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The Cambridge Companion to
FOUCAULT Second Edition
Edited by Gary Gutting University of Notre Dame
..... :~ .... CAMBRIDGE ::: UNIVERSITY PRESS
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The Cambridge companion to Foucault/ edited by Gary Gutting - 2nd ed. p. cm. - (Cambridge companions to philosophy)
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-84082-1 - ISBN 0-521-6005 3-7 (pbk.) 1. Foucault, Michel. I. Gutting, Gary. II. Title. III. Series. B2430.F724c36 2006 194-dc22 2005005777
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CONTENTS
Contributors Pref ace to the Secom Biographical Chrono
Introduction Michel Foucault: A { GARY GUTTING
I. Foucault's Mapping c THOMAS FLYNN
2. Foucault and the Hi~ GARY GUTTING
3. The Death of Man, c GEORGES CANGUILF. TRANSLATED BY CA1
4. Power/Knowledge JOSEPH ROUSE
5. Ethics as Ascetics: F and Ancient Thougli ARNOLD I. DAVIDSO
6. Michel Foucault's E1 JAMES W. BERNAUEl
vii
a :J e
l
2
GARY GUTTING
Foucault and the History of Madness
I am not a professional historian; nobody is perfect. Michel Foucault'
FOUCAULT AMONG THE HISTORIANS. PART I
Michel Foucault's work always had an ambivalent relation to es-tablished academic disciplines, but almost all his books are at least superficially classifiable as histories. His first major work, in par-ticular, seems to proclaim its status in the title: Histoire de la folie a l'age classique. 2 One plausible way of trying to understand and evaluate this seminal book is by assessing its status as a work of history.
The reactions of professional historians to Histoire de la foile seem, at first reading, sharply polarized.3 There are many acknowl-edgments of its seminal role, beginning with Robert Mandrou's early review in Annales, characterizing it as a "beautiful book" that will be "of central importance for our understanding of the Classical period."4 Twenty years later, Michael MacDonald con-firmed Mandrou's prophecy: "Anyone who writes about the history of insanity in early modern Europe must travel in the spreading wake of Michel Foucault's famous book, Madness and Civilization." 5
Later endorsements have been even stronger. Jan Goldstein: "For both their empirical content and their powerful theoretical per-spectives, the works of Michel Foucault occupy a special and cen-tral place in the historiography of psychiatry. 116 Roy Porter: "Time has proved Madness and Civilization far the most penetrating work ever written on the history of madness."? More specifically,
49
50
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
Fouc
ault
has r
ecen
tly b
een
hera
lded
as a
pro
phet
of "
the
new
cul
tura
l hi
stor
y."8
But
cri
ticis
m h
as a
lso
been
wid
espr
ead
and
ofte
n bi
tter.
Con
side
r H
. C
. Er
ic M
idel
fort
's co
nclu
sion
fro
m h
is v
ery
infl
uent
ial a
sses
s-m
ent o
f Fou
caul
t's h
isto
rica
l cla
ims:
Wha
t w
e ha
ve d
isco
vere
d in
look
ing
at M
adne
ss a
nd C
ivili
zatio
n is
tha
t m
any
of it
s ar
gum
ents
fly
in th
e fa
ce o
f em
piri
cal e
vide
nce,
and
that
man
y of
its
broa
dest
gen
eral
izat
ions
are
ove
rsim
plif
icat
ions
. Ind
eed,
in
his
ques
t fo
r th
e es
senc
e of
an
age,
its
epis
tem
e, F
ouca
ult s
eem
s si
mpl
y to
indu
lge
in
a w
him
for
arbi
trar
y an
d w
itty
ass
ertio
n so
oft
en th
at o
ne w
onde
rs w
hy s
o m
uch
atte
ntio
n an
d pr
aise
con
tinue
to fa
ll hi
s w
ay.9
Man
y of
Mid
elfo
rt's
cnt1
c1Sm
s, if
not
alw
ays
his
over
all
asse
ss-
men
t, ha
ve b
een
wid
ely
endo
rsed
by,
for
exa
mpl
e, P
eter
Sed
gwic
k,
Law
renc
e St
one,
Ian
Hac
king
, and
Dom
inic
k La
Cap
ra. r
o
From
the
abov
e ju
xtap
ositi
on o
f tex
ts,
it w
ould
see
m th
at h
isto
-ri
ans
are
shar
ply
split
in th
eir v
iew
of t
he v
alue
of F
ouca
ult's
wor
k.
But
the
div
isio
n pr
etty
muc
h di
sapp
ears
on
clos
er s
crut
iny.
Tho
se
who
app
laud
Fou
caul
t hav
e pr
imar
ily in
min
d w
hat w
e m
ay c
all h
is
met
a-le
vel c
laim
s abo
ut h
ow m
adne
ss sh
ould
be
appr
oach
ed as
a h
is-
tori
ogra
phic
al to
pic.
The
y ar
e im
pres
sed
by h
is v
iew
of m
adne
ss a
s a
vari
able
soci
al c
onst
ruct
, not
an
ahis
tori
cal s
cien
tific
giv
en, a
nd o
f th
e hi
stor
y of
mad
ness
as
an e
ssen
tial p
art o
f the
his
tory
of r
easo
n.
The
se v
iew
s are
now
gen
eral
ly ac
cept
ed b
y hi
stor
ians
of p
sych
iatr
y, 11
and
Fouc
ault
was
one
of t
he fi
rst t
o pu
t the
m fo
rwar
d. I
n th
is s
ense
he
is a
wid
ely
and
prop
erly
reve
red
fath
er o
f the
new
his
tory
of p
sy-
chia
try.
But
on
the
"obj
ect-
leve
l" o
f spe
cifi
c hi
stor
ical
fact
s an
d in
-te
rpre
tatio
ns,
the
cons
ensu
s of
eve
n fa
vora
bly
disp
osed
his
tori
ans
is t
hat
Fouc
ault'
s w
ork
is s
erio
usly
wan
ting.
And
rew
Scu
ll, w
hose
w
ork
shar
es m
uch
of th
e ge
nera
l spi
rit o
f Fou
caul
t's, n
onet
hele
ss e
n-do
rses
wha
t he
righ
tly sa
ys is
"th
e ve
rdic
t of m
ost A
nglo
-Am
eric
an
spec
ialis
ts: t
hat M
adne
ss a
nd C
ivili
zatio
n is
a pr
ovoc
ativ
e and
daz
z-lin
gly
wri
tten
pro
se p
oem
, but
one
rest
ing
on th
e sh
akie
st o
f sch
ol-
arly
foun
datio
ns a
nd ri
ddle
d w
ith
erro
rs o
f fac
t and
inte
rpre
tatio
n."1
2
Sim
ilarly
, Pat
rici
a O'B
rien
, in
an a
rtic
le e
xpre
ssin
g gr
eat e
nthu
sias
m
for F
ouca
ult's
wor
k, a
gree
s tha
t "hi
stor
ians
who
are
will
ing
to a
dmit
th
at F
ouca
ult w
as w
ritin
g hi
stor
y fi
nd it
bad
his
tory
, too
gen
eral
, too
un
subs
tant
iate
d, to
o m
echa
nist
ic."
13
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
51
Even
his
tori
ans
who
hav
e a
mor
e fa
vora
ble
view
of
Fouc
ault'
s sp
ecif
ic h
isto
rica
l cla
ims a
re re
luct
ant t
o ac
cept
him
as
a m
embe
r of
thei
r trib
e. J
an G
olds
tein
, aft
er m
aint
aini
ng th
at "
Fouc
ault
used
his
-to
rica
l mat
eria
l to
grea
t adv
anta
ge" a
nd th
at "
his h
isto
rica
l sen
se w
as
extr
aord
inar
ily a
cute
," g
oes
on to
not
e th
at "
Fouc
ault
alw
ays
con-
side
red
him
self
at l
east
as
muc
h a
philo
soph
er a
s a
hist
oria
n, w
hose
ep
iste
mol
ogic
al a
nd p
oliti
cal p
roje
ct r
equi
red
that
he
chal
leng
e th
e or
dina
ry c
anon
s of h
isto
ry w
ritin
g."1
4 C
onse
quen
tly, a
s she
rem
arks
in
a re
view
of D
isci
plin
e an
d Pu
nish
, "th
e us
ual c
rite
ria
of h
isto
rica
l sc
hola
rshi
p ca
nnot
be u
sed
to a
sses
s Fou
caul
t's w
ork.
"1s M
acD
onal
d is
sim
ilarl
y am
biva
lent
: "M
uch
of w
hat F
ouca
ult h
as to
say
seem
s to
me
to b
e co
rrec
t, in
spi
te o
f his
reje
ctio
n of
the
prev
ailin
g st
anda
rds
of h
isto
rica
l dis
cour
se"
(xi).
Alla
n M
egill
goe
s eve
n fu
rthe
r. Fo
r him
, no
t onl
y do
es F
ouca
ult's
wor
k fa
ll ou
tsid
e th
e di
scip
line
of h
isto
ry,
"he
is a
ntid
isci
plin
ary,
sta
ndin
g ou
tsid
e al
l dis
cipl
ines
and
dra
win
g fr
om th
em o
nly
in th
e ho
pe o
f und
erm
inin
g th
em. "
16
At
leas
t on
e Fo
ucau
ltian
, C
olin
Gor
don,
has
opp
osed
thi
s co
n-se
nsus
, arg
uing
that
his
tori
ans
have
reje
cted
Fou
caul
t's c
oncl
usio
ns
beca
use
they
hav
e no
t pro
perl
y un
ders
tood
him
. The
dif
ficu
lties
of
His
toir
e de
la
folie
and
, es
peci
ally
, th
e gr
eatly
abr
idge
d na
ture
of
its E
nglis
h tr
ansl
atio
n ha
ve le
d to
mis
info
rmed
cri
ticis
m. "
His
toir
e de
la fo
lie h
as b
een
a la
rgel
y un
read
or m
isre
ad b
ook.
III?
If, h
e su
g-ge
sts,
we
read
Fou
caul
t's fu
ll te
xt w
ith
care
, we
will
find
mos
t of t
he
stan
dard
cri
ticis
ms
to b
e m
ispl
aced
and
reco
gniz
e hi
s w
ork
as a
rich
so
urce
of d
etai
led
hist
oric
al in
sigh
t. W
e ha
ve,
then
, th
ree
sugg
estio
ns r
egar
ding
Fou
caul
t's h
isto
ry o
f m
adne
ss. T
he c
onse
nsus
of w
orki
ng h
isto
rian
s is
tha
t it i
s ba
d hi
s-to
ry.
To t
his
Col
in G
ordo
n re
spon
ds t
hat
it is
goo
d hi
stor
y (o
r, at
le
ast,
that
ther
e ar
e no
t yet
suff
icie
nt g
roun
ds fo
r thi
nkin
g it
is b
ad).
Que
stio
ning
the
pres
uppo
sitio
n of
bot
h th
ese
view
s is
the
clai
m o
f G
olds
tein
and
Meg
ill th
at it
is n
ot h
isto
ry a
t all.
G
ordo
n is
cle
arly
righ
t tha
t man
y of
the
stan
dard
his
tori
cal c
rit-
icis
ms
of H
isto
ire
de la
fol
ie a
re m
isdi
rect
ed. M
idel
fort
, bec
ause
of
his
wid
e in
flue
nce,
is th
e be
st e
xam
ple.
He
says
that
cons
ider
ed a
s hi
stor
y, F
ouca
ult's
arg
umen
t res
ts o
n fo
ur b
asic
con
tent
ions
. T
he fi
rst .
.. is
the
forc
eful
par
alle
l bet
wee
n th
e m
edie
val i
sola
tion
of le
pros
y an
d th
e m
oder
n is
olat
ion
of m
adne
ss ..
.. S
econ
d is
Fou
caul
t's c
onte
ntio
n th
at i
n th
e la
te M
iddl
e A
ges
and
earl
y R
enai
ssan
ce t
he m
ad le
d an
'eas
y
52
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
wan
deri
ng li
fe,'
mad
ness
hav
ing
been
rec
ogni
zed
as p
art
of t
ruth
....
The
th
ird
maj
or c
onte
ntio
n ..
. is
that
thi
s op
enne
ss [
of t
he M
iddl
e A
ges
and
Ren
aiss
ance
to m
adne
ss] d
isap
pear
ed in
the
Age
of t
he G
reat
Con
fine
men
t, be
ginn
ing
in t
he m
id-s
even
teen
th c
entu
ry ..
.. T
he f
ourt
h an
d fin
al c
on-
tent
ion
posi
ts a
tran
sitio
n to
mad
ness
as
men
tal i
llnes
s, i
n w
hich
Fou
caul
t ex
amin
es t
he w
ork
of t
he r
efor
mer
s, T
uke
and
Pine
l, an
d co
nclu
des
that
th
ey "
inve
nted
" m
enta
l illn
ess.
18
The
read
er o
f Fou
caul
t's b
ook
is im
med
iate
ly st
ruck
by
the
oddi
ty
of cl
aim
ing
that
thes
e are
its "
basi
c con
tent
ions
." A
lthou
gh F
ouca
ult
expl
icitl
y of
fere
d a
hist
ory
of m
adne
ss in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge, i
t see
ms
that
thre
e of
his
four
cen
tral
cla
ims
are
abou
t oth
er p
erio
ds. I
n fa
ct,
neith
er o
f the
firs
t tw
o co
nten
tions
is c
entr
al to
Fou
caul
t's ar
gum
ent.
He b
egin
s his
boo
k by
sugg
estin
g th
at le
pros
y in
the M
iddl
e Age
s bor
e so
me
stri
king
func
tiona
l par
alle
ls to
mad
ness
in th
e C
lass
ical
Age
: B
oth
lepe
rs a
nd th
e m
ad w
ere
obje
cts o
f fea
r and
repu
lsio
n; b
oth
wer
e is
olat
ed in
hou
ses
desi
gned
mor
e fo
r se
para
tion
from
soc
iety
tha
n fo
r cu
res;
bot
h w
ere
used
as
join
t sig
ns o
f div
ine
just
ice
and
mer
cy;
and
in s
ome
case
s fu
nds
and
inst
itut
ions
ori
gina
lly m
eant
for l
eper
s ca
me
to b
e us
ed fo
r the
mad
. The
re is
, Fou
caul
t thi
nks,
a n
ice
para
l-le
l bet
wee
n th
e tw
o ph
enom
ena,
a p
aral
lel h
e us
es a
s a
rhet
oric
ally
ef
fect
ive
open
ing
of h
is b
ook.
