins

1. A male has the genotype XY. Which parent is responsible for giving the son the Y chromosome? A. mother B. father C. both mother and father D. neither mother nor the mother

2. What is the difference between co-dominance and incomplete dominance? A. Co-dominant traits are blended and incompletely

dominant traits appear together B. Co-dominant traits are recessive and incompletely

dominant traits appear together C. Co-dominant traits appear together and

incompletely dominant traits are blended D. Co-dominant traits are recessive and incompletely

dominant traits are blended

DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. It is double stranded, contains the sugar deoxyribose, and has the bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine.

DNA has a double helix, or twisted ladder shape and it is made up nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of three things:

1. Phosphate 2. Sugar 3. Nitrogen base

The phosphate and sugar make up the backbone or rail of the nucleic acid ladder and the nitrogen bases provide the steps of the ladder. The nitrogen bases also provide the code for proteins.

DNA replication = copying the DNA. DNA replication is semi-conservative. Each molecule of DNA contains one new strand and one old strand.

RNA is ribonucleic acid. RNA is used to translate the code from the DNA molecule into protein. It is single stranded, contains the sugar ribose, and has the bases A, G, C, and U.

There are 3 types of RNA:Messenger RNA-carries information from

nucleus to ribosome-made by RNA polymerase

Ribosomal RNA-makes up the ribosomeTransfer RNA-contains anticodon-brings

amino acids to ribosome to assemble the protein

The flow of information in genetics is as follows: DNARNAProteins

DNARNA is transcription and RNAProteins is translation. Translation occurs as the ribosome reads three-letter codes called codons. These codons code for specific amino acids that link up to form a protein.

When DNA is copied in a process called DNA replication, a complimentary strand must be made, and this is done by matching A (adenine) with T (thymine) and C (cytosine) with G (guanine). These nitrogen bases are held together by hydrogen bonds. DNA replication must occur before the cell divides. So the DNA strand the matches: AGTAC is TCATG and the strand that matches TTAAGGCC is AATTCCGG.

However, if we are transcribing from DNA to RNA, we must replace T with U. Therefore, the RNA that matches the DNA strand ATTGCAG is UAACGUC.

1. Protein synthesis begins with the manufacture of a molecule of A. mRNA B. rRNA C tRNA D nucleotide

2. Ribosomes are made of A mRNAB. rRNAC tRNAD protein

3. Proteins are made up of polypeptide chains. Polypeptide chains are composed ofA. mRNAB. rRNAC. tRNAD. Amino acids

4. Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries A. the mRNA to the ribosome B. the nucleotide bases to the mRNA C. an amino acid to the ribosome D. an amino acid to the cytoplasm

5. Which of the following is the first step in protein synthesis? A. tRNA bonds to an amino acid in the cytoplasm B. DNA unravels to expose an mRNA segment C. DNA unravels to expose a gene segment D. mRNA bonds to tRNA

A mutation is a change in a genetic sequence. Mutation can occur as insertions, deletions, or inversions. Whole pieces of DNA can be added or subtracted, and when this happens the protein sequence changes as well, which leads to a malfunctioning protein and sometimes disease.

Insertion AGCTTC AGCAAAATTC (+AAAA)

Deletion AGCTTC AGTC (-CT)Inversion AGCTTC ATTCGC

Nondisjunction-when chromosomes fail to separate

Three copies of chromosome 21 = down syndromecaused by nondisjunction

1. Down’s syndrome is caused by A. hemophilia B. thyroid disease C. chromosome mutation-nondisjunction D. injury during pregnancy

DAY 6: EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION

EOC Review

Darwin-came up with theory of natural selection-mechanism of evolution-1859 published On the Origin of Species

Jean Baptiste Lamarck, believed that physical features increased in size because of use or decreased in size because of disuse. His theories suggested that the organism’s life determined what traits got passed onto offspring.

A heavy influence on Darwin’s theories was the book Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell, which explained that the surface of the Earth changed slowly over many years. Another influence was the work of Thomas Malthus, who wrote that human populations can increase faster than the food supply.

