WARS OF RELIGIONChapter 9-11 – Gonzalez

WAR IN GERMANYGonzalez, Chapter 9

The War of Schmalkald• Philip of Hesse vs. Charles V (I)

Expansion of Protestantism in Germany

• Peace of Nuremberg (1532) – allowed Protestants freedom in their own territories, but prohibited expansion; Protestantism continued to expand nonetheless

• Philip of Hesse wrested the duchy of Wurttemberg from the Catholics; once restored, the exiled duke declared for Protestantism

• The death of George of Saxony (Ducal) in 1539; his successor Henry declared for Protestantism

• That same year Brandenburg also declared for Protestantism

• Archbishops of Trier, Cologne, and Mainz were also considering embracing the Protestant faith; this would give the Protestants a clear majority in the electoral college

High Water Mark – 1539 • Faced with political realities, Charles attempted

rapprochement between Catholics and Protestants• The Schmalkaldic League took Brunswick; smaller

bishops who were also feudal lords turned their possessions into secular states and declared for Protestantism

Decline of Protestantism• The Bigamy of Philip of Hesse• The refusal of Duke Maurice of Saxony to join the

Schmalkaldic League; even as a Protestant he allied himself to the emperor, who promised him special consideration

• Luther’s death in 1546• Invasion of Charles into Germany, in which he took

captive Philip of Hesse and John Frederick of Saxony

The Augsburg Interim (1548)• Written after Charles’ victory over the Schmalkaldic

League at the Diet of Augsburg of 1548• Written by a joint commission of Catholic and Protestant

theologians• At Charles command, this was the “law of the land” until a

General Council could be convened to decide on the issues being debated

• Several Protestant theologians flatly refused to obey, many fled the continent

• Melanchthon agreed to a modified version of it called the “Leipzig Interim”

The Interim• All Protestant territories must readopt Catholic

sacraments and beliefs• Clergy in Protestant territories were allowed to marry• Both bread and wine were administered to laity• Melanchthon agreed (on behalf of Electoral Saxony) to

these conditions (considering them adiaphora), but stipulated that Justification by Faith continue to be allowed

• Melanchthon and his followers were considered traitors to the Protestant cause

Charles overplays his hand• Many German princes protested against the ill treatment

received by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick of Saxony• Protestant princes who were sharply divided by Philip’s

bigamy prior to the Interim now found themselves drawn together by their objection to the Interim

• Both the pope and the king of France resented Charles’ success, and made diplomatic moves to hamper him

• Maurice of Ducal Saxony was not satisfied with his rewards for supporting Charles, and turned to join the conspiracy

• Then rebellion broke out; at the same time Henry II of France invaded Charles’ possessions beyond the Rhine

Charles is defeated both militarily and politically

• Maurice captured strategic places in Germany, Charles flees to Italy

• Attempts by Charles’ army to regain possessions taken by the French is rebuffed

• Charles begins to delegate more and more responsibility for the empire to his brother Ferdinand, who in turn agrees to the “Peace of Passau” (1552)

Peace of Passau (1552)• Philip of Hesse and Frederick of Saxony are released• A qualified “freedom of religion” is guaranteed throughout

the empire• Each local ruler makes the decision for himself and his

subjects whether to follow Catholicism or Lutheranism (as defined by the Confession of Augsburg)

• Anabaptism and Reformed were not included in the provisions of the treaty

Charles abdicates• Beginning in 1555, he gradually relinquishes his realms to

his son, Philip of Spain (Low Countries, Italian possessions, and finally Spain)

• Retires to a monastery of St. Yuste in Spain• Dies in 1558

Ferdinand I (Holy Roman Emperor)• 1558-1564

Imperial policy after Charles• Ferdinand abandoned the hardline policies of Charles

against Protestants• Under Ferdinand and his successor, Maximillian,

Protestantism continued to expand• The growing religious tensions would eventually lead to

the Thirty Years’ War in the next century

THE LOW COUNTRIESGonzalez, Chapter 10

Cultural-Political realities• 1523, in Antwerp, first two Protestant martyrs• Seventeen provinces (roughly the Netherlands, Belgium,

and Luxemburg), under the lordship of the House of Hapsburg (thus under the direct rule of Charles V)

• Lacking cultural unity: French-speaking south, Dutch-speaking north, and a Flemish-speaking area

• Political jurisdictions were also confusing; many bishoprics comprised areas that crossed provincial boundaries

• The subjects considered Charles as “Flemish”; but considered his son, Philip, to be “Spanish”

• Philip’s subjects resented “Spanish” rule

Religious situation• Birthplace of the Brethren of the Common Life• Erasmus of Rotterdam (greatest humanist reformer) was

a native son• Lutheran preachers found a fertile field in the Low

Countries; as did the Anabaptists• Eventually a great influx of Calvinist preachers from