But
as f
ar a
s hi
stor
ical
subs
tanc
e go
es,
the
lepr
osy
disc
ussi
on is
ent
irel
y no
ness
entia
l. Le
ave
it o
ut a
nd th
e co
re o
f Fou
caul
t's a
rgum
ent a
bout
the
nat
ure
of C
lass
ical
mad
ness
an
d it
s re
latio
n to
mod
ern
psyc
hiat
ry is
una
ffec
ted.
To
som
e ex
tent
, the
sam
e is
true
of t
he c
ontr
ast F
ouca
ult s
ets
up
betw
een
the
inte
grat
ion
of m
adne
ss in
to m
edie
val a
nd R
enai
ssan
ce
exis
tenc
e an
d its
exc
lusi
on b
y th
e C
lass
ical
Age
. T
he m
ain
poin
t is
tha
t ex
clus
ion
and
conf
inem
ent w
ere
dist
inct
ive
feat
ures
of
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge's
atti
tude
tow
ard
mad
ness
. Fo
ucau
lt sk
etch
es a
n in
-ge
niou
s an
d pr
ovoc
ativ
e st
ory
abou
t the
med
ieva
l and
Ren
aiss
ance
vi
ewpo
ints
, but
no
cent
ral a
rgum
ent d
epen
ds o
n th
is a
ccou
nt. T
he
need
ful p
oint
is m
erel
y th
at e
xclu
sion
and
con
fine
men
t dis
tingu
ish
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge in
a fu
ndam
enta
l way
from
the p
rece
ding
cent
urie
s.
Bey
ond
this
, Fou
caul
t's h
ypot
hese
s as
to w
hat w
ent o
n in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s an
d th
e R
enai
ssan
ce a
re ju
st in
trig
uing
mar
gina
lia.
In a
ny c
ase,
the
spe
cifi
c ob
ject
ions
Mid
elfo
rt ra
ises
to F
ouca
ult's
cl
aim
s ab
out t
he p
re-C
lass
ical
per
iod
are
of li
ttle
wei
ght.
He
poin
ts
out,
for
exam
ple,
tha
t th
e m
ad w
ere
isol
ated
fro
m s
ocie
ty d
urin
g
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
53
this
per
iod,
par
ticul
arly
whe
n th
ey p
osed
a th
reat
to o
ther
s or t
hem
-se
lves
, an
d th
at t
here
wer
e sp
ecia
l ho
spita
ls f
or t
he m
ad in
Spa
in
duri
ng th
e fi
ftee
nth
cent
ury.
Her
e M
idel
fort
mis
take
s a
clai
m a
bout
th
e fu
ndam
enta
l at
titu
de o
f a
peri
od w
ith
a cl
aim
abo
ut t
he f
irst
in
trod
uctio
n of
a p
ract
ice.
Fin
ding
exa
mpl
es o
f co
nfin
emen
t th
at
prec
ede
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge d
oes n
ot c
ount
aga
inst
the
clai
m th
at c
on-
fine
men
t ha
d a
uniq
ue r
ole
in t
hat
perio
d. O
ne c
ould
jus
t as
wel
l ar
gue
agai
nst t
he s
ecul
ar c
hara
cter
of
mod
ern
soci
ety
by c
iting
ex-
ampl
es o
f m
edie
val
and
Ren
aiss
ance
fre
e-th
inki
ng.
Mid
elfo
rt a
lso
mis
unde
rsta
nds F
ouca
ult's
pos
ition
whe
n he
urge
s aga
inst
it th
at" i
n-st
ance
s of
har
sh tr
eatm
ent o
f the
mad
[dur
ing
pre-
Cla
ssic
al p
erio
ds]
coul
d be
mul
tiplie
d ad
nau
seam
.1119
Thi
s ev
iden
ce c
ount
s ag
ains
t Fo
ucau
lt's v
iew
onl
y on
the
assu
mpt
ion
that
the
pre-
Cla
ssic
al in
clu-
sion
of m
adne
ss a
s pa
rt o
f the
"tr
uth
of h
uman
exi
sten
ce"
enta
iled
hum
ane
trea
tmen
t of
the
mad
. B
ut s
uch
an a
ssum
ptio
n m
akes
a
trav
esty
of F
ouca
ult's
acc
ount
, on
whi
ch R
enai
ssan
ce m
adne
ss, f
or
exam
ple,
is e
ither
the
criti
cally
iron
ic in
vers
e of r
easo
n or
a tr
agic
and
horr
ifyi
ng e
ncou
nter
wit
h m
onst
rous
trut
hs. 2
0 In
eith
er c
ase,
mad
-ne
ss is
an
inte
gral
but
dis
conc
ertin
g as
pect
of h
uman
life
, ess
entia
l bu
t by
no m
eans
wel
com
ed.21
Wha
t Mid
elfo
rt p
rese
nts
as F
ouca
ult's
fou
rth
basi
c co
nten
tion
-th
e "i
nven
tion
" of
m
enta
l ill
ness
by
th
e ni
nete
enth
-cen
tury
re
form
ers
-is
ind
eed
cent
ral.
Fouc
ault'
s hi
stor
y of
mad
ness
in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge i
s in
tend
ed a
s a
basi
s fo
r sh
owin
g th
at m
adne
ss a
s m
enta
l illn
ess
was
a s
ocia
l con
stru
ctio
n fo
reig
n to
tha
t per
iod
and
orig
inal
wit
h th
e ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
. M
idel
fort
's cr
itici
sm o
f th
is
cont
entio
n, h
owev
er, i
s bas
ed o
n fu
ndam
enta
l mis
unde
rsta
ndin
gs o
f Fo
ucau
lt's p
ositi
on. H
e sa
ys, f
or e
xam
ple,
tha
t "Fo
ucau
lt fr
eque
ntly
im
plie
s tha
t pri
or to
the
nine
teen
th c
entu
ry m
adne
ss w
as n
ot a
med
-ic
al p
robl
em."
As
he n
otes
, su
ch a
n "a
sser
tion
seem
s de
liber
atel
y pr
epos
tero
us"
(256
), b
ut n
o m
ore
so th
an M
idel
fort
's at
trib
utio
n of
it
to F
ouca
ult,
who
has
freq
uent
and
det
aile
d di
scus
sion
s of
Cla
ssic
al
med
ical
tre
atm
ents
of
the
mad
. Fo
ucau
lt do
es i
nsis
t th
at c
onfi
ne-
men
t was
not
pra
ctic
ed fo
r the
rape
utic
pur
pose
s and
that
the
dist
inc-
tive
Cla
ssic
al e
xper
ienc
e of
mad
ness
ass
ocia
ted
wit
h co
nfin
emen
t di
d no
t se
e th
e m
ad a
s ill
. But
he
also
ins
ists
on
the
inel
imin
able
ro
le o
f Cla
ssic
al m
edic
al tr
eatm
ent o
f mad
ness
and
in fa
ct p
oses
the
rela
tion
betw
een
nonm
edic
al c
onfi
nem
ent a
nd m
edic
al th
erap
y as
a
maj
or p
robl
em fo
r und
erst
andi
ng m
adne
ss in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge.
54
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
As
to F
ouca
ult's
cla
im t
hat
refo
rmer
s su
ch a
s Pi
nel
intr
oduc
ed
a fu
ndam
enta
lly n
ew c
once
ptio
n of
mad
ness
as
men
tal
illne
ss,
Mid
elfo
rt r
espo
nds
that
"re
cent
sch
olar
ship
... d
ocum
ents
Pin
el's
expl
icit
debt
to
earl
ier
Engl
ish
theo
retic
ians
and
to
clas
sica
l an
-tiq
uity
. Fa
r fr
om s
tand
ing
in a
new
env
iron
men
t gov
erne
d by
new
ru
les .
.. ,
Pine
l cle
arly
felt
him
self
in c
ontin
uous
dia
logu
e w
ith
the
Hip
pocr
atic
-Gal
enic
tra
ditio
n."2
2 B
ut t
his
resp
onse
is
quite
bes
ide
the
poin
t unl
ess
we
fals
ely
assu
me
that
con
cept
ual i
nnov
atio
n re
-qu
ires
com
plet
e ind
epen
denc
e fro
m a
ll in
telle
ctua
l inf
luen
ces.
23
The
qu
estio
n is
whe
ther
Pin
el tr
ansf
orm
ed th
e id
eas
of th
ose
to w
hom
he
was
"in
debt
ed"
and
"in
dial
ogue
wit
h" in
to a
fund
amen
tally
new
co
ncep
tion.
Mid
elfo
rt's
poin
ting
out t
hat,
like
ever
yone
els
e, P
inel
ha
d in
telle
ctua
l anc
esto
rs h
as n
o be
arin
g on
this
issu
e.
Mid
elfo
rt's
criti
que
of F
ouca
ult's
thi
rd c
onte
ntio
n -
abou
t th
e pl
ace
of c
onfi
nem
ent
in t
he C
lass
ical
Age
-is
muc
h m
ore
to t
he
poin
t. Fo
ucau
lt's c
laim
s abo
ut c
onfi
nem
ent a
re a
bsol
utel
y ce
ntra
l to
his
posi
tion.
He
ipai
ntai
ns th
at th
e is
olat
ion
of th
e m
ad (a
long
wit
h va
riou
s ot
her p
eopl
e w
hose
beh
avio
r inv
olve
d a
reje
ctio
n of
reas
on)
in h
ouse
s of
int
ernm
ent w
as a
pra
ctic
e th
at to
ok o
n ce
ntra
l sig
nif-
ican
ce d
urin
g th
e C
lass
ical
Age
and
is e
ssen
tially
con
nect
ed w
ith
the
age's
fun
dam
enta
l ex
peri
ence
of
mad
ness
. If F
ouca
ult i
s w
rong
ab
out C
lass
ical
con
fine
men
t, th
en th
e fo
unda
tion
of h
is a
ccou
nt o
f m
adne
ss in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge is
und
erm
ined
. R
oy P
orte
r has
dev
elop
ed th
is c
ruci
al cr
itici
sm of
Fou
caul
t in
som
e de
tail.
Fou
caul
t, he
not
es, i
nsis
ts th
at la
rge-
scal
e co
nfin
emen
t was
a
wes
tern
Eur
opea
n ph
enom
enon
, occ
urin
g, if
in s
omew
hat d
iffe
rent
w
ays a
nd a
t dif
fere
nt ra
tes,
in F
ranc
e, G
erm
any,
Eng
land
, Spa
in, a
nd
Italy
. But
at l
east
for
Engl
and
duri
ng th
e "l
ong
eigh
teen
th c
entu
ry"
(fro
m t
he R
esto
ratio
n to
the
Reg
ency
), Po
rter
mai
ntai
ns,
Fouc
ault
is v
ery
muc
h of
f th
e m
ark.
Alth
ough
ther
e w
as s
ome
conf
inem
ent
of th
e m
ad a
nd o
ther
dev
iant
s in
wor
khou
ses,
"th
e va
st m
ajor
ity o
f th
e po
or a
nd th
e tr
oubl
esom
e w
ere
not i
nter
ned
wit
hin
inst
itutio
ns,
rem
aini
ng a
t lar
ge in
soc
iety
, und
er th
e ad
min
istr
ativ
e ae
gis
of t
he
Old
Poo
r Law
." I
n pa
rtic
ular
, stu
dies
of t
he tr
eatm
ent o
f the
mad
in
spec
ific
regi
ons o
f Eng
land
show
"th
at lu
natic
s typ
ical
ly re
mai
ned
at
larg
e, th
e re
spon
sibi
lity
of th
eir f
amily
und
er th
e ey
e of
the p
aris
h. "2
4
Alth
ough
som
e of
the
mad
wer
e co
nfin
ed, t
he n
umbe
rs w
ere
quite
sm
all:
perh
aps
as li
ttle
as
50
00
and
sur
ely
no m
ore
than
rn,
ooo
by
earl
y in
the
nine
teen
th c
entu
ry, c
ompa
red
wit
h th
e al
mos
t rn
o,oo
o
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
55
conf
ined
in 1
90
0.
Con
fine
men
t, Po
rter
sug
gest
s, w
as m
uch
mor
e a
nine
teen
th-c
entu
ry p
heno
men
on;
duri
ng F
ouca
ult's
Cla
ssic
al A
ge,
"the
gro
wth
in th
e pr
actic
e of
exc
ludi
ng th
e m
ad w
as g
radu
al, l
ocal
-iz
ed, a
nd p
iece
mea
l."2
5
Port
er al
so ra
ises
impo
rtan
t que
stio
ns a
bout
Fou
caul
t's c
laim
that
in
con
fine
men
t the
mad
wer
e ho
mog
eneo
usly
mix
ed w
ith
a wid
e va-
riet
y of
oth
er so
rts o
f dev
iant
s (pr
ostit
utes
, fre
e-th
inke
rs, v
agab
onds
, et
c.)
who
vio
late
d th
e C
lass
ical
Age
's id
eal o
f rea
son.
"T
his
pict
ure
of i
ndis
crim
inat
e co
nfin
emen
t doe
s no
t se
em a
ccur
atel
y to
mat
ch
wha
t act
ually
hap
pene
d in
Eng
land
. Few
luna
tics w
ere
kept
in g
aols
, an
d w
orkh
ouse
sup
erin
tend
ents
resi
sted
thei
r adm
issi
on."
Thi
s te
n-de
ncy
"not
to
lum
p bu
t to
spl
it" w
as,
Port
er u
rges
, pa
rtic
ular
ly
evid
ent
in L
ondo
n, w
here
"sc
rupu
lous
car
e w
as t
aken
to
rese
rve
Bet
hlem
for l
unat
ics
and
Brid
ewel
l for
the
diso
rder
ly."
26
Fina
lly, P
orte
r cha
lleng
es tw
o of
Fou
caul
t's k
ey c
laim
s ab
out t
he
way
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge c
once
ived
mad
ness
(its
"ex
peri
ence
" of
mad
-ne
ss).
Acc
ordi
ng to
Fou
caul
t, m
adne
ss, l
ike
all t
he v
arie
ties o
f unr
ea-
son,
was
reje
cted
in th
e fir
st in
stan
ce b
ecau
se it
vio
late
d th
e C
lass
ical
A
ge's
mor
ality
of w
ork.
The
mad
, bei
ng id
le, w
ere
a th
reat
to th
e st
a-bi
lity
of a
bou
rgeo
is s
ocie
ty in
whi
ch la
bor
was
the
cen
tral
val
ue.