Populations breed rapidlyBut populations don’t grow uncheckedMost organisms in a population die without breeding

EVOLUTION-the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

EVOLUTION-the change in the gene pool over time

FITNESS-the physical traits and behaviors that enable organisms to survive and reproduce in their environment

COMMON DESCENT-all species have common ancestors

ADAPTATION-process that enables organisms to become better suited to their environments

Adaptation TAKE PLACE OVER LONG PERIODS OF TIME!!! (EX: Darwin’s Finches)Only surviving (well adapted) organisms pass on their traits.

1. The capsid coating on a virus serves to A. identify the capsid of another virus to breed B. identify a receptor site on a prospective host cell C. identify necessary food items in the host cell D. assist in locomotion of the virus in the host cell

2. Ideas about evolution A. have already been thought B. are perfect and need no refinement C. may change based on new data D. only involve animals

The process by which new species form is called speciation. Geographic isolation plays a large role in speciation. Each environment is different with different pressures and challenges.

organisms to adapt and change in response to their specific environment. If these populations become different enough they may even form separate species-which cannot interbreed.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION-Humans make sure that only individuals with more desirable traits produce offspring

NATURAL SELECTION-The process in nature where the most fit organisms produce more offspring

NS: If variation of a trait within a population has a genetic basis, and some variants have greater survival and reproduction, then, over time, the favored trait will predominate in the population.

Survival of the Fittest-Individuals whose traits are well suited to the environment survive and reproduce. Those who aren’t suited, die!!! (or leave fewer offspring)

On what does natural selection operate? Phenotypic variation

What is the cause of phenotypic variation? GENETIC MUTATIONS and CROSSING OVER

Gene pool-a common group of genes shared by a population

1. If two organisms evolve in response to each other, which evolutionary pattern is demonstrated? A. natural selection B. gradualistic method C. co-evolution D. adaptive radiation

2. Natural selection states that individuals A. with adaptive traits are more likely to survive B. on the bottom level of a hierarchy have the greatest

reproductive success C. demonstrating altruistic behavior are the ones with

the most mutations D. remain unchanged over a period of time

What happens if two species share the same niche for too long? Extinction or Evolution

Divergent Evolution-(aka Adaptive Radiation) different species diverge from a common ancestor

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION-creation of organisms that are similar in appearance and behavior (bats, birds, butterflies)

Relative Dating—lower levels of rock are older than higher levels (not exact)

Absolute Dating—the actual age of a sample using radiometric dating

According to scientists, the earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

Fossil Record- represents the preserved collective history of the earth’s organisms.

Present-Day Evidence for Evolution:DNA SimilarityBiogeographyHomologous StructuresVestigial Structures Embryos

Biogeography-The study of patterns of geographical distribution of plants and animals across Earth, and the changes in those distributions over time

Homologous structures-parts in different organisms that develop from the same ancestral body part

Ex: wing of a bat and the flipper of a whaleVestigial structures- structures that have

little or no purpose in the present, but did in the past

Examples: Human appendix, Tonsils, Small vertebrae in humans , Leg bones in snakes

EMBRYO-organisms in the early stages of development.

1. viruses A. can eat and metabolize food B. can reproduce only when inside a host cell C. can reproduce on their own at anytime D. eat and metabolize food only when inside a host

cell

2. Certain insects and plants evolving together are examples of… A. co-evolution B. convergent evolution C. divergent evolution D. parallel evolution

3. The human appendix was once useful, but no longer has a function. The appendix is an example of… A. a homologous structure B. a vestigial structure C. a vital organ D. a mutation

4. evidence of evolution includes A. cave drawings, ancient stories, and ceremonial

rites B. homologous structures, DNA, and embryonic

evidence C. eukaryotes, symbiosis, and competition D. nephrons, antibodies, and homeostasis

warm-up / eoc prep 1. units ordered smallest to largest include: a millimeter, kilometer, centimeter...

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