Geneva, France and southern Germany would find great success; eventually Calvinism becomes the main form of Protestantism

• Charles persecuted Protestantism with some success, but could not completely stamp it out

• Charles, on the whole, was a popular ruler; Philip was not

Philip’s troubles• Philip’s pro-Spanish policies were unpopular; Philip placed

his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, in charge• The populace of the Seventeen Provinces were not happy

that Philip maintained a Spanish army in the Low Countries

• Philip reorganized the church and appointed new bishops who were given inquisitorial powers; neither of these were popular moves

• Philip alienated his father’s old ally, the popular William, Prince of Orange

• Philip then tried to impose the decrees of the Council of Trent

The “Beggars”• In 1566, Several hundred leaders of nobility and the

bourgeoisie joined in a petition to the regent, Margaret of Parma, to protest the religious policies of Philip

• Margaret was told that she need not heed or fear “those beggars”; the name stuck

• The leather bag of a beggar became the patriotic banner of rebellion against Margaret’s regency

• The movement quickly took on religious overtones, and Protestantism began to be preached under the protection of armed “beggars”

• The regency did not know how to respond to the growing problem; bands of beggars began to invade churches, overturn altars, and destroying images

War in the Low Countries• The Council of State finally appeal to William of Orange,

who restored peace for a time• Meanwhile Philip prepared for an invasion of the Provinces,

which finally came in 1567; William fled to Germany• The Duke of Alba led the invasion with an army of Spanish

and Italian troops; Philip installed him as regent• Alba established the “Council of Disturbances” which was

dubbed by the populace the “Council of Blood”• William of Orange eventually responded with an invasion of

his own; but Alba defeated him• While Alba ruled the land; the “beggars” successfully

harassed the Spanish by sea (privateers)

The plight of the Protestant cause• Alba eventually tired of the Provinces and asked to be

appointed elsewhere (1573)• He was replaced by Luis de Zuniga y Requesens, who

pursued a conciliatory policy with patriotic Catholics, thus exploiting the religious divisions within the Provinces

• With the loss of patriotic Catholics, the cause of the Protestant “beggars” seemed hopeless; they continued to be successful in their sea engagements

• William of Orange had initially been a liberal Catholic; while in exile in Germany he declared for Calvinism

The Siege of Leiden (1574)• The Spanish continued to be successful on the battlefield;

besieged Leiden• An army sent by William of Orange to break the siege was

defeated; two of William’s brothers were killed in the battle• William then suggested that the dikes around Leiden be

opened, thus flooding the land around Leiden; it took four months for the sea to reach Leiden, and with it the “beggars of the sea” also arrived

• Lacking naval support the Spanish were eventually forced to abandon the siege

Pacification of Ghent (1576)• Requesens sudden death (1576) left the Spanish without

a general and without pay• They began to sack cities in the south, which were much

easier targets, but by doing this they ended up reuniting the north and the south in a common cause

• The Seventeen Provinces agreed to the Pacification of Ghent, realizing that what was at stake was national freedom not religious differences; William of Orange applauded the treaty

• The next governor, Don John of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V) was not allowed to enter Brussels until he had agreed to the stipulations of the Pacification

War flares up again• Philip of Spain would not give up the cause; he sent a

new army into the region, once again the southern provinces abandoned the cause of patriotism

• Against the advice of William of Orange, the northern provinces formed a separate league for the defense of faith and freedom; nonetheless he would be identified with the struggle and become its leader

• Philip put a bounty on William’s head, which eventually led to his assassination; however, Philip refused to pay

• William’s son, Maurice, proved to be a much better general than his father, leading many victories against the Spanish

Treaty of 1607• Almost a decade after Philip’s death, Spain finally decided

to cut her losses and sign a truce with the Provinces• By then the vast majority in the northern provinces were

Calvinists; the southern provinces remained Catholic• Religious, economic and cultural differences would lead to

the formation of three countries: the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxemburg

PROTESTANTISM IN FRANCEGonzalez, Chapter 11

Shifting Royal Policies in France• Francis I (1494-1547)

The Policies of Francis I• Last great king of the House of Valois• Had no desire to see Protestantism in his own territories,

yet encouraged the spread of Protestantism in Germany• His policies towards Protestantism in his own territories

changed with political circumstances; in spite of periods of persecution, Protestantism spread throughout France

• Ex-patriots in Strasbourg and Geneva were ready to intervene in favor of Protestantism in France

• The neighboring kingdom of Navarre encouraged the reform movement

• Francis’ sister, Margaret of Angouleme, was Queen Consort of Henry II of Navarre

Margaret of Angouleme (1492-1549)

a.k.a. Margaret of Navarre

Reign of Henry II of France (1519-1559)