Furt
her,
Fouc
ault
held
tha
t, w
ithi
n th
e ca
tego
ry o
f un
reas
on,
the
mad
wer
e di
stin
ctiv
e fo
r th
eir a
nim
ality
, whi
ch p
ut th
em in
radi
cal
oppo
sitio
n to
the
hum
an d
omai
n of
reas
on. P
orte
r fin
ds b
oth
clai
ms
dubi
ous
in li
ght o
f the
Eng
lish
expe
rien
ce. "
I do
not,"
he
says
, "fi
nd
prom
inen
t in
eigh
teen
th-c
entu
ry d
isco
urse
the
cou
plin
gs F
ouca
ult
emph
asiz
es b
etw
een
sani
ty a
nd w
ork,
mad
ness
and
slo
th. L
ess
still
w
as t
here
any
con
cert
ed a
ttem
pt t
o pu
t th
e as
ylum
pop
ulat
ion
to
wor
k."2
7 A
s to
the
anim
ality
of t
he m
ad, P
orte
r ack
now
ledg
es it
as
one c
entr
al im
age,
but
mai
ntai
ns th
at th
ere i
s an
at le
ast a
s im
port
ant
coun
teri
mag
e th
at F
ouca
ult s
carc
ely
reco
gniz
es. T
his
is th
e Lo
ckea
n vi
ew o
f the
mad
as n
ot ra
g1hg
ani
mal
s bu
t peo
ple
who
, thr
ough
mis
-as
soci
atio
n of
idea
s, g
o de
sper
atel
y aw
ry i
n th
eir
reas
onin
g. P
orte
r sa
ys t
hat
Fouc
ault
sees
thi
s vi
ew o
f m
adne
ss a
s ar
isin
g on
ly w
ith
the
mor
al th
erap
y of
Tuk
e an
d Pi
nel e
arly
in th
e ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
, w
here
as in
fact
it w
as a
ver
y im
port
ant d
imen
sion
of s
even
teen
th-
and
eigh
teen
th-c
entu
ry c
once
ptio
ns o
f mad
ness
. If
Por
ter
is r
ight
, Fo
ucau
lt is
fun
dam
enta
lly w
rong
in
his
char
-ac
teri
zatio
n of
mad
ness
in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge:
Con
fine
men
t is
not
a
prac
tice
defi
nitiv
e of
the
epo
ch's
atti
tude
tow
ard
mad
ness
, th
e
56
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
excl
usio
n of
the
mad
is
not
an e
xpre
ssio
n of
bou
rgeo
is m
oral
ity,
and
anim
ality
is n
ot t
he e
ssen
ce o
f C
lass
ical
mad
ness
. Is
he ri
ght?
Is
Fou
caul
t's h
isto
ry b
ad?
Or a
re P
orte
r and
oth
er c
ritic
s m
isun
der-
stan
ding
Fou
caul
t's h
isto
rica
l cla
ims?
Or,
final
ly,
is F
ouca
ult u
p to
so
met
hing
oth
er th
an h
isto
ry?
As
a ba
sis
for
answ
erin
g th
ese
ques
-tio
ns, I
off
er a
fairl
y cl
ose
read
ing
of th
e se
ctio
n of
His
toir
e de
la fo
lie
(Par
t II,
Cha
pter
s 2-
5) in
whi
ch F
ouca
ult d
evel
ops
the
fund
amen
tals
of
his
acc
ount
of
mad
ness
in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge.
Thi
s w
ill p
rovi
de
grou
nds
for
draw
ing
som
e co
nclu
sion
s ab
out t
he h
isto
rica
l val
ue o
f hi
s w
ork.
FO
UC
AU
LT
ON
CL
AS
SIC
AL
MA
DN
ES
S
For
all i
ts a
nnal
iste
s an
d st
ruct
ural
ist a
ffin
ities
, Fo
ucau
lt's
hist
ory
of m
adne
ss b
egin
s fr
om o
ne g
reat
eve
nt:
the
conf
inem
ent,
wit
hin
a fe
w y
ears
, of
a s
igni
fica
nt p
ortio
n of
the
pop
ulat
ion
of w
este
rn
Euro
pe in
spec
ial h
ouse
s of i
nter
nmen
t. Fo
ucau
lt pr
esen
ts th
is e
vent
as
an
abru
pt a
'nd m
ajor
cha
nge.
He
spea
ks o
f it
as
an "
abru
ptly
re
ache
d ..
. thr
esho
ld"
that
occ
urre
d" al
mos
t ove
rnig
ht"
(66;
MC
, 45;
se
e no
te 2
for
an
expl
anat
ion
of t
he r
efer
ence
sch
ema
used
in
this
ch
apte
r) a
nd d
escr
ibes
it
as a
"m
assi
ve p
heno
men
on"
(75;
MC
, 46
) th
at, f
or e
xam
ple,
dis
plac
ed in
just
six
yea
rs r
per
cent
of t
he p
opu-
lati
on o
f Par
is ( 5
000-
6000
peo
ple)
and
sim
ilar p
ropo
rtio
ns e
lsew
here
du
ring
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge (5
9, 6
6, n
.2; M
C,
38, 4
9).
Fouc
ault,
how
ever
, is
not i
nter
este
d in
the
even
t of c
onfi
nem
ent
for i
ts o
wn
sake
, but
in th
e at
titud
es to
war
d an
d pe
rcep
tions
of m
ad-
ness
con
nect
ed w
ith
it -w
hat
he
repe
ated
ly re
fers
to a
s "t
he C
lass
i-ca
l exp
erie
nce
of m
adne
ss."
The
eve
nt o
f con
fine
men
t is
the
sudd
en
man
ifes
tatio
n of
a lo
ng-d
evel
opin
g "s
ocia
l sen
sibi
lity"
(66)
. The
goa
l of
his
his
tory
of m
adne
ss is
to d
escr
ibe
exha
ustiv
ely
this
exp
erie
nce
or se
nsib
ility
and
to s
how
how
it p
rovi
ded
the
basi
s fo
r the
mod
ern
psyc
hiat
ric
conc
eptio
n of
mad
ness
as
men
tal i
llnes
s.
The
exp
erie
nce
Fouc
ault
is tr
acki
ng is
not
, he
mai
ntai
ns, s
impl
y an
exp
erie
nce
of m
adne
ss.
Rat
her,
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge s
aw m
adne
ss
as o
ne d
ivis
ion
of a
wid
er c
ateg
ory,
whi
ch F
ouca
ult
calls
"un
rea-
son"
(der
aiso
n). T
his
corr
espo
nds
to th
e fa
ct th
at n
ot o
nly
the
mad
, bu
t als
o a
wid
e va
riet
y of
oth
er p
eopl
e w
ere
conf
ined
. Fou
caul
t of-
fers
suc
cess
ivel
y de
eper
ana
lyse
s of
jus
t ho
w t
hose
con
fine
d w
ere
perc
eive
d.
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
57
On
the
mos
t im
med
iate
leve
l, co
nfin
emen
t was
an
econ
omic
pol
-ic
y m
eant
to d
eal w
ith
prob
lem
s of p
over
ty, p
artic
ular
ly b
eggi
ng a
nd
unem
ploy
men
t. It
was
a w
ay o
f get
ting
a la
rge
clas
s of
idle
, pot
en-
tially
dis
rupt
ive
peop
le o
ff th
e st
reet
s an
d pu
ttin
g th
em to
wor
k in
a
cont
rolle
d en
viro
nmen
t. In
pur
ely
econ
omic
term
s, h
owev
er, c
on-
fine
men
t w
as a
fai
lure
. It
hid
but
did
not
elim
inat
e po
verty
, an
d an
y ga
ins
in e
mpl
oym
ent
due
to w
ork
requ
irem
ents
on
thos
e in
-te
rned
wer
e of
fset
by
corr
espo
ndin
g lo
sses
of
empl
oym
ent o
utsi
de
the
hous
es o
f con
fine
men
t (82
). B
ut, F
ouca
ult m
aint
ains
, the
real
sign
ific
ance
of i
nter
nmen
t wen
t be
yond
this
eco
nom
ic s
urfa
ce. F
ar m
ore
than
an
unsu
cces
sful
sol
u-tio
n to
spe
cifi
c ec
onom
ic p
robl
ems,
it
repr
esen
ted
a ne
w "
ethi
cal
cons
ciou
snes
s of
wor
k, i
n w
hich
the
dif
ficu
lties
of
the
econ
omic
m
echa
nism
s lo
st th
eir
urge
ncy
in fa
vor
of a
n af
firm
atio
n of
val
ue"
(82;
MC
, 5 5
). Fo
ucau
lt ci
tes C
alvi
n an
d B
ossu
et to
sho
w th
e re
ligio
us
basi
s fo
r th
e et
hica
l cen
tral
ity o
f w
ork:
Sin
ce t
he F
all,
a re
fusa
l to
w
ork
man
ifes
ts a
n ab
surd
prid
e, w
hich
wou
ld p
resu
me
on th
e di
vine
ge
nero
sity
to p
rovi
de w
hat w
e ne
ed w
ith
no e
ffor
t of o
ur o
wn:
This
is w
hy id
lene
ss is
reb
ellio
n -
the
wor
st fo
rm o
f all,
in
a se
nse:
it w
aits
fo
r nat
ure
to b
e ge
nero
us a
s in
the
inno
cenc
e of
Ede
n, a
nd se
eks
to c
onst
rain
a
Goo
dnes
s to
whi
ch m
an c
anno
t la
y cl
aim
sin
ce A
dam
....
Lab
or i
n th
e ho
uses
of
conf
inem
ent t
hus
assu
med
its
ethi
cal m
eani
ng:
sinc
e sl
oth
had
beco
me
the
abso
lute
form
of r
ebel
lion,
the
idle
wou
ld b
e fo
rced
to w
ork,
in
the
endl
ess
leis
ure
of a
labo
r wit
hout
util
ity o
r pro
fit. (
84; M
C,
56-5
7)
On
this
sec
ond
leve
l, th
en,
thos
e co
nfin
ed (J
es d
erai
sonn
es)
wer
e no
t re
gard
ed a
s th
e ne
utra
l ob
ject
s of
unf
ortu
nate
eco
nom
ic p
ro-
cess
es,
but
as m
oral
rep
roba
tes
wor
thy
of s
ocie
ty's
cond
emna
tion
and
puni
shm
ent.
Fouc
ault
goes
on
to m
aint
ain
that
impl
icit
in th
e C
lass
ical
con
-de
mna
tion
of "
unre
as~i
ng"
beha
vior
was
a d
eep
rest
ruct
urin
g of
m
oral
cate
gorie
s. H
e co
nsid
ers t
he th
ree
maj
or cl
asse
s of t
hose
, oth
er
than
the
mad
, w
ho w
ere
inte
rned
: se
xual
off
ende
rs, t
hose
gui
lty o
f re
ligio
us p
rofa
natio
n, a
nd fr
ee-t
hink
ers
(Jes
liber
tins)
. In
ever
y ca
se,
beha
vior
that
was
pre
viou
sly
eval
uate
d in
oth
er te
rms
was
red
uced
to
a v
iola
tion
of b
ourg
eois
mor
ality
. Fo
r ex
ampl
e, t
hose
suf
ferin
g fr
om v
ener
eal
dise
ases
had
at
firs
t be
en t
reat
ed a
s m
erel
y vi
ctim
s of
an
illne
ss li
ke a
ny o
ther
(97
-ror
). B
ut w
ith
the
begi
nnin
g of
the
C
lass
ical
Age
, th
eir
affl
ictio
ns w
ere
seen
as
puni
shm
ents
for
thei
r
58
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
sexu
al in
disc
retio
ns. A
noth
er, m
ore
inte
rest
ing,
cas
e is
the
inve
rse
fate
s of
sod
omy
and
hom
osex
uali
ty (1
02).
Prev
ious
ly,
sodo
my
had
been
vio
lent
ly c
onde
mne
d as
a re
ligio
us p
rofa
natio
n an
d ho
mos
exu-
alit
y to
lera
ted
as a
n am
orou
s eq
uivo
catio
n. W
ith
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge,
sodo
my
is tr
eate
d le
ss s
ever
ely,
bei
ng re
gard
ed a
s a
mer
e m
oral
faul
t, no
t a re
ligio
us o
ffen
se re
quir
ing
the
stak
e. C
onve
rsel
y, h
omos
exua
l-it
y is
no
long
er o
verl
ooke
d bu
t is
trea
ted
like
othe
r ser
ious
off
ense
s ag
ains
t sex
ual m
oral
ity. T
here
is a
Cla
ssic
al c
onve
rgen
ce o
f div
erse
at
titu
des
tow
ard
devi
ant b
ehav
ior t
o th
e si
ngle
leve
l of m
oral
ity.
Fouc
ault
furt
her
mai
ntai
ns -
wit
h pa
rtic
ular
ill
ustr
atio
ns f
rom
th
e C
lass
ical
att
itud
e to
war
d pr
osti
tuti
on a
nd d
ebau
cher
y -
that
the
inte
rnm
ent o
f sex
ual o
ffen
ders
was
pri
mar
ily d
esig
ned
to p
rote
ct th
e bo
urge
ois
fam
ily:
In a
sens
e, in
tern
men
t and
the
enti
re 'p
olic
e' re
gim
e th
at su
rrou
nds
it se
rves
to
ove
rsee
[con
tr6le
r] a
cer
tain
ord
er in
fam
ilial
str
uctu
re ..
.. T
he fa
mily
wit
h it
s de
man
ds b
ecom
es o
ne o
f th
e es
sent
ial r
equi
rem
ents
of r
easo
n; a
nd it
is
it t
hat
abov
e al
l de
man
ds a
nd o
btai
ns i
nter
nmen
t ...
. Thi
s pe
riod
see
s th
e gr
eat c
onfi
scat
ion
of s
exua
l eth
ics
by th
e m
oral
ity
of th
e fa
mily
. (r
n4)
Sim
ilarl
y, s
uch
thin
gs a
s bl
asph
emy,
sui
cide
, an
d m
agic
al p
rac-
tices
, pr
evio
usly
reg
arde
d as
out
rage
ous
prof
anat
ions
of
relig
ion,
ar
e re
duce
d to
off
ense
s ag
ains
t the
mon
oton
e m
oral
ity
of th
e bo
ur-
geoi
sie.
Mag
ic,
for
exam
ple,
onc
e vi
olen
tly s
uppr
esse
d as
an
obje
c-tiv
ely
pow
erfu
l ch
alle
nge
to r
elig
ion
thro
ugh
its
evoc
atio
n of
evi
l po
wer
s, n
ow is
rega
rded
as m
erel
y a p
erso
nal d
elus
ion
that
thre
aten
s th
e se
cula
r soc
ial o
rder
. In
the
sam
e w
ay, f
ree-
thin
king
(lib
ertin
age)
is
no
long
er a
per
vers
e bu
t rat
iona
l ass
ault
on re
ligio
n's
holy
trut
h.
It is
mer
ely
the
path
etic
con
sequ
ence
of a
lice
ntio
us w
ay o
f life
. Fo
ucau
lt's f
irst
fund
amen
tal t
hesi
s abo
ut C
lass
ical
mad
ness
, the
n,
is t
hat
it i
s as
sim
ilate
d to
the
bro
ader
cat
egor
y of
unr
easo
n. T
his
is a
ver
y pu
zzlin
g ca
tego
ry to
us,
sin
ce it
see
ms
to b
e tr
ying
to o
c-cu
py a
none
xist
ent m
iddl
e gr
ound
bet
wee
n fr
eely
cho
sen
crim
inal
ity
and
natu
rall
y ca
used
illn
ess.
If th
e m
ad a
nd th
eir p
artn
ers
in u
nrea
-so
n ha
ve a
cted
free
ly a
gain
st th
e so
cial
ord
er, w
hy, w
e as
k, a
re th
ey
mer
ely
conf
ined
and
not
pun
ishe
d li
ke o
ther
off
ende
rs?
If th
ey a
re
not s
uffi
cien
tly re
spon
sibl
e to
mer
it p
unis
hmen
t, w
hy a
re th
ey n
ot
trea
ted
like
the
ill,
as i
nnoc
ent v
icti
ms
of n
atur
al fo
rces
? Fo
ucau
lt ac
know
ledg
es o
ur di
ffic
ulty
in g
rasp
ing
the
conc
eptio
n, b
ut h
e ins
ists
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
59
that
this
is n
ot d
ue to
any
intr
insi
c in
cohe
renc
e, b
ut to
fund
amen
tal
disp
ariti
es b
etw
een
Cla
ssic
al a
nd m
oder
n m
odes
of e
xper
ienc
e.
Fouc
ault
does
not
, how
ever
, thi
nk w
e ca
n st
op w
ith
this
sim
ple,
if
puzz
ling,
acc
ount
of C
lass
ical
mad
ness
. In
som
e w
ays
the
mad
wer
e no
t tre
ated
like
oth
ers w
ho w
ere i
n ter
ned.
The
re w
ere
hosp
itals
(suc
h as
the
Hot
el d
e D
ieu
in P
aris
and
Bet
hlem
in L
ondo
n) w
here
spe
cial
pr
ovis
ion
was
mad
e fo
r the
med
ical
trea
tmen
t of t
he m
ad. T
rue,
suc
h pr
ovis
ion
is th
e ex
cept
ion,
and
Fou
caul
t em
phas
izes
that
the
inte
rn-
men
t of
the
mad
(ap
art f
rom
the
spe
cial
hos
pita
ls)
had
no m
edic
al
inte
ntio
n. P
hysi
cian
s w
ere
assi
gned
to
hous
es o
f in
tern
men
t on
ly
to tr
eat w
hate
ver i
llnes
ses
the
inha
bita
nts
mig
ht c
ome
dow
n w
ith,
no
t as
part
of a
pro
gram
of
med
ical
trea
tmen
t for
mad
ness
as
such
. B
ut e
ven
thou
gh th
e m
edic
al v
iew
of m
adne
ss is
the
less
pro
min
ent
(the
re w
ere
only
eig
hty
mad
men
in th
e H
otel
de
Die
u co
mpa
red
to
the
hund
reds
-pe
rhap
s eve
n 1
00
0 -
in th
e H
opit
al G
ener
al),
it c
anno
t be
igno
red:
"th
ese
two
expe
rien
ces
each
hav
e th
eir o
wn
indi
vidu
al-
ity. T
he e
xper
ienc
e of
mad
ness
as i
llnes
s, a
s re
stri
cted
as it
is, c
anno
t be
den
ied"
( I3
r ).
The
pro
blem
is t
o un
ders
tand
the
juxt
apos
ition
of
thes
e tw
o ve
ry d
iffe
rent
exp
erie
nces
. Fo
ucau
lt ve
hem
entl
y re
ject
s th
e W
higg
ish
tem
ptat
ion
to s
ee
Cla
ssic
al m
edic
al t
reat
men
t of
the
mad
as
the
firs
t st
irri
ngs
of
prog
ress
tow
ard
an e
nlig
hten
ed r
ealiz
atio
n (f
ully
blo
omin
g in
the
ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
) th
at m
adne
ss is
men
tal
illne
ss.
He
note
s th
at
in fa
ct a
med
ical
app
roac
h to
mad
ness
dev
elop
ed a
t th
e en
d of
the
M
iddl
e A
ges,
begi
nnin
g -
poss
ibly
und
er A
rab
infl
uenc
e -
in S
pain
ea
rly
in th
e fi
ftee
nth
cent
ury.
Dur
ing
this
per
iod
ther
e w
ere
incr
eas-
ing
num
bers
of i
nsti
tuti
ons (
or s
ectio
ns o
f the
m) s
peci
fica
lly re
serv
ed
for
the
mad
. Wha
t is
stri
king
abo
ut th
e C
lass
ical
Age
is it
s re
lativ
e re
gres
sion
in th
e re
cogn
ition
of
the
mad
, who
bec
ame
less
dis
tinc
t an
d m
ore
part
of
the
undi
ffer
entia
ted
mas
s of
the
inte
rned
. In
this
pr
oces
s, t
he m
ad b
ecam
, muc
h le
ss th
e ob
ject
of m
edic
al a
tten
tion
. So
me
of th
em w
ere
trea
ted
as h
ospi
tal p
atie
nts
in th
e C
lass
ical
Age
, bu
t, ac
cord
ing
to F
ouca
ult,
this
was
mai
nly
a ho
ldov
er fr
om e
arlie
r pe
riod
s. I
t is
int
ernm
ent
rath
er t
han
trea
tmen
t of
the
mad
tha
t is
ch
arac
teri
stic
ally
Cla
ssic
al. H
e su
ppor
ts h
is c
laim
by
citin
g ex
am-
ples
of i
mpo
rtan
t ins
titu
tion
s (su
ch a
s Bet
hlem
) tha
t inc
reas
ingl
y be
-ca
me
mer
e ho
uses
of c
onfi
nem
ent i
n th
e co
urse
of t
he C
lass
ical
Age
. So
Fou
caul
t by
no m
eans
cla
ims
that
med
ical
trea
tmen
t of t
he m
ad
60
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
(and
hos
pita
ls d
esig
ned
for t
his p
urpo
se) d
id n
ot e
xist
in th
e C
lass
ical
A
ge.
He
does
not
eve
n cl
aim
tha
t th
e pe
riod
rep
rese
nts
a re
gres
-si
on in
the
med
ical
kno
wle
dge
of m
adne
ss: "
the
med
ical
text
s of
the
seve
ntee
nth
and
eigh
teen
th c
entu
ries
suf
fice
to p
rove
the
cont
rary
" (1
38).
Even
thou
gh th
e vi
ewpo
ints
of m
edic
al th
erap
y an
d of
inte
rn-
men
t are
by
no m
eans
on
a pa
r in
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge, b
oth
are
pres
ent
and
need
to b
e ac
coun
ted
for.
Thi
s sh
ows,
he
says
, how
"po
lym
or-
phic
and
var
ied
the
expe
rien
ce o
f mad
ness
cou
ld b
e in
the
epoc
h of
cl
assi
cism
" (1
47).
The
fact
rem
ains
that
the
spec
ific
ally
med
ical
aw
aren
ess
of m
ad-
ness
was
nei
ther
aut
onom
ous
nor
fund
amen
tal.
Cla
ssic
al m
adne
ss
is, a
t roo
t, re
gard
ed as
a d
isor
der o
f the
will
, lik
e ot
her f
orm
s of
unr
ea-
son.
The
re is
, acc
ordi
ngly
, "an
obs
cure
con
nect
ion
betw
een
mad
ness
an
d ev
il" t
hat p
asse
s "t
hrou
gh th
e in
divi
dual
pow
er o
f m
an th
at is
hi
s w
ill. T
hus,
mad
ness
is ro
oted
in th
e m
oral
wor
ld"
( r 5
5 ).
Even
wit
hin
the
real
m o
f unr
easo
n, h
owev
er, m
adne
ss h
as a
dis
-ti
ncti
ve s
tatu
s. F
ouca
ult t
race
s th
e sp
ecia
l sta
tus
of m
adne
ss f
rom
th
e st
riki
ng C
lass
ical
pra
ctic
e of
exh
ibiti
ng t
he m
ad t
o a
curi
ous
publ
ic.
The
sta
ndar
d ex
plic
it ju
stif
icat
ion
of c
onfi
nem
ent
duri
ng
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge w
as t
he n
eed
to a
void
sca
ndal
. U
nrea
son
is h
id-
den
away
to
prev
ent
imit
atio
n, t
o sa
fegu
ard
the
repu
tati
on o
f th
e C
hurc
h, to
pre
serv
e th
e ho
nor o
f fam
ilies
. But
mad
ness
is a
par
adox
-ic
al e
xcep
tion:
It w
as d
urin
g th
e C
lass
ical
Age
tha
t th
e pr
actic
e of
di
spla
ying
the
mad
to p
ublic
vie
w (
mos
t fam
ousl
y, a
t Bet
hlem
and
B
icet
re) w
as m
ost p
rom
inen
t. Fo
ucau
lt fi
nds
the
expl
anat
ion
of t
his
exce
ptio
n in
the
pec
ulia
r an
d es
sent
ial r
elat
ion
of m
adne
ss to
ani
mal
ity
in th
e C
lass
ical
con
-ce
ptio
n. L
ike
mos
t his
tori
ans
of th
e pe
riod
, Fou
caul
t doe
s no
t res
ist
the
tem
ptat
ion
to c
ite
som
e of
the
mor
e vi
vid
repo
rts
of h
ow t
he
Cla
ssic
al A
ge tr
eate
d th
e m
ad li
ke a
nim
als.
To
som
e ex
tent
, he
ad-
mit
s, t
his
is (
as t
he C
lass
ical
Age
wou
ld h
ave
urge
d) a
mat
ter
of
secu
rity
aga
inst
the
viol
ence
of t
he in
sane
. But
Fou
caul
t thi
nks
that
th
ere
was
a m
ore
spec
ific
and
muc
h de
eper
Cla
ssic
al m
eani
ng to
the
anim
alit
y of
mad
ness
.
The a
nim
al in
man
no lo
nger
has
any v
alue
as th
e sig
n of
a Be
yond
[ as i
t did
in,
for e
xam
ple,
the
Rena
issan
ce];
it ha
s be
com
e hi
s mad
ness
, with
out r
elat
ion
to a
nyth
ing
but i
tself:
his
mad
ness
in th
e st
ate o
f nat
ure.
The
ani
mal
ity th
at
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
6I
rage
s in
mad
ness
disp
osse
sses
man
of w
hat i
s sp
ecifi
cally
hum
an in
him
; no
t in
orde
r to
deliv
er h
im o
ver t
o ot
her p
ower
s, bu
t sim
ply
to e
stab
lish
him
at
the
zero
deg
ree
of h
is ow
n na
ture
. For
cla
ssic
ism, m
adne
ss in
its u
ltim
ate
form
is m
an in
imm
edia
te re
latio
n to
his
anim
ality
. (16
6; M
C, 7
3-74
)
The
mad
are
ani
mal
s in
the
prec
ise
sens
e th
at th
ey h
ave
tota
lly
re-
ject
ed th
eir h
uman
nat
ure
and
put t
hem
selv
es o
utsi
de th
e co
mm
u-ni
ty o
f rea
sona
ble
pers
ons.
B
ut w
hy s
houl
d th
e C
lass
ical
Age
con
side
r thi
s so
rt o
f ani
mal
ity
a le
gitim
ate
obje
ct o
f sp
ecta
cle?
Fou
caul
t thi
nks
the
answ
er li
es i
n th
e ne
w ro
le o
f mad
ness
in C
hris
tian
thou
ght.
Prev
ious
ly th
ere
was
a
reve
renc
e an
d aw
e be
fore
mad
ness
bas
ed o
n th
e id
ea th
at C
hris
tian
fa
ith, a
s a sc
anda
l to
reas
on, w
as a
glor
ifie
d fo
rm o
f mad
ness
. Wit
h th
e C
lass
ical
Age
, thi
s id
ea is
aba
ndon
ed. C
hris
tian
wis
dom
is u
nequ
ivo-
cally
on
the
side
of r
easo
n; fa
ith in
volv
es n
o sa
crif
ice
of th
e in
telle
ct.
Mad
ness
, wit
h it
s ch
oice
of a
nim
ality
, is
man
kind
's fa
rthe
st r
emov
e fr
om t
he tr
uth;
the
mad
are
thos
e w
ho h
ave
reac
hed
the
low
est h
u-m
an d
epth
s. B
ut th
is is
pre
cise
ly w
hy m
adne
ss c
an fu
ncti
on a
s th
e un
ique
sign
of t
he e
xten
t of d
ivin
e m
ercy
and
the
pow
er of
gra
ce. T
he
fact
tha
t Chr
ist,
in ta
king
on
hum
an li
fe, a
llow
ed h
imse
lf to
be
per-
ceiv
ed a
s m
ad a
nd th
at h
is g
raci
ous
solic
itude
ext
ende
d to
luna
tics
sh
ows
that
sal
vatio
n is
ava
ilabl
e ev
en to
thos
e w
ho h
ave
falle
n th
e fa
rthe
st f
rom
the
lig
ht. T
hus
the
exhi
biti
on o
f th
e m
ad s
erve
d th
e du
al s
alut
ary
purp
ose
of re
min
ding
men
how
far t
hey
mig
ht fa
ll an
d th
at G
od's
mer
cy e
xten
ded
even
this
far.
Her
e, t
hen,
we
have
the
ess
ence
of
the
Cla
ssic
al e
xper
ienc
e of
m
adne
ss,
as F
ouca
ult
expl
icat
es i
t in
Par
t I
of H
isto
ire
de l
a fo
lie.
The
re is
muc
h m
ore
to h
is st
ory.