• Son of Francis I; King of France from 1547

Catherine de Medici (1519-1589)• Wife of Henry II

Spread of Calvinism• Henry continued his father’s policies against Protestantism,

but more consistently and cruelly• In spite of persecution, the first Protestant church was formally

organized during Henry’s reign (1555), following the pattern of Calvin’s work in Geneva

• Four years (1559) later the first national synod of Calvinist churches in France met secretly in Paris and approved a Confession of Faith and a Discipline for the new church

• Henry died shortly after that gathering; he left three sons who would successively inherit the throne: Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, and three daughters, one of whom would become queen of France (Margaret of Valois)

• The power behind the throne, however, was Catherine de Medici

Political and Religious Troubles in France

• Catherine’s projects were hindered by the influence of the House of Guise, a prominent family whose power grew during the reigns of Francis I and Henry II

• General Francis of Guise and his brother Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, were the practical rulers of France while Francis II was young

• They were resented by the “princes of blood,” nobility who were among the king’s closest relatives – among them Louis de Conde and Antoine de Bourbon (married to Jane d’Albert, a daughter of Margaret of Navarre); both of these had declared for Calvinism

• The bitter dispute between the Houses of Guise (Catholic) and Bourbon (Calvinist) took on religious overtones

Huguenots• The Conspiracy of Amboise (1560): failed attempt to gain

power in France by abducting the young Francis II• The plot was not entirely religious in motivation, yet most

of the conspirators were identified as “Huguenots,” a term of uncertain origin given to French Protestants; among those imprisoned was Louis de Conde, which caused grave concerns among the rest of the nobility who felt that a trial and condemnation of a “prince of blood” would constitute an attack on their ancient, inherited privileges

Death of Francis II (1544-1560)

Catherine assumes the Regency• Catherine de Medici quickly intervened at the death of

Francis II to become regent for her ten-year-old son, Charles IX

• She allied herself to the Huguenots against the House of Guise (a.k.a. Lorraine); by this time there were some 2000 Protestant churches in France

• She convened a colloquy of Protestant and Catholic theologians in order to seek agreement; but this failed

• In 1562, She issued the Edict of St. Germain, which granted Huguenots freedom to practice their religion, but forbade them owning places of worship, gathering for synods without permit, collecting funds, and supporting an army

The Massacre of Vassy (1562)• The Guises refused to abide by the edict • The Guise brothers with two hundred armed noblemen

surrounded a stable where a group of Huguenots were worshipping in the village of Vassy, and slew as many as they could

• This massacre resulted in the first of a long series of religious wars that ravaged France; Catholics won most of the battles

• After a year of war, the Huguenots were again granted a measure of tolerance; but this was not lasting, as two other religious wars between 1567 and 1570 would break out

The Massacre of Vassy (1562)

The Peace of 1570• Catherine seemed willing to make concessions to the

Protestants, hoping they would help her in her power struggle against the House of Guise

• In 1571, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, leader of the Huguenot cause, appeared in court and made a favorable impression on the young king

• There was also talk of marriage between Catherine’s daughter Margaret of Valois and the Protestant prince Henry Bourbon; all appeared to be well

ST. BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY MASSACRE (AUGUST 23, 1572)

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre• The new duke of Guise, Henry, was convinced that his

father’s death had been ordered by Coligny• Catherine also began to fear the growing influence of the

Protestant admiral who had won the king’s admiration• Thus developed an unholy alliance to be rid of the admiral• The main Huguenot leaders had come to Paris for the

wedding of Henry Bourbon, by then King of Navarre, to the French king’s sister, Margaret of Valois (daughter of Catherine de Medici), which took place on August 18

• After the wedding, Coligny was shot from a building owned by the Guise family; he was wounded, not assassinated

St. Bartholomew’s Massacre• The Huguenots demanded justice; Charles IX took the investigation

seriously; the plot was uncovered, the Guises were implicated and banned from court; Catherine was also a suspect, as was Charles’ brother Henry of Anjou

• Catherine then convinced Charles that the Huguenots were plotting to wrest the throne from him, and that their leader was Coligny; the stage was set for the massacre

• The conspirators – Charles IX, Catherine, and the Duke of Guise met with those keeping order in Paris and gave them detailed orders as to who their victims were to be

• The first victim was Coligny; some 2000 Huguenots in Paris met a similar fate

• The two Protestant princes of blood, Louis de Conde and Henry Bourbon were dragged before Charles IX and forced to deny their faith in order to save their lives.