Whe
reas
Par
t I e
xtra
cts t
he C
lass
ical
ex
peri
ence
from
the
even
t of c
onfi
nem
ent,
Part
II p
rovi
des a
com
ple-
men
tary
acc
ount
of t
he e
xper
ienc
e fr
om t
he s
tand
poin
t of C
lass
ical
m
edic
al th
eory
and
pra
cti~
, arg
uing
, how
ever
, tha
t the
two
form
s of
th
e ex
peri
ence
shar
e th
e sa
me
fund
amen
tal s
truc
ture
. 28 T
he e
ssen
ce
of th
is st
ruct
ure i
s a p
arad
oxic
al u
nity
of m
oral
gui
lt an
d an
imal
inno
-ce
nce.
To
us, t
he C
lass
ical
Age
's in
tern
ing
the
mad
alo
ng w
ith
thos
e be
long
ing
to o
ther
cat
egor
ies
of u
nrea
son
is a
con
fusi
on,
a bl
urr-
ing
of t
he d
isti
ncti
ve p
sych
olog
y of
mad
ness
. B
ut F
ouca
ult
thin
ks
that
ther
e is
the
posi
tive
stru
ctur
e of
a pe
rcep
tion,
not
the
nega
tivity
of
con
fusi
on. M
adne
ss is
und
erst
ood
by th
e C
lass
ical
Age
pre
cise
ly
62
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
thro
ugh
its
plac
e on
the
hori
zon
of u
nrea
son.
At o
ne p
oint
, Fou
caul
t m
arks
this
pla
ce b
y a
stri
king
relig
ious
met
apho
r: "
Wha
t the
Fal
l is
to t
he d
iver
se f
orm
s of
sin
, m
adne
ss is
to t
he o
ther
face
s of
unr
ea-
son"
(176
). It
is th
e pr
inci
ple,
the
mod
el o
f all
the
othe
rs. M
ore
fully
, m
adne
ss
flow
s th
roug
h th
e en
tire
dom
ain
of u
nrea
son,
con
nect
ing
its
two
oppo
sed
bank
s: t
hat o
f mor
al c
hoic
e ..
. and
that
of a
nim
al ra
ge ..
.. M
adne
ss is
, gat
h-er
ed in
to a
sin
gle
poin
t, th
e w
hole
of u
nrea
son:
the
guilt
y da
y an
d th
e in
no-
cent
nig
ht. (
176)
Thi
s is
the
"maj
or p
arad
ox"
invo
lved
in th
e C
lass
ical
exp
erie
nce
of m
adne
ss: I
t is
equa
lly c
onne
cted
to th
e m
oral
eva
luat
ion
of e
thi-
cal f
aults
and
to th
e "m
onst
rous
inno
cenc
e" o
f ani
mal
ity. M
adne
ss is
ex
peri
ence
d as
"fo
unde
d on
an
ethi
cal c
hoic
e an
d, a
t the
sam
e tim
e,
thor
ough
ly in
clin
ed to
war
d an
imal
fury
" (1
77).
Such
an
expe
rien
ce
is fa
r rem
oved
from
(Cla
ssic
al a
nd m
oder
n) le
gal d
efin
ition
s of
mad
-ne
ss,
whi
ch s
eek
a di
visi
on o
f re
spon
sibi
lity
(fau
lt) a
nd in
noce
nce
(ext
erna
l de
term
inis
m),
and
fro
m (
Cla
ssic
al a
nd m
oder
n) m
edic
al
anal
yses
, whi
ch tr
eat m
adne
ss a
s a
natu
ral p
heno
men
on. N
onet
he-
less
, thi
s ex
peri
ence
is th
e ke
y to
und
erst
andi
ng th
e C
lass
ical
vie
w
of m
adne
ss in
bot
h th
ough
t and
pra
ctic
e.
Fouc
ault'
s ul
tim
ate
goal
in w
ritin
g hi
s hi
stor
y of
mad
ness
in th
e C
lass
ical
Age
was
to il
lum
inat
e (o
r exp
ose)
the
true
nat
ure
of m
oder
n (n
inet
eent
h ce
ntur
y to
the
pres
ent)
psy
chia
try.
He
repe
ated
ly a
sser
ts
his
view
that
the
mod
ern
conc
eptio
n of
men
tal i
llnes
s an
d th
e co
r-re
spon
ding
inst
itut
ion
of t
he a
sylu
m h
ave
been
unk
now
ingl
y co
n-st
ruct
ed o
ut o
f el
emen
ts o
f th
e C
lass
ical
exp
erie
nce
of m
adne
ss. 2
9
In p
artic
ular
, he
mai
ntai
ns t
hat
the
them
e of
inn
ocen
t an
imal
ity
beco
mes
a "
theo
ry o
f men
tal a
liena
tion
as p
atho
logi
cal m
echa
nism
of
nat
ure,
" an
d th
at, b
y m
aint
aini
ng th
e pr
actic
e of
inte
rnm
ent i
n-ve
nted
by
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge, p
sych
iatr
y ha
s pr
eser
ved
(with
out a
d-m
itti
ng it
) the
mor
al c
onst
rain
t of m
adne
ss. B
oth
"the
pos
itivi
st p
sy-
chia
try
of t
he n
inet
eent
h ce
ntur
y" a
nd t
hat
of o
ur o
wn
age
"hav
e th
ough
t tha
t the
y sp
eak
of m
adne
ss s
olel
y in
term
s of
its
path
olog
-ic
al o
bjec
tivity
; in
spi
te o
f th
emse
lves
, th
ey d
ealt
wit
h a
mad
ness
st
ill e
ntir
ely
imbu
ed w
ith
the
ethi
cs o
f unr
easo
n an
d th
e sc
anda
l of
anim
alit
y" (1
77).
The
se C
lass
ical
resi
dues
in th
e m
oder
n pe
riod
are
th
e ba
sis
of F
ouca
ult's
ana
lysi
s an
d cr
itiqu
e (in
Par
t III
of H
isto
ire
de
la fo
lie)
of m
oder
n ps
ychi
atry
.
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
63
FO
UC
AU
LT
AM
ON
G T
HE
HIS
TO
RIA
NS
. P
AR
T I
I
We
are
now
in a
pos
ition
to a
ppre
ciat
e in
a d
eepe
r way
the
diff
icul
-tie
s th
at h
isto
rian
s fi
nd in
Fou
caul
t's w
ork
on m
adne
ss, t
o se
e w
hy
Port
er, f
or e
xam
ple,
for a
ll hi
s pra
ise
of F
ouca
ult,
says
he
cam
e aw
ay
from
rea
ding
Mad
ness
and
Civ
iliza
tion
"bew
itche
d, b
othe
red,
and
be
grud
ging
."3°
The
cen
tral
issu
e of
con
fine
men
t is
a go
od s
tart
ing
poin
t. Po
rter,
as w
e ha
ve se
en, h
as se
riou
s obj
ectio
ns to
the
exis
tenc
e of
any
"gr
eat c
onfi
nem
ent,"
at l
east
in E
ngla
nd,
duri
ng th
e C
lass
i-ca
l Age
. Mos
t of t
he m
ad s
impl
y w
eren
't co
n£ in
ed. T
hose
who
wer
e,
cont
rary
to F
ouca
ult,
wer
e ca
refu
lly s
epar
ated
from
oth
er d
evia
nts.
H
ow s
houl
d Fo
ucau
lt re
spon
d? H
e ha
s no
hop
e of
ref
utin
g Po
rter
on
the
leve
l of t
he e
mpi
rica
l fac
ts. P
orte
r's c
laim
, inc
orpo
ratin
g nu
-m
erou
s ca
refu
l st
udie
s do
ne s
ince
Fou
caul
t's b
ook,
has
a d
ecis
ive
adva
ntag
e he
re. F
ouca
ult m
ight
try
a ta
ctic
al re
trea
t: Po
rter
is r
ight
fo
r Eng
land
, but
Fra
nce,
in w
hich
Fou
caul
t is m
ainl
y in
tere
sted
, is (
as
even
Por
ter
seem
s to
adm
it)31
a di
ffer
ent s
tory
. Pe
rhap
s, t
hen,
con
-fi
nem
ent
is a
Fre
nch
-or
eve
n a
cont
inen
tal -
phen
omen
on,
wit
h th
e En
glis
h, a
s so
oft
en, f
ollo
win
g a
diff
eren
t dru
mm
er. B
ut s
uch
a re
trea
t put
s Fo
ucau
lt in
to a
n im
poss
ible
pos
ition
, sin
ce h
e pu
rpor
ts
to b
e de
scri
bing
not
the
pra
ctic
es a
nd b
elie
fs o
f in
divi
dual
s, w
hich
m
ight
wel
l di
ffer
fro
m c
ount
ry to
cou
ntry
, but
the
exp
erie
nce
of a
cu
lture
. He
is i
nter
este
d in
the
fund
amen
tal
cate
gori
es in
ter
ms
of
whi
ch p
eopl
e pe
rcei
ve,
thin
k, a
nd a
ct,
not
the
spec
ific
sen
satio
ns,
belie
fs, a
nd a
ctio
ns fa
lling
und
er th
ese
cate
gori
es. T
o al
low
that
the
Engl
ish
expe
rien
ce o
f m
adne
ss w
as i
nfor
med
by
a di
ffer
ent
set
of
fund
amen
tal
cate
gori
es w
ould
req
uire
vie
win
g En
glis
h an
d Fr
ench
(o
r con
tinen
tal)
cul
ture
as
radi
cally
dif
fere
nt to
an
exte
nt th
at s
eem
s in
defe
nsib
le -
and
is c
erta
inly
nev
er d
efen
ded
by F
ouca
ult.
But
per
haps
Fou
caul
t's c
once
rn w
ith
fund
amen
tal
expe
rien
tial
cate
gori
es ra
ther
than
wit
h sp
ecif
ic p
erce
ptio
ns, b
elie
fs, a
nd a
ctio
ns
is it
self
the
key
to a
resp
onse
to P
orte
r. Fo
r, af
ter a
ll, P
orte
r's c
ritiq
ue
is b
ased
on
just
the
sort
of
spec
ific
bel
iefs
and
act
ions
tha
t ar
e no
t Fo
ucau
lt's p
rim
ary
conc
ern.
Fou
caul
t is n
ot m
akin
g em
piri
cal g
ener
-al
izat
ions
abo
ut w
hat p
eopl
e in
var
ious
cou
ntri
es th
ough
t or d
id; h
e is
tryi
ng to
con
stru
ct th
e ca
tego
rica
l sys
tem
that
lay
behi
nd w
hat w
as
no d
oubt
a v
ery
dive
rse
rang
e of
bel
iefs
and
pra
ctic
es. C
onfi
nem
ent,
then
, is a
fact
, per
haps
mos
t str
ikin
g in
Fra
nce,
but
, as P
orte
r adm
its,
also
pre
sent
in E
ngla
nd a
nd th
e re
st o
f Eur
ope.
Fou
caul
t is c
once
rned
64
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
wit
h th
e ca
tego
rica
l con
ditio
ns o
f pos
sibi
lity
for t
his
fact
. He
wan
ts
to k
now
wha
t in
the
way
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge e
xper
ienc
ed m
adne
ss
mad
e th
e so
rt o
f con
fine
men
t it p
ract
iced
pos
sibl
e. O
f cou
rse
ther
e w
ere,
as
Fouc
ault
adm
its a
nd e
ven
emph
asiz
es, o
ther
dim
ensi
ons
of
Cla
ssic
al p
ract
ice,
mos
t not
ably
med
ical
ther
apy,
tha
t inv
olve
d in
-te
grat
ion
rath
er th
an is
olat
ion
of th
e m
ad fr
om t
he c
omm
unity
. In
som
e ca
ses
this
may
hav
e m
eant
tha
t, as
Por
ter
find
s fo
r En
glan
d,
the
prog
ress
of c
onfi
nem
ent w
as s
low
and
pie
cem
eal.
But
suc
h em
-pi
rica
l di
verg
ence
s do
not
ref
ute
Fouc
ault'
s ca
tego
rica
l an
alys
is o
f th
e C
lass
ical
exp
erie
nce
of m
adne
ss.
I thi
nk th
e ab
ove
is a
pro
perl
y Fo
ucau
ltian
resp
onse
to P
orte
r. B
ut
I als
o th
ink
that
acce
ptin
g it
alte
rs th
e te
rms o
f Fou
caul
t's c
onfr
onta
-ti
on w
ith
hist
oric
al c
ritic
ism
. The
cru
x is
this
: Giv
en th
at F
ouca
ult's
ca
tego
rica
l ana
lysi
s is
not r
efut
ed b
y th
e em
piri
cal d
evia
tions
Por
ter
poin
ts o
ut,
just
wha
t wou
ld re
fute
the
anal
ysis
and
, eve
n m
ore
im-
port
ant,
wha
t wou
ld s
uppo
rt it
? H
ere
ther
e is
a c
ruci
al,
thou
gh e
asily
unn
otic
ed,
diff
eren
ce b
e-tw
een
Fouc
ault
and
stan
dard
his
tori
ans
like
Port
er.
At
the
outs
et
of h
is s
tudy
of
mad
ness
in
the
long
eig
htee
nth
cent
ury,
Por
ter f
or-
mul
ates
his
pro
ject
in
a w
ay t
hat
seem
s en
tirel
y co
ngru
ous
wit
h Fo
ucau
lt's
hist
ory
of m
adne
ss. H
e sa
ys th
at h
e is
"at
tem
ptin
g pr
in-
cipa
lly to
rec
over
the
inte
rnal
coh
eren
ce o
f no
w u
nfam
iliar
bel
iefs
ab
out t
he m
ind
and
mad
ness
, and
to s
et th
em in
thei
r wid
er fr
ames
of
mea
ning
."32
Furt
her,
like
Fouc
ault'
s bo
ok, P
orte
r's is
fill
ed w
ith
fact
s: n
ames
, dat
es, a
necd
otes
, and
quo
tatio
ns fr
om p
rim
ary
sour
ces.
N
onet
hele
ss,
the
book
s ar
e po
les
apar
t, an
d th
e di
ffer
ence
is in
the
way
fact
ual d
etai
ls a
re re
late
d to
the
over
all p
roje
ct o
f und
erst
andi
ng
how
mad
ness
was
per
ceiv
ed a
nd tr
eate
d fr
om 1
650
to 1
800.