The Massacre spreads• The Duke of Guise had given orders that the massacre

should spread to every corner in the kingdom• A few upright magistrates refused to obey, but most did,

and tens of thousands died as a result• The news spread throughout Europe. William of Orange,

who had been marching on Brussels with an army he raised with French support abandoned his campaign; Queen Elizabeth of England dressed in mourning; Emperor Maxmillian, though a Catholic, reacted with horror at the news

• Pope Gregory XIII ordered the the Te Deum be sung in celebration of the night of St. Bartholomew; the Spanish were also happy at receiving the news

The War of the Three Henrys• The Huguenots fortified two cities – La Rochelle and

Montauban – declared war on the House of Guise and the King of France, Charles IX

• Charles died in 1574, his brother, Henry (III) became king and decided to make peace with the Protestants, who were given freedom of worship except in Paris

• The House of Guise declared war on the Huguenots, and Henry eventually joined them

• Then in 1587, the youngest son of Catherine de Medici (and heir apparent to the French throne) died; Henry III no longer had a direct heir; the next legal heir was Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre, who had managed to escape prison in 1576

• He then declared once again for Protestantism and became the center of Protestant resistance

Henry of Guise’s claim to the throne• The Catholic party could not countenance the prospect of

a Protestant king, and decided to put forward Henry of Guise as the rightful king; a document had been “uncovered” in Lorraine claiming that the Guise family had descended from Charlemagne, therefore exceeding the claims of both the Houses of Valois and Bourbon

The Three Henrys• Now there were three claimants: Henry III, Henry of

Guise, and Henry of Navarre (who did not claim to be rightful king, just the rightful heir to Henry III)

The War of the Three Henrys (1587-1589)

• In 1588, Henry of Guise took Paris and had himself proclaimed king

• Henry III then ordered the assassination of Henry of Guise on Christmas Day 1588; the Catholic leaders continued their rebellion

• Henry III was forced to flee Paris and sought out the refuge of his erstwhile rival, Henry Bourbon of Navarre; Navarre treated him with respect as the true king, but would not let him determine the policies that followed

• Henry III was assassinated by a fanatical Dominican friar, who was convinced that the king was a tyrant; Henry of Navarre took the title of Henry IV

Henry IV (1553-1610)• King of France from 1589

Henry’s Compromise• French Catholics were not ready to have a Protestant king• The pope declared that Henry Bourbon’s claim was not

valid; meanwhile Philip of Spain was planning to seize the opportunity to make himself master of France

• The war in France continued on for years• Finally convinced that he would never rule as a

Protestant, he converted (once again) to Catholicism• “Paris is worth a mass”

Edict of Nantes (1598)• Henry IV did not forget his former comrades in arms; he

showed them loyalty and favor throughout his reign• Many recalcitrant Catholics continued to claim that Henry

was still a heretic• On April 13, 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes that

granted the Huguenots freedom of worship in all places where they had had churches by the previous year, except in Paris; he also guaranteed their security by granting them all the fortified towns they had held in 1597

• Henry’s reign was wise and prosperous• Henry was assassinated in 1610 by a Catholic fanatic who

was convinced that he was still a Protestant heretic

THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION

Reformation of Spanish Catholicism• Queen Isabella I of Castile (1451-1504)

Married Ferdinand II of Aragon (1452-1516)

Isabella’s program of reform• Determined to reform the church of abuse and ill

education; and to revive monasticism• Secured from the pope the right to name those who were

to fill high ecclesiastical post in her realms; Ferdinand followed suit in his territories, but for different reasons

• Her interest was to reform the church; his was to strengthen the crown

Archbishop Jimenez (Ximenes)

Inquisition in Spain• The reform of the Spanish Church did not lead to

tolerance• The inquisition, normally under papal authority, was

placed under the authority of Isabel and Ferdinand• The Dominican friar, Tomas de Torquamada, was

appointed to head the inquisition; known for his love for orthodoxy and his zeal for persecution (especially of Jews)

• In 1492, all Jews were ordered to be baptized or face expulsion from Spanish territories (around 200,000)

• The fall of Granada imposed similar policies on the Moors (Muslims); keeping the inquisition busy

Catholic Polemicists• Once Protestantism became a force to be reckoned with,

the reform of the church was no longer just a matter of cleaning up abuses; it was also a matter of defending traditional doctrine (which often meant defining what the official doctrine of the church actually was!)

• Some Catholic polemicists, though arguing against Protestantism, respected the intellectualism of the movement and realized that they needed to present an intellectual case against it

Robert Cardinal Bellarmine (1542-1621)

• Author: On the Controversies of the Christian Faith (1593)

Caesar Cardinal Baronius (1538-1607)

• Author: Ecclesiastical Annals (written to refute The Centuries of Magdeburg)

THE NEW WORLD

The New World• Queen Isabella I of Castile (1451-1504)• Ferdinand II of Aragon (1452-1516)

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

DIVISION OF THE NEW WORLD

THE NEW ORDERS

St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582)• Founder of the Discalced Carmelites

St. John of the Cross (1542-1591)• Associate of St. Teresa of Avila

Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)• Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

REFORM OF THE PAPACY

Leo X (r. 1513-1521)• Renaissance Pope; excommunicated Luther

Adrian VI (r. 1522-1523)• Hoped to reform church; unexpected death thwarted his

efforts

Clement VII (r. 1523-1534)• Kinsman of Leo X; disastrous reign; England declared

itself independent; Rome sacked by Charles V

Paul III (r. 1534-1549) • Mix of Renaissance and Reform; ambitious; reign tainted

by nepotism

Reforms of Pope Paul III• Gave official recognition to the Jesuits and began using

them in missions and in polemics against Protestantism• In 1536, he appointed a commission of cardinals and

bishops to report on the need of reformation in the church; unfortunately the report fell into the hands of the Protestants

• Convoked the Council of Trent in 1545

Julius III (r. 1550-1555)• Another scoundrel; nepotism; his court became the center

of festivities and games

Marcellus II (r. 1555)• Showed great hope as reformer; but died unexpectedly

Paul IV (r. 1555-1559)• Committed to reform

Reforms of Paul IV• As a former member of Paul III’s commission, he set out

to correct the evils that that commission had decried• Cleansed the Roman curia of corruption• Placed the papacy firmly at the head of the Catholic

Reformation• Equated “reformation” with strict uniformity in all matters• Activity of the Inquisition significantly increased to the

point of terror• Issued the Index of Forbidden Books

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-1563)

Council of Trent• For much of the sixteenth century, the popes were

generally opposed to calling for a general council for fear of the resurgence of counciliarism

• Only after the breach between the Protestants and Catholics was deemed permanent was there any serious consideration for the convoking of a general council

• Paul III called for the council in 1545 after negotiations with Charles V, who insisted that the council be held in his territories

• The venue was Trent, an imperial city in northern Italy• Very few prelates attended the first session (only 31)

Council of Trent • The Protestant problem was of such a great magnitude

that the delegates did not feel that simply condemning Protestantism was enough; they had to discuss every item of theology that the Protestant Reformation had questioned

• The council also considered matters of church reform

Council of Trent• Considered the 19th Ecumenical Council (by the Roman

Church)• Suspended in 1547 when Paul III attempted to move the

council to the papal states (out of Charles’ territories)• Reconvened in 1551, and then suspended again in 1552• When Paul IV ascended the papal throne in 1555, he

wished to reconvene the council, but was fearful of Spanish influence, so its work remained unfinished

• The council finally reconvened for its last session in 1562 under Pius IV, and finished its work in 1563

Ecclesiastical Reforms of Trent• Ordered bishops to reside in their sees• Condemned pluralism (the holding of several

ecclesiastical offices)• Listed and defined the obligations of clergy• Regulated the use of relics and indulgences• Ordered the founding of seminaries for priestly training• Promoted the study of Thomas Aquinas, making his

theology dominant in the Roman Catholic Church

Measures Against Protestantism• Declared the Vulgate to be authoritative in matters of dogma• Tradition had an authority parallel to that of Scripture• Defined Seven Sacraments• Defined the Mass as a true sacrifice that could benefit the

deceased• Declared the communion in “both kinds” was not necessary• Defined the justification was based on good works done

through the collaboration between divine grace and the believer

• Defined the course of Roman Catholicism for the next four centuries

REFORMED ORTHODOXY & ARMINIANISM

Jacob Arminius (1560-1609)

The Rise of Arminianism• Arminius was a distinguished Dutch pastor and professor who

studied in Geneva under Calvin’s successor, Theodore Beza• Gained wide reputation in Amsterdam for his teaching and

defense of Calvinist orthodoxy• Asked by officials in Amsterdam to refute the teachings of

Dirck Koornhert, a theologian who rejected some aspects of Calvinism, particularly in the matter of predestination

• After studying his writings, those of the fathers and several reformers, Arminius concluded that Koornhert was actually in the right

• When Arminius became a professor at the University of Leiden (1603), his views all of a sudden became a matter of public debate

Ensuing Debate• Arminius’ main disputant was Francis Gomarus, who

defended the orthodox Calvinist position on predestination• Ironically, it was Arminius who saw himself as the true

follower of Calvin; his successors had corrupted Calvin’s view (particularly Beza)

• The debate was not over predestination (they all agreed on this point), but rather on the basis on which predestination takes place

• Arminius predestination based on foreknowledge of faith• Gomarus faith itself is the result of predestination• The debate would continue after Arminius’ death in 1609

The Remonstrants (1610)• Named for the “Remonstrance”: a document of five

articles dealing with theological issues under debate1. Ambiguous statement on predestination (foreknowledge or

“open decree” of election?)