O
n on
e le
vel,
the
diff
eren
ce is
that
for P
orte
r the
fact
s ar
e pr
imar
-ily
supp
orts
for t
he in
terp
reta
tive
sche
ma,
whe
reas
for F
ouca
ult t
hey
are
prim
arily
illu
stra
tions
of
it. T
he o
peni
ng o
f Fo
ucau
lt's
chap
ter
on c
onfi
nem
ent i
s a
good
exa
mpl
e. H
e be
gins
(57-
58) w
ith
an a
naly
-si
s of
Des
cart
es's
reje
ctio
n of
mad
ness
as
grou
nds
for
philo
soph
ical
do
ubt,
from
whi
ch h
e ex
trac
ts h
is b
asic
idea
of
a C
lass
ical
exc
lu-
sion
of m
adne
ss fr
om th
e re
alm
of h
uman
exi
sten
ce. S
urel
y he
doe
s no
t re
gard
a s
ingl
e pa
ssag
e fr
om o
ne a
utho
r as
pro
of o
f an
epo
ch's
conc
eptio
n of
mad
ness
; th
e pa
ssag
e fr
om D
esca
rtes
can
onl
y be
an
illus
trat
ion
of h
is a
sser
tion.
He
then
dis
cuss
es c
onfi
nem
ent a
s a p
rac-
tical
exp
ress
ion
of th
is e
xclu
sion
. The
dev
elop
men
t of c
onfi
nem
ent
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
65
is d
iscu
ssed
in
som
e de
tail
for
Fran
ce (
59-6
4),
but
only
tw
o br
ief
para
grap
hs, o
ne o
n En
glan
d an
d th
e ot
her o
n th
e re
st o
f Eur
ope,
are
de
emed
eno
ugh
to s
how
tha
t co
nfin
emen
t ha
d "E
urop
ean
dim
en-
sion
s" (
64;
MC
, 43
). N
eith
er p
arag
raph
off
ers
muc
h be
yond
a l
ist
of h
ouse
s of
con
fine
men
t and
the
date
s of
thei
r fou
ndin
g. F
ouca
ult
says
not
hing
abo
ut o
ther
way
s of
trea
ting
the
mad
(alth
ough
, as
we
have
seen
, he l
ater
pays
cons
ider
able
att
enti
on to
med
ical
trea
tmen
t).
Mos
t im
port
ant,
he n
ever
(her
e or
els
ewhe
re) d
iscu
sses
the
exte
nt o
f co
nfin
emen
t rel
ativ
e to
oth
er p
ract
ices
and
pro
vide
s no
dat
a es
tab-
lishi
ng h
is v
iew
tha
t co
nfin
emen
t is
the
typi
cal C
lass
ical
rea
ctio
n to
mad
ness
. Po
rter
, as
we
have
see
n, h
as s
ubst
antia
l evi
denc
e th
at
conf
inem
ent
was
rel
ativ
ely
unco
mm
on i
n En
glan
d an
d, g
iven
the
st
rong
infl
uenc
e of
the
Lock
ean
conc
eptio
n of
mad
ness
, was
by
no
mea
ns th
e di
stin
ctiv
ely
Cla
ssic
al w
ay o
f dea
ling
wit
h it.
Fo
ucau
lt's
proc
edur
e is
sim
ilar
thro
ugho
ut t
he b
ook.
His
cla
im
that
a re
ligio
us v
iew
abou
t the
role
of w
ork
in o
ur po
stla
psar
ian w
orld
un
derl
ies t
he C
lass
ical
mor
al c
onde
mna
tion
of m
adne
ss is
supp
orte
d by
bri
ef c
itatio
ns fr
om C
alvi
n, B
ossu
et, a
nd B
ourd
alou
e (8
3-84
). H
e ba
ses
his
clai
m th
at th
ere
was
a "
grea
t con
fisc
atio
n of
sex
ual e
thic
s by
the
mor
ality
of
the
fam
ily"
(ro4
) on
two
case
s of
inte
rnm
ent,
a fe
w q
uota
tions
from
Mol
iere
, and
two
cita
tions
from
Cla
ssic
al le
gal
docu
men
ts (r
o4-r
o5).
His
"pr
oof"
(138
) th
at c
onfi
nem
ent e
xpre
ssed
th
e fu
ndam
enta
l Cla
ssic
al e
xper
ienc
e of
mad
ness
and
that
med
ical
tr
eatm
ent w
as a
mar
gina
l hol
dove
r of p
revi
ous
prac
tices
is th
at, a
f-te
r Bet
hlem
was
ope
ned
to th
e no
n-m
ad, t
here
was
soo
n no
not
able
di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n it
and
the
Fren
ch h
opit
aux g
ener
aux,
and
that
St.
Luke
's in
clud
ed b
oth
the
mad
and
the
non-
mad
from
its f
ound
ing
in
I7 5 r
. With
rega
rd t
o hi
s st
riki
ng c
laim
that
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge s
aw
unre
ason
as
the
resu
lt of
a v
olun
tary
cho
ice,
he
adm
its t
hat
"thi
s aw
aren
ess
is o
bvio
usly
not
exp
ress
ed in
an
expl
icit
man
ner
in th
e pr
actic
es o
f int
ernm
ent o
r in
thei
r jus
tific
atio
ns"
( 15 6
). B
ut h
e m
ain-
tain
s th
at s
uch
a ch
oice
can
be
infe
rred
from
Des
cart
es's
rem
arks
on
mad
ness
and
that
the
poin
t is e
ntir
ely
expl
icit
in S
pino
za ( 1
5 6-1
58 ).
Fouc
ault'
s pen
chan
t for
usi
ng fa
cts
as il
lust
ratio
n ra
ther
than
sup-
port
doe
s no
t m
ean
that
, as
Mid
elfo
rt s
ugge
sts,
he
is "
sim
ply
in-
dulg
(ing]
in
a w
him
for
arb
itrar
y an
d w
itty
ass
ertio
n."
It is
rat
her
a si
gn o
f wha
t I w
ill c
all h
is id
ealis
t (as
opp
osed
to e
mpi
rici
st)
ap-
proa
ch to
his
tory
. A
cha
ract
eriz
atio
n of
Fou
caul
t's h
isto
ry o
f m
ad-
ness
as
idea
list i
s ap
t for
a v
arie
ty o
f re
ason
s. I
t is
prim
arily
not
a
66
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
hist
ory
of e
vent
s or
ins
titu
tion
s bu
t of
an
expe
rien
ce,
the
expe
ri-en
ce o
f m
adne
ss.
Als
o, t
his
expe
rien
ce is
not
und
erst
ood
in te
rms
of t
he p
erce
ptio
ns o
r th
ough
ts o
f in
divi
dual
s; r
athe
r, it
s su
bjec
t is
the
anon
ymou
s co
nsci
ousn
ess
of a
n ag
e. (
Fouc
ault
late
r cr
itici
zed
His
toir
e de
la f
olie
bec
ause
it "
acco
rded
far
too
grea
t a p
lace
, and
a
very
eni
gmat
ic o
ne to
o, t
o w
hat I
cal
led
an 'e
xper
ienc
e,' t
hus
show
-in
g to
wha
t ext
ent o
ne w
as st
ill c
lose
to a
dmit
ting
an a
nony
mou
s and
ge
nera
l sub
ject
of h
isto
ry. "
33) Fu
rthe
r, Fo
ucau
lt's h
isto
ry ex
hibi
ts th
e te
nse
Heg
elia
n co
mbi
natio
n of
ana
rchi
c an
d to
talit
aria
n te
nden
cies
: a
fasc
inat
ion
wit
h co
nflic
ting
com
plex
ities
(so
tha
t ev
ery
thou
ght
is a
lmos
t lim
itles
sly
qual
ifie
d an
d co
mpl
emen
ted)
, al
ong
wit
h an
ul
tim
atel
y tr
ium
phan
t co
mpu
lsio
n fo
r un
ity
(so t
hat
all
the
com
-pl
exity
is re
lent
less
ly o
rgan
ized
). Fi
nally
, in
typi
cal i
deal
ist f
ashi
on,
the
oper
ativ
e ju
stif
icat
ion
of F
ouca
ult's
his
tori
cal c
onst
ruct
ion
is it
s in
terp
reta
tive
cohe
renc
e ra
ther
tha
n it
s co
rres
pond
ence
wit
h in
de-
pend
entl
y gi
ven
exte
rnal
dat
a.
Thi
s id
ealis
tic c
ast
mak
es p
rofe
ssio
nal
hist
oria
ns v
ery
unea
sy
wit
h Fo
ucau
lt's
wor
k. T
hey
thin
k th
at,
in h
is i
nsis
tenc
e on
a s
in-
gle
unif
ied
inte
rpre
tatio
n, F
ouca
ult
igno
res
the
mes
sy l
oose
end
s th
at c
lose
em
piri
cal s
crut
iny
seem
s to
fin
d ev
eryw
here
in h
isto
ry.
Dav
id R
othm
an,
for
exam
ple,
com
plai
ns t
hat
"for
all
the
swee
p of
the
ana
lysi
s, t
he c
ateg
orie
s se
em r
igid
(ar
e re
ason
and
unr
easo
n m
utua
lly
excl
usiv
e?),
and
ther
e re
mai
ns t
oo l
ittl
e ro
om f
or o
ther
co
nsid
erat
ions
." H
e go
es o
n to
rem
ark
that
Fou
caul
t's "
expl
ana-
tion
is
so c
augh
t up
wit
h id
eas
that
the
ir b
ase
in e
vent
s is
pra
c-tic
ally
for
gotte
n."3
4 Li
kew
ise,
Ian
Dow
bigg
in,
alth
ough
ack
now
l-ed
ging
the
debt
of
his
acco
unt o
f ni
nete
enth
-cen
tury
psy
chia
try
to
Fouc
ault,
rem
arks
tha
t "t
here
is
a se
amle
ss q
ualit
y to
Fou
caul
t's
mod
el th
at ..
. fits
his
tori
cal r
ealit
y po
orly
. "35
A
s an
idea
list h
isto
rian
, Fo
ucau
lt co
uld
wel
l re
spon
d th
at h
e is
no
t aft
er a
n ac
coun
t ger
rym
ande
red
to fi
t eve
ry re
calc
itran
t fac
t, an
im
poss
ible
pro
ject
in a
ny c
ase.
Wha
t he
wan
ts is
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
, un
ifyi
ng in
terp
reta
tion
that
will
giv
e in
telli
gibl
e or
der
to a
n ot
her-
wis
e m
eani
ngle
ss j
umbl
e of
ind
ivid
ual h
isto
rica
l tr
uths
. T
he f
acts
ar
e no
t irr
elev
ant f
or F
ouca
ult,
but t
he p
rim
ary
supp
ort f
or h
is p
osi-
tion
is n
ot it
s dem
onst
rabl
e co
rres
pond
ence
wit
h th
em b
ut it
s log
ical
an
d im
agin
ativ
e po
wer
to o
rgan
ize
them
into
inte
lligi
ble
conf
igur
a-tio
ns.
The
ide
a th
at t
he C
lass
ical
Age
was
one
of
conf
inem
ent
is
an i
mm
ense
ly p
ower
ful
inst
rum
ent
for
conn
ectin
g th
emes
in
the
theo
logy
, lit
erat
ure,
phi
loso
phy,
and
med
icin
e of
the
Cla
ssic
al A
ge
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
67
wit
h on
e an
othe
r an
d w
ith
the
age's
pol
itica
l, re
ligio
us, s
ocia
l, an
d ec
onom
ic p
ract
ices
. Onc
e we
begi
n to
thin
k in
term
s of
con
fine
men
t as
a fu
ndam
enta
l cat
egor
y, w
e ar
e, a
s Fou
caul
t sho
ws,
abl
e to
dev
elop
an
ext
ensi
ve a
nd s
ubtle
int
erpr
etat
ive
fram
ewor
k th
at b
oth
rais
es
prov
ocat
ive
ques
tions
and
giv
es th
em in
trig
uing
ans
wer
s. O
ther
in-
terp
reta
tions
may
"fi
t" t
he f
acts
as
wel
l or
bet
ter
than
Fou
caul
t's,
but
his
prov
ides
a p
ersp
ectiv
e w
ith
dist
inct
ive
adva
ntag
es i
n un
i-fy
ing
pow
er a
nd in
tell
ectu
al fr
uitf
ulne
ss.
From
this
sta
ndpo
int,
al-
thou
gh th
e fa
cts
that
illu
stra
te F
ouca
ult's
cla
ims a
bout
con
fine
men
t ar
e no
t de
cisi
ve e
mpi
rica
l evi
denc
e, t
hey
are
com
pelli
ng e
xam
ples
of
the
pow
er o
f his
inte
rpre
tativ
e fr
amew
ork.
To
dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
idea
list
and
empi
rici
st h
isto
ry i
s, of
co
urse
, on
ly t
o sp
ecif
y th
e op
posi
te e
nds
of a
con
tinu
um.
No
sys-
tem
of i
nter
pret
atio
n ca
n ha
ve h
isto
rica
l sig
nifi
canc
e if
it is
not
sup-
port
ed by
som
e sig
nifi
cant
bod
y of
cor
resp
ondi
ng fa
cts,
and
no
fact
ual
data
can
be
form
ulat
ed in
depe
nden
t of s
ome
prio
r int
erpr
etat
ive
sys-
tem
. Con
sequ
ently
, eve
n th
ough
mos
t sta
ndar
d hi
stor
ical
pra
ctic
e is
no
wad
ays
muc
h cl
oser
to th
e em
piri
cal e
nd o
f the
con
tinu
um th
an
Fouc
ault'
s, m
y ch
arac
teri
zatio
n of
his
wor
k as
idea
list d
oes n
ot m
ean
that
it is
, as
Gol
dste
in a
nd M
egill
sug
gest
, out
side
the
disc
iplin
e of
hi
stor
y. E
very
his
tori
cal s
tudy
mus
t bal
ance
idea
list i
nter
pret
atio
n w
ith
empi
rici
st f
act-
gath
erin
g, a
nd F
ouca
ult's
wor
k do
es n
ot c
ease
to
be
hist
ory
beca
use
it is
at
the
curr
ently
less
-fav
ored
end
of
the
cont
inuu
m.
Mor
eove
r, th
e re
ason
s G
olds
tein
and
Meg
ill o
ffer
for
thi
nkin
g Fo
ucau
lt is
not
an
hist
oria
n se
em u
nper
suas
ive.
Gol
dste
in sa
ys th
at
Fouc
ault
is u
nhis
tori
cal b
ecau
se "
he q
uest
ione
d th
e ne
cess
ary
con-
tinu
ity
of h
isto
ry."
36 T
he is
sue,
how
ever
, is
whe
ther
the
cont
inui
ty
Gol
dste
in h
as i
n m
ind
is e
ssen
tial f
or h
isto
ry a
s su
ch o
r is
just
the
defi
ning
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f on
e so
rt o
f hi
stor
y. F
ouca
ult
him
self
, in
re
spon
ding
to S
artr
ean
clai
ms
that
his
app
roac
h el
imin
ates
his
tory
, in
sist
ed th
at h
e el
imin
ated
onl
y th
at h
isto
ry fo
r w
hich
"th
ere
is a
n ab
solu
te s
ubje
ct o
f hi
stor
y, ..
. who
ass
ures
its
con
tinui
ty."
37 T
hat
such
an
elim
inat
ion
is c
onsi
sten
t wit
h th
e hi
stor
ical
nat
ure
of F
ou-
caul
t's e
nter
pris
e is
sup
port
ed b
y th
e fa
ct th
at h
is a
ppro
ach
rem
ains
fi
rmly
roo
ted
in t
he c
entr
al h
isto
rica
l ca
tego
ry o
f th
e ev
ent.3
8 It
is
also
rel
evan
t to
rec
all
that
, w
hate
ver
the
role
of
disc
ontin
uity
be-
twee
n hi
stor
ical
per
iods
in h
is su
bseq
uent
wor
ks, H
isto
ire
de la
folie
fr
eque
ntly
insi
sts
on im
port
ant c
onti
nuit
ies
betw
een
Cla
ssic
al a
nd
mod
ern
conc
eptio
ns o
f mad
ness
(see
the
pass
ages
cite
d in
not
e 29
).39
68
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
Meg
ill a
rgue
s th
at H
isto
ire
de la
folie
lies
out
side
of h
isto
ry (a
nd
of a
ll ac
adem
ic d
isci
plin
es)
beca
use
it i
s am
bigu
ous
in a
way
ap-
prop
riat
e to
lite
ratu
re, r
athe
r tha
n an
aca
dem
ic d
isci
plin
e: "
ther
e is
so
met
hing
cent
ral t
o th
e di
scip
linar
y pr
ojec
t tha
t see
ms
thw
arte
d in
Fo
ucau
lt. It
is a
s if,
thro
ugh
his
love
of a
mbi
guity
, he
has
thro
wn
a m
onke
y w
renc
h in
to th
e di
scip
linar
y m
achi
nery
."4°
I ag
ree
that
the
antid
isci
plin
ary
rhet
oric
of
ambi
guity
Meg
ill e
mph
asiz
es is
an
im-
port
ant e
lem
ent i
n H
isto
ire
de la
folie
. But
this
sho
ws
only
that
it is
no
t exc
lusi
vely
a hi
stor
ical
ana
lysi
s. W
hat b
asis
is th
ere
for t
hink
ing
that
, for
exa
mpl
e, F
ouca
ult's
ela
bora
te in
terp
reta
tion
of th
e C
lass
ical
ex
peri
ence
of m
adne
ss, s
ketc
hed
in th
e m
iddl
e se
ctio
n of
this
ess
ay,
is n
ot a
n hi
stor
ical
acc
ount
, ev
alua
ble
by t
he d
isci
plin
ary
cano
ns
of h
isto
ry?
It m
ay w
ell b
e th
at,
even
if s
uch
eval
uatio
n re
sulte
d in
th
e to
tal r
ejec
tion
of t
he a
ccou
nt a
s ac
cura
te h
isto
ry,
ther
e w
ould
st
ill b
e lit
erar
y (a
nd,
perh
aps,
som
e so
rt o
f phi
loso
phic
al)
mer
it i
n w
hat F
ouca
ult w
rote
. But
the
fact
rem
ains
that
, wha
teve
r els
e m
ay
be g
oing
on,
His
toir
e de
la fo
lie d
oes
offe
r a v
ery
deta
iled
hist
ory
of
mad
ness
in th
e C
lass
ical
Age
. My
own
view
is th
at th
e bo
ok s
how
s an
ant
ihis
tori
cal c
hara
cter
pri
mar
ily in
Fou
caul
t's i
nter
mit
tent
ef-
fort
s to
evo
ke m
adne
ss a
s it
is e
xper
ienc
ed b
y th
e m
ad th
emse
lves
. T
his
expe
rien
ce h
e te
nds
to p
rese
nt a
s an
abs
olut
e tr
ansc
endi
ng th
e hi
stor
y of
cha
ngin
g so
cial
con
stru
ctio
ns o
f mad
ness
. (Th
e th
eme
is
mos
t app
aren
t in
the
Pref
ace t
o th
e fir
st e
ditio
n, w
hich
Fou
caul
t lat
er
drop
ped.
) Con
trar
y to
Meg
ill, I
thin
k th
is th
eme
is c
lear
ly o
utsi
de th
e m
ain
thru
st o
f the
boo
k.41
W
hat,
then
, sho
uld
we
conc
lude
abo
ut w
hat w
e m
ight
now
, not
en
tirel
y fa
cetio
usly
, des
crib
e as
Fou
caul
t's D
ie P
hdno
men
olog
ie d
es
kran
ken
Gei
stes
/42
Gra
nted
, as
I h
ave
just
bee
n ar
guin
g, t
hat
it is
hi
stor
y, is
it g
ood
or b
ad h
isto
ry?
The
eas
y an
swer
is th
at it
is g
ood
idea
list h
isto
ry b
ut b
ad em
piri
cist
hist
ory.
Tha
t, ho
wev
er, i
s too
easy
, si
nce
a sc
hem
a of
his
tori
cal
inte
rpre
tatio
n m
ay b
e so
em
piri
cally
de
fici
ent t
hat e
ven
its m
ost i
ngen
ious
and
exc
iting
spe
cula
tions
are
no
t w
orth
pur
suin
g. (
In t
he s
ame
way
, an
em
piri
cally
im
pecc
able
ac
coun
t may
be
so d
evoi
d of
int
erpr
etat
ive
inte
rest
as
to b
e ha
rdly
w
orth
an
hist
oria
n's
yaw
n.)
This
, I th
ink,
is a
s fa
r as
philo
soph
ical
kib
itzin
g ca
n ta
ke th
e di
s-cu
ssio
n of
Fou
caul
t's h
isto
ry o
f m
adne
ss.
I ha
ve a
rgue
d th
at t
here
is
no
good
rea
son
to p
lace
His
toir
e de
la f
olie
ent
irel
y ou
tsid
e th
e do
mai
n of
his
tory
, im
mun
e to
the
cri
tical
nor
ms
of h
isto
riog
ra-
phy.
I h
ave
also
mai
ntai
ned
that
nei
ther
of t
he tw
o m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
69
hist
oric
al c
ritiq
ues
of F
ouca
ult s
how
s th
at h
is w
ork
is b
ad h
isto
ry.
Mid
elfo
rt's
appa
rent
ly d
ecis
ive
criti
cism
s ar
e m
ostly
bas
ed o
n m
is-
unde
rsta
ndin
gs o
f Fo
ucau
lt's
view
s. P
orte
r's c
ritiq
ue o
f Fo
ucau
lt's
cent
ral
view
s on
con
fine
men
t ra
ises
an
impo
rtan
t em
piri
cal
chal
-le
nge,
but
doe
s no
t, in
itse
lf, u
nder
min
e th
e in
terp
reta
tive
pow
er o
f Fo
ucau
lt's
idea
list h
isto
ry.
So f
ar t
here
hav
e be
en n
o de
cisi
ve t
ests
of
the
frui
tful
ness
of F
ouca
ult's
com
plex
inte
rpre
tativ
e fr
amew
ork.
W
hat i
s st
ill n
eede
d, i
t se
ems
to m
e, i
s an
ass
essm
ent o
f his
ove
r-al
l pi
ctur
e of
Cla
ssic
al m
adne
ss t
hrou
gh d
etai
led
depl
oym
ents
of
its
spec
ific
inte
rpre
tativ
e ca
tego
ries.
Is,
for
exam
ple,
Jan
Gol
dste
in
righ
t in
her s
ugge
stio
n th
at h
isto
rian
s of
the
Enlig
hten
men
t sho
uld
pay
mor
e at
tent
ion
to F
ouca
ult's
idea
of
a te
nsio
n in
the
Cla
ssic
al
expe
rien
ce o
f mad
ness
bet
wee
n m
an as
a ju
ridi
cal s
ubje
ct a
nd m
an as
a
soci
al b
eing
?43
How
muc
h ex
plan
ator
y po
wer
is th
ere
in F
ouca
ult's
cl
aim
that
Cla
ssic
al c
onfi
nem
ent i
nvol
ved
a re
duct
ion
of a
ll se
xual
of
fens
es t
o th
e no
rms
of b
ourg
eois
mor
ality
? W
hat l
evel
of u
nder
-st
andi
ng c
an w
e re
ach
by d
evel
opin
g hi
s ac
coun
t of
the
rel
igio
us
sign
ific
ance
of
Cla
ssic
al m
adne
ss?
To w
hat e
xten
t is
the
natu
re o
f ni
nete
enth
-cen
tury
psy
chia
try
illu
min
ated
by
thin
king
of i
t as
con-
stru
cted
from
the p
olar
Cla
ssic
al co
ncep
tions
of m
adne
ss as
inno
cent
an
imal
ity a
nd a
s m
oral
faul
t? T
he is
sue
of F
ouca
ult's
sta
tus
as a
his
-to
rian
of
mad
ness
sho
uld
rem
ain
open
unt
il h
isto
rian
s ha
ve p
osed
an
d an
swer
ed q
uest
ions
suc
h as
thes
e.
NO
TE
S
1 M
iche
l Fou
caul
t, C
omm
ent a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ver
mon
t, O
ctob
er 2
7,
1982
. Cite
d by
Alla
n M
egill
, "T
he R
ecep
tion
of F
ouca
ult b
y H
isto
rian
s,"
four
nal o
f the
His
tory
of I
deas
48
(198
7):
117.
2
Titl
e of
sec
ond
editi
on, p
ublis
hed
in P
aris
(G
allim
ard,
197
2), t
o w
hich
al
l re
fere
nces
will
be
give
n in
par
enth
eses
in
the
mai
n te
st.
The
En
glis
h tr
ansl
atio
n, M
adne
ss a
nd C
ivili
zatio
n, t
rans
. Ric
hard
How
ard
(New
Yor
k: P
anth
eon,
196
5),
is o
f a
dras
tical
ly a
brid
ged
Fren
ch e
di-
tion.
Cit
ed p
assa
ges
that
app
ear
in M
adne
ss a
nd C
ivili
zatio
n (M
C)
will
be
give
n in
How
ard'
s ve
rsio
n, o
ther
pas
sage
s in
my
own
tran
sla-
tion.
For
mor
e de
tails
on
vari
ous F
renc
h ed
ition
s of
His
toir
e de
la fo
lie,
see
Gar
y G
uttin
g, M
iche
l Fou
caul
t's A
rcha
eolo
gy o
f Sci
entif
ic R
easo
n (C
ambr
idge
: Cam
brid
ge U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss, 1
989)
, 70,
n. 6
. Col
in G
ordo
n ha
s ri
ghtly
em
phas
ized
the
need
to c
onsu
lt th
e fu
ll Fr
ench
text
; see
his
"H
isto
ire d
e la
folie
: An
Unk
now
n B
ook b
y M
iche
l Fou
caul
t," H
isto
ry o
f th
e H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(199
0):
3-26
. Als
o se
e th
e re
spon
ses
to G
ordo
n's
70
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
artic
le b
y a
vari
ety
of w
rite
rs (a
mon
g ot
hers
, Rob
ert C
aste
l, R
oy P
orte
r, A
ndre
w S
cull,
H. C
. Eric
Mid
elfo
rt, J
an G
olds
tein
, Dom
inic
k La
Cap
ra,
and
Alla
n M
egill
) an
d G
ordo
n's
repl
y, "
His
tory
, M
adne
ss a
nd O
ther
Er
rors
: A R
espo
nse,
" in
the
sam
e vo
lum
e.
3 T
his
essa
y w
ill f
ocus
on
His
toir
e de
la
folie
, w
hich
is
Fouc
ault'
s on
ly f
ull-s
cale
dis
cuss
ion
of m
adne
ss a
nd,
so f
ar,
the
wor
k of
his
m
ost
infl
uent
ial
on h
isto
rian
s of
psy
chia
try.
Men
tion
sho
uld
also
be
mad
e of
his
ear
lier,
mai
nly
nonh
isto
rica
l, di
scus
sion
s, M
alad
ie m
en-
tale
et p
erso
nnal
ite (P
aris:
Pre
sses
Uni
vers
itair
es d
e Fr
ance
, 19
54)
and
the
long
intr
oduc
tion
to a
Fre
nch
tran
slat
ion
of L
udw
ig B
insw
ange
r's
Trau
m u
nd E
xist
enz
(Le
reve
et l
'exi
sten
ce),
tran
s. J.
Ver
deau
x (B
ruge
s, B
elgi
um: D
escl
ee d
e B
rouw
er,
1954
, 9-1
28)
("D
ream
, Im
agin
atio
n, a
nd
Exis
tenc
e,"
tran
s. F
. Will
iam
s, R
evie
w o
f Exi
sten
tial
Psyc
holo
gy a
nd
Psyc
hiat
ry 1
9 [1
984-
1985
]: 2
9-78
). A
sec
ond
editi
on o
f the
form
er w
ork,
gr
eatly
revi
sed,
mos
tly in
acc
ord
wit
h th
e vi
ews
of H
isto
ire
de la
fol
ie,
appe
ared
as
Mal
adie
men
tale
et
psyc
holo
gie
(Par
is: P
ress
es U
nive
rsi-
tair
es d
e Fra
nce,
196
2) (M
enta
l Illn
ess a
nd P
sych
olog
y, tr
ans.
A S
heri
dan
[Ber
kele
y: U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia
Pres
s, 19
87])
. Fo
r a
disc
ussi
on o
f th
ese
early
wor
ks a
nd th
eir r
elat
ion
to H
isto
ire
de la
folie
, se
e G
uttin
g,
Fouc
ault'
s Ar
chae
olog
y, 5
5-69
. Fo
ucau
lt's
late
r w
ork
on t
he h
isto
ry o
f th
e pr
ison
(D
isci
plin
e an
d Pu
nish
, tra
ns.