2. Affirmation that Jesus died for all human beings, though only believers receive the benefits

3. Affirmation that the grace of God is needed in order to do any good (to defend against charge of Pelagianism)

4. Rejection of irresistible grace

5. Ambiguous statement on whether believers can fall from grace (biblical teaching is not clear)

Synod of Dort (1618-1619)• Main purpose of the Synod was to the condemnation of

Arminianism• Other countries were invited to send delegates• Canons of Dort: affirmed five doctrines that the

Remonstrants could not accept:1. Unconditional election (election based in inscrutable will of God)

2. Limited atonement (Christ died for the elect only)

3. Total depravity (human nature corrupted in all aspects)

4. Irresistible grace (salvific grace is always effectual for the elect)

5. Perseverance of the saints (the elect will be saved)

• Typically, these points are arranged to spell out the acrostic TULIP

Aftermath of the Synod of Dort• Van Oldenbarnevelt condemned to death; Hugo Grotius

was sentenced to life imprisonment (later escaped)• Almost 100 Arminian minister deported, many other

deprived of their pulpits, many sentenced to life imprisonment

• Many laity had to pay heavy fines for listening to Arminian preaching; teachers and even the guild of organists were forced to subscribe to the Canons of Dort

• After the death of Maurice of Nassau (1625), measures against Arminians were less rigorous

• General tolerance of Arminians finally came in 1631

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION17th Century Great Britain

James VI & I (1566-1625)• King of Scots from 1567• King of England from 1603

James’ policies• Continued in the course of his predecessor Elizabeth I• Resented as a “foreigner” by his English subjects• Desired the union of Scotland and England• Greatest conflicts were with those Protestants who wished

to see a more radical reform of the church along Reformed (Genevan) lines: the “Puritans”

The Puritans• Called this because they desired to see the “purity” of the

church• Not a united group – varying opinions on many matters

including church polity (e.g., Episcopalians, Presbyterians and Congregationalists or Independents)

The “High Church” party• Those who defended the Elizabethan settlement and the

virtues of the traditional worship of the Church of England• Elizabeth’s church could be described as “moderately

Calvinist,” but this gradually began to change during James’ reign

• Leading theologians defended beauty in worship, the Book of Common Prayer, and the traditional polity of deacons, priests, and bishops

• Puritans decried all of this as “Catholic”

James’ attitude towards religion• Only openly persecuted Anabaptists, whose ideas he

deemed dangerous to the state• Presbyterians (whom he hated from his time in Scotland)

were nonetheless afforded some measure of tolerance• Roman Catholics could, in principle, be tolerated if the

pope recognized James’ claim to the throne and denounced regicide

• James favored the bishops and the body of conformist clergy (“No bishop, no king.”)

Hampton Court Conference (1604)• Attempt to conciliate, but a dismal failure• James’ intentions for the church, perhaps not clear before

the conference, were crystal clear at the end of the conference

• Very few concessions to Puritan concerns• “King James Bible” (or Authorized Version)• The conference was indicative of a growing divide

between the House of Commons (strongly Puritan) and the king and his bishops

The Gunpowder Plot (November 5, 1605)

Gunpowder Plot Poem

Second verse (worse than the first)

A penny loaf to feed the PopeA farthing o’ cheese to choke him.A pint of beer to rinse it down.A faggot of sticks to burn him.

Burn him in a tub of tar.Burn him like a blazing star.Burn his body from his head.Then we’ll say ol’ Pope is dead.

Hip hip hoorah!Hip hip hoorah hoorah!

James’ rule• Believed in the Divine Right of Kings• Court “favorites” from Scotland (resented by the English)• Contentious reign, always in need of money• Frequently dissolved Parliament, only to call it back in

session again to raise money

English Separatists

Charles I (1600-1649)• King of Great Britain from 1625

Charles I• Inherited his father’s conflicts with Parliament and also his

father’s belief in the Divine Right of Kings• Convinced that he needed to dispense with Parliament

altogether• Attempted to rule without Parliament, dissolving it three

times; after 1629, he was resolved never again to call another Parliament

• Eleven years of personal rule; aristocracy grew in power and wealth; poor got poorer; Puritans seen as the champion of the common man

William Laud (1573-1645)• Bishop of London from 1628• Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633

Religious Policy in Scotland incites war

• 1637 Scottish Prayer Book (Laud’s Liturgy) and Episcopacy imposed

• General Assembly of the Scottish Kirk refused to conform and abolished bishops

• Scotland in rebellion against their king• Bishops Wars (1639, 1640)

Scottish National Covenant (1638)

Scottish invade northern England (1640)

The Short Parliament (1640)• Charles forced to call another Parliament• Charles hoped to raise funds for his war against Scottish

rebels• Parliament (with strong Puritan sentiment) proved less

than enthusiastic about Charles’ religious policies and his war

• Demanded that Charles address their religious concerns before approving funds

• Charles dissolved Parliament once again• Then the Scots invaded northern England again when

Charles failed to pay the expenses for their last invasion

The Long Parliament (1640-48)• The majority elected to the Long Parliament were

discontent with the king’s policies• Even many of the House of Lords allied themselves to the

Commons in wanting to limit the king’s power• While the Scots were in northern England, Parliament

moved to address their grievances first• Parliament brought to trial and condemned two of Charles’

main “henchmen”: Lord Strafford and Archbishop Laud• Parliament then passed a law establishing that it could not

be dissolved by the king without its own agreement• Meanwhile Charles was working behind the scenes to

placate the Scots rebels, hoping to undo the power of Parliament

Impeachment of Strafford and Laud

“The birds have flown”

The Westminster Assembly of Divines convenes on July 1, 1643.

English Parliament enters the Solemn League and Covenant (September 1643)

The Self-Denying Ordinance of 1645 barred all members of the Houses of Commons and Lords from military command. Only Cromwell was exempt from the Ordinance.

New Model Army

On December 6, 1648 “Pride’s Purge” ends the Long Parliament.

“This court doth judge that the said Charles Stuart is a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, and shall be put to death by the severing of the head from his body” (January 26, 1649).

Cromwell’s Protectorate (1653-1659)

Charles II and the Restoration• King of Great Britain: 1649-1685• Invited back to England by Parliament in 1659

English Non-Conformity• Act of Uniformity 1662 – imposed new BCP• The Great Ejection• Non-Conformist Traditions

• Presbyterianism• Congregationalism (Independents)• Baptists • Other (Quaker)

Presbyterianism in England• As dissenting members of the established church, the

Presbyterians lobbied for either the modification of episcopacy if not the abolition of it

• One ejected from the established church, they organized themselves into local presbyteries, governed by elders

• They patterned their church government after the Church of Scotland (the Scottish Kirk), and continued to uphold the Westminster Standards of 1646:• Westminster Confession of Faith• Larger and Shorter Catechisms• Directory of Worship

Congregationalism in England• Believed in the principle of independency, i.e., that every

local church (parish) should be self-governing• Those who acted on these principles prior to the Great

Ejection were called “Separatists” or “Independents”• Cromwell was an Independent, as were many in the New

Model Army• During the Protectorate, Independency was the de facto

the “law of the land,” and congregations continued to be supported by the state! – (ad hoc Presbyterianism and even underground BCP worship existed side-by-side with Independency)

• After the Great Ejection, many ministers opted for Congregationalism rather than Presbyterianism

The Baptists• Not strictly a Puritan tradition• “Separatists” – left the Church of England prior to the

Great Ejection• Earliest trace of “Baptist Separatists” appears to be John

Smyth’s congregation established in Amsterdam in 1609• First Baptist church in England established by Thomas

Helwys in 1612

Baptists in England• General Baptists (Thomas Helwys)• Particular Baptists – Calvinistic Baptist congregations

John Bunyan (1628-1688)

RATIONALISM

The Spirit of Rationalism• In France: Rene Descartes (1596-1650) and Cartesian

Rationalism: the advent of radical skepticism• First premise: “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am)• Second premise: God must exist

• In England: John Locke (1632-1704) and Empiricism• Greek word for “experience” (what can be established by the

senses is certain)• 1690 Essay on Human Understanding• Faith, as it is based on revelation, can never be certain• Locke concluded that Christianity was the most reasonable

religion, but did not believe that Christianity had added anything of importance to what could in any case have been known by the right use of reason

The Spirit of Rationalism• The Deists (“free-thinkers”)

• Influenced by Locke’s opinions• Contended that true religion must be universal (rather than particular) • Opposed to narrow dogmatism• Also refuted radical skepticism

• David Hume (1711-1776) and the Critique of Empiricism• Hume pointed out that many assumptions (e.g. cause and effect) were not

actually “experienced”• “Sensory perception” is not actually reality• Put an end to Deism

• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)• Critique of Pure Reason (1781)• Father of “Existentialism”• Reason cannot prove the existence of God or the Soul, but “practical

reason” may posit these things (Critique of Practical Reason, 1788)

THE QUAKERS

George Fox and the Quakers• 1604-1691

The Quakers• The movement (part of a general “Spiritualist” movement

sweeping Europe) was born in part as a protest against the doctrinal debates of traditional theology

• “If God does not dwell in houses made with human hands, how dare anyone call those buildings where they gather churches?”