Ala
n Sh
erid
an [
New
Yor
k: P
anth
eon,
197
7])
and
on
nine
teen
th-c
entu
ry s
exua
lity
(The
His
tory
of S
exua
lity,
Vol
. I:
An
In-
trod
uctio
n, tr
ans.
Rob
ert H
urle
y [N
ew Y
ork:
Pan
theo
n, 1
978]
) hav
e al
so
had
an i
mpo
rtan
t in
flue
nce
on h
isto
rian
s of
psy
chia
try.
The
ir c
hal-
leng
ing
view
s on
the
ine
xtri
cabl
e co
nnec
tions
of
pow
er a
nd k
now
l-ed
ge a
nd o
n th
e de
ep f
unct
iona
l si
mila
ritie
s of
mod
ern
inst
itut
ions
su
ch a
s as
ylum
s, p
riso
ns,
fact
orie
s, a
nd s
choo
ls m
ay i
n th
e lo
ng r
un
be m
ore
impo
rtan
t for
his
tori
ans
of p
sych
iatr
y th
an e
ven
the
His
tory
of
Mad
ness
. In
thi
s co
nnec
tion,
see
Rob
ert
Nye
's C
rim
e, M
adne
ss,
and
Polit
ics
in M
oder
n Fr
ance
(Pr
ince
ton,
N.J.
: Pr
ince
ton
Uni
vers
ity
Pres
s, 1
984)
. 4
Rob
ert
Man
drou
, "T
rois
cle
fs p
our
com
pren
dre
la f
olie
a l'e
poqu
e cl
assi
que,
" An
nale
s: E
cono
mic
s, S
ocie
tes,
Civ
ilisa
tions
(19
62):
761-
772.
5
Mic
hael
Mac
Don
ald,
Mys
tical
Bed
lam
: M
adne
ss,
Anx
iety
, an
d H
eal-
ing
in S
even
teen
th-C
entu
ry E
ngla
nd (
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
ge U
nive
r-si
ty P
ress
, 198
1), x
i. 6
Jan
Gol
dste
in, C
onso
le a
nd C
lass
ify: T
he F
renc
h Ps
ychi
atri
c Pr
ofes
sion
in
the
Nin
etee
nth
Cen
tury
(C
ambr
idge
: C
ambr
idge
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 19
87),
396.
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
71
7 R
oy P
orte
r, "F
ouca
ult's
Gre
at C
onfi
nem
ent,"
His
tory
of
the
Hum
an
Scie
nces
3 (
1990
): 47
. 8
Patr
icia
O'B
rien,
"Fo
ucau
lt's H
isto
ry of
Cul
ture
," in
Lyn
n H
unt,
ed.,
The
New
Cul
tura
l His
tory
(Ber
kele
y: U
nive
rsity
of C
alif
orni
a Pr
ess,
1989
), 25
-46.
9
H. C
. Eric
Mid
elfo
rt, "
Mad
ness
and
Civ
iliza
tion
in E
arly
Mod
ern
Euro
pe:
A R
eapp
rais
al o
f Mic
hel F
ouca
ult,"
in B
arba
ra M
alam
ent,
ed.,
Aft
er th
e Re
form
atio
n: E
ssay
s in
Hon
or o
ff. H
. H
exte
r (P
hila
delp
hia:
Uni
vers
ity
of P
enns
ylva
nia
Pres
s, 19
80),
259.
rn
Pe
ter S
edgw
ick,
Psy
cho
Polit
ics
(New
Yor
k: H
arpe
r & R
ow,
1982
),132
, n.
22
; La
wre
nce
Ston
e,
"Mad
ness
," N
ew Y
ork
Rev
iew
of
Book
s,
Dec
embe
r 16,
198
2, 3
6££.
(see
als
o th
e su
bseq
uent
"Ex
chan
ge"
betw
een
Fouc
ault
and
Ston
e, N
ew Y
ork
Rev
iew
of
Book
s, M
arch
31,
198
3,
42-4
4);
Ian
Hac
king
, "T
he A
rcha
eolo
gy o
f Fo
ucau
lt,"
in D
avid
Hoy
, ed
., Fo
ucau
lt: A
Cri
tical
Rea
der
(Oxf
ord:
Bas
il B
lack
wel
l, 19
86),
29;
Dom
inic
k La
Cap
ra,
"Fou
caul
t, H
isto
ry,
and
Mad
ness
," H
isto
ry o
f the
H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(198
9):
32-3
4.
11
See,
for e
xam
ple,
Roy
Por
ter,
Min
d Fo
rg' d
Man
acle
s ( C
ambr
idge
, Mas
s.:
Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 19
87),
xi,
33; M
acD
onal
d, M
ystic
al B
edla
m,
I; A
ndre
w S
cull,
Mus
eum
s of
Mad
ness
(N
ew Y
ork:
St.
Mar
tin's
Pres
s, 19
79, 7
0); a
nd th
e In
trod
uctio
n to
W. F
. Byn
um, R
oy P
orte
r, an
d M
icha
el
Shep
herd
, ed
s., T
he A
nato
my
of M
adne
ss,
vol.
I (L
ondo
n: T
avis
tock
, 19
85),
3-4.
12
A
ndre
w S
cull,
"M
iche
l Fou
caul
t's H
isto
ry o
f Mad
ness
," H
isto
ry o
f the
H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(199
0):
57.
13
O'B
rien,
"Fo
ucau
lt's
His
tory
of C
ultu
re,"
3 I.
14
Gol
dste
in, C
onso
le a
nd C
lass
ify,
3.
15
Jan
Gol
dste
in, [
Book
Rev
iew
]. fo
urna
l of M
oder
n H
isto
ry 5
1 (1
979)
: II
7.
16
Meg
ill, "
Rec
eptio
n of
Fou
caul
t," 1
33-1
34.
17
Gor
don,
"R
espo
nse,
" 38
1.
18
Mid
elfo
rt, "
Mad
ness
and
Civ
iliza
tion,
" 24
9-25
1.
19
Ibid
., 25
3.
20
Col
in G
ordo
n po
ints
out
tha
t Mid
elfo
rt s
eem
s to
be
mis
led
by a
mis
-tr
ansl
atio
n in
Mad
ness
and
Civ
iliza
tion,
whi
ch h
as F
ouca
ult s
peak
ing
of th
e "e
asy
wan
deri
ng li
fe"
of th
e m
ad in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s an
d R
enai
s-sa
nce.
See
Gor
don,
"U
nkno
wn
Boo
k,"
17. F
or M
idel
fort
's re
spon
se t
o G
ordo
n (o
n th
is a
nd o
ther
poi
nts)
, see
"C
omm
ents
on
Col
in G
ordo
n,"
His
tory
of t
he H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(199
0): 4
1-46
. 21
I
hesi
tate
to
add
to t
he a
lrea
dy o
vere
xten
ded
cont
rove
rsy
abou
t M
idel
fort
's co
nten
tion
that
Fou
caul
t is w
rong
in h
is b
elie
f tha
t the
" shi
p of
foo
ls,"
so
prom
inen
t in
med
ieva
l lit
erat
ure
and
pain
ting,
act
ually
72
GA
RY
GU
TT
ING
exis
ted.
Let
me
say
mer
ely
that
Fou
caul
t's u
se o
f the
shi
p is
alm
ost e
n-tir
ely
conc
erne
d w
ith
its li
tera
ry a
nd a
rtis
tic s
igni
fica
nce
and
that
it is
ce
ntra
l to
his
argu
men
t onl
y as
a s
trik
ing
(and
rich
) sym
bol o
f wha
t he
thin
ks w
as t
he s
tatu
s of
med
ieva
l mad
ness
. Dep
rivi
ng h
im o
f th
e as
-su
mpt
ion
that
suc
h sh
ips
actu
ally
exi
sted
has
a n
ugat
ory
effe
ct o
n th
e ev
iden
ce fo
r his
vie
w.
22
Mid
lefo
rt, "
Mad
ness
and
Civ
iliza
tion,
" 25
8-25
9.
23
Mid
elfo
rt a
lso
take
s Fo
ucau
lt to
tas
k fo
r ac
cept
ing
as f
act
the
myt
h of
Pin
el's
liber
atio
n of
the
mad
from
the
ir c
hain
s at
Bic
etre
. Thi
s is
a
blat
ant m
isre
adin
g, s
ince
Fou
caul
t is
not o
nly
wel
l aw
are
of th
e la
ck o
f fa
ctua
l bas
is fo
r the
ane
cdot
e, b
ut e
xplic
itly
trea
ts th
e st
ory
as a
myt
h.
For f
urth
er d
etai
ls, s
ee G
ordo
n, "
Unk
now
n B
ook,
" 15
-16.
24
Po
rter,
"Fou
caul
t's G
reat
Con
fine
men
t," 4
8.
25
Ibid
. 26
Ib
id.,
49.
27
Ibid
. 28
O
n th
e ot
her h
and,
Fou
caul
t's d
iscu
ssio
n in
Par
t II i
mpo
rtan
tly re
fine
s an
d de
epen
s hi
s vi
ew,
part
icul
arly
by
rela
ting
the
expe
rien
ce o
f m
ad-
ness
to C
lass
ical
con
cept
ions
of
imag
inat
ion,
pas
sion
, th
e m
ind-
body
un
ion,
and
lang
uage
. For
a f
ull a
naly
sis
of F
ouca
ult's
vie
w o
f Cla
ssic
al
mad
ness
(and
of t
he e
ntir
e pr
ojec
t of H
isto
ire
de la
folie
), se
e C
hapt
er 2
of m
y M
iche
l Fou
caul
t's A
rcha
eolo
gy o
f Sci
entif
ic R
easo
n (C
ambr
idge
: C
ambr
idge
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 198
9).
29
See,
for
exa
mpl
e, H
isto
ire
de la
fol
ie,
97,
100-
101,
103
, n
6,
139,
146
-14
9, 1
77.
30
Porte
r, "F
ouca
ult's
Gre
at C
onfi
nem
ent,"
47.
31
Po
rter,
Min
d Fo
rg'd
Man
acle
s, 7
. 32
Ib
id.,
X.
33
The
Arch
aeol
ogy
of K
now
ledg
e, 1
6 1 tr
ansl
atio
n m
odif
ied.
34
D
avid
Rot
hman
, The
Dis
cove
ry o
f the
Asy
lum
(Bos
ton:
Litt
le, B
row
n &
C
ompa
ny, 1
971)
, xvi
ii.
35
Ian
Dow
bigg
in,
Inhe
ritin
g M
adne
ss:
Prof
essi
onal
izat
ion
and
Psyc
hi-
atri
c K
now
ledg
e in
Nin
etee
nth-
Cen
tury
Fra
nce
(Ber
kele
y: U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia
Pres
s, 19
91),
170.
36
G
olds
tein
, Con
sole
and
Cla
ssify
, 3.
37
"Mic
hel
Fouc
ault
expl
ique
son
der
nier
liv
re,"
int
ervi
ew w
ith
J.-J.
Bro
chie
r, M
agaz
ine
litte
rair
e 28
(19
69):
24.
38
See
Fouc
ault'
s re
mar
ks
on
this
po
int
in
Col
in
Gor
don,
ed
., Po
wer
/Kno
wle
dge:
Sel
ecte
d In
terv
iew
s an
d O
ther
Wri
tings
, 197
2-19
77
(New
Yor
k: P
anth
eon,
198
0), 1
14.
39
For
mor
e on
Fou
caul
t's a
ttit
ude
tow
ard
cont
inui
ty,
see
Rob
ert
Nye
, C
rim
e, M
adne
ss,
and
Polit
ics
in M
oder
n Fr
ance
, u
-12
1 an
d Pa
tric
k
Fouc
ault
and
the
His
tory
of M
adne
ss
73
Hut
ton,
"T
he H
isto
ry o
f M
enta
litie
s: T
he N
ew M
ap o
f C
ultu
ral H
is-
tory
," H
isto
ry a
nd T
heor
y 20
(198
1): 2
54.
40
Alla
n M
egill
, "F
ouca
ult,
Am
bigu
ity,
and
the
Rhe
tori
c of
His
tori
ogra
-ph
y,"
His
tory
of t
he H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(199
0):
358.
41
Ib
id.,
350-
356.
For
furt
her d
iscu
ssio
n of
Fou
caul
t and
the
expe
rien
ce o
f m
adne
ss, s
ee G
uttin
g, F
ouca
ult's
Arc
haeo
logy
, 263
-265
. 42
In
com
pari
ng F
ouca
ult a
s a
hist
oria
n of
mad
ness
to H
egel
, I a
m n
ot sa
y-in
g th
at F
ouca
ult e
ndor
sed
the
met
aphy
sics
of t
he A
bsol
ute
that
und
er-
lies H
egel
's hi
stor
ies.
Fou
caul
t's id
ealis
m is
muc
h m
ore
met
hodo
logi
cal
than
met
aphy
sica
l, an
d pr
imar
ily d
eriv
es f
rom
the
str
ong
infl
uenc
e of
ph
enom
enol
ogy
on h
is e
arlie
r wri
tings
. (Th
is in
flue
nce
is m
ost p
rom
i-ne
nt in
the
essa
y on
Bin
swan
ger c
ited
in n
ote
3.) F
ouca
ult's
pen
chan
t fo
r id
ealis
tic a
s op
pose
d to
em
piri
cal h
isto
ry d
ecre
ased
ove
r the
yea
rs,
but I
wou
ld a
rgue
that
it re
mai
ns st
rong
at l
east
thro
ugh
Les m
ots
et le
s ch
oses
and
nev
er e
ntir
ely
disa
ppea
rs f
rom
his
wor
k. F
ouca
ult w
as w
ell
awar
e of
his
Heg
elia
n te
nden
cies
: "W
e ha
ve to
det
erm
ine
the
exte
nt to
w
hich
our
anti-
Heg
elia
nism
is p
ossi
bly
one
of h
is tr
icks
dir
ecte
d ag
ains
t us
, at t
he e
nd of
whi
ch h
e st
ands
, mot
ionl
ess,
wai
ting
for u
s" ( "
The
Dis
-co
urse
on
Lang
uage
," a
ppen
dix
to T
he A
rcha
eolo
gy o
f Kno
wle
dge,
2 3
5 ).
43
Jan
Gol
dste
in, "
'The
Liv
ely
Sens
ibili
ty o
f the
Fre
nchm
an':
Som
e R
efle
c-tio
ns o
n th
e Pl
ace
of F
ranc
e in
Fou
caul
t's H
isto
ire
de la
folie
," H
isto
ry
of th
e H
uman
Sci
ence
s 3
(199
0):
336.