• Over against outward, visible “means of grace” (clergy, hymns, orders of worship, sacraments), Fox placed the “inner light”

• The “inner light” is in everyone, but not to be confused with natural reason; therefore communication with God through the inner light is previous to any communication by external means

Quaker beliefs• Any structure in worship could be an obstacle to the Spirit• “Friends” worship took place in silence, waiting for the Spirit to

move• Women and men had the same right to speak at such meetings• Traditional sacraments (Baptism, Lord’s Supper) were not

practiced, since these externals would draw attention away from the spiritual

• Fox underscored the importance of community and love• Decisions made by consensus• Quakers used the familiar “Thou” in address with each other

(since this is the way God was addressed in Scripture; “You” was more respectful)

• Quakers were pacifists; would not swear oaths• Argued for religious tolerance

Quaker Worship

William Penn (1644-1714)• Founder of the Province of Pennsylvania (1681)

PIETISM

German Pietism• Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705) – “Father of Pietism”

• Pia desideria (1675)• Developed the Lutheran doctrine of the universal Priesthood of

Believers• “Colleges of piety” (small groups to study the Bible)• Emphasis on “true Christians” and “deep personal faith”• De-emphasis on rigid orthodoxy• Caught up with apocalypticism

• August Hermann Francke (1663-1727) – most important follower of Spener• Under Francke direction, the University of Halle became a center

for the training of missionaries

Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700-1760)

Zinzendorf & the Moravians• His godfather was Spener• Studied at the University of Halle under Francke; later

went to Wittenburg where he clashed with his teachers• In Dresden he Met a group of around 200 Moravians

fleeing their homeland on account of persecution and offered them asylum in his lands; so impressed with them, he joined their group and became their leader

• The Moravians descended from the Hussites of the 14th century (followers of John Huss)

Zinzendorf & the Moravians• The Moravians founded the community of Herrnhut on

Zinzendorf’s lands• Zinzendorf convinced the Moravians to join the local

Lutheran congregation; but the Lutherans were unwilling to trust the foreigners

• In 1731, Zinzendorf met a group of Eskimos who had been converted by Danish Lutheran missionaries; from this point on missions would dominate his life and ministry

• In 1732, the community of Herrnhut sent their first missionaries to the Carribean

• In a few years there were Moravian missions in Africa, India, South America and North America

Zinzendorf & the Moravians• Conflict with Lutheran authorities continued and

Zinzendorf was forced to leave for the New World• He was present for the founding of the Bethlehem

community in Pennsylvania• After his return to Germany in 1768, peace was made

between the Lutherans and the Moravians, who were acknowledged as “true Lutherans”

• However, the Moravians claimed to have ancient episcopal succession, which caused tension between them and the Lutherans

• Shortly after the death of Zinzendorf (1760) the Lutherans and the Moravians split again

John & Charles Wesley• John Wesley (1703-1791)• Charles Wesley (1707-1788)

John Wesley and the “Holy Club” at Oxford University• Distinguished himself as a scholar and a devout Christian• While at Oxford he joined a religious society founded by

his brother, Charles and a group of friends• Its members had made a covenant to lead a holy and

sober life, to take communion at least once a week, to be faithful in their private devotions, to visit prisons regularly, and to spend three hours together every afternoon studying the Bible and books of devotion

• John soon became its leader since he was the only ordained priest

• Students mocked the group by calling it a “holy club” and its members as “methodists”

John Wesley and the Moravians• In 1735-36 John Wesley traveled to Savannah, Georgia, at

the invitation of Governor Oglethorpe; Wesley had hoped to preach the good news to the Indians

• On board the ship was a group of Moravians who were also going to the new world to preach to the Indians

• During a violent storm, in which the ship was in danger of sinking, Wesley was impressed with the calm behavior of the Moravians; this event caused him to doubt the depth of his own faith

• His ministry in Georgia failed miserably as he expected his parishioners to behave like the “holy club”

• He would later go back to the Moravians for advice about his ministry; which only left him confused

Trouble in Savannah• He turned out to be an unpopular priest• Wesley was then forced to leave Georgia after denying

communion to a young girl whom he once courted (she had married someone else); Wesley was sued for defamation

• Back in England, Wesley asked the Moravian Peter Boehler to be his religious advisor; Wesley wanted to stop preaching because he believed he lacked faith; Boehler encouraged him to “preach faith” until he had it, and then to continue preaching it because he had it

Wesley’s Aldersgate Experience

“In the evening I went very unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther’s preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation: And an assurance was given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.” (Journal, May 24, 1738)

George Whitefield (1714-1770)• “Open-air” preaching

Wesley & Whitefield• Wesley invited by Whitefield to help him with his ministry

in Bristol, England when Whitefield was overseas in Georgia

• Wesley at first objected to “open-aired” preaching, and wasn’t comfortable with the emotionalism of his audiences

• Soon he overcame his scruples and became the leader of the movement

• Wesley and Whitefield worked together for some time, but eventually parted ways over theological differences (predestination)

Wesley & Anglicanism• Wesley had no interest in founding a new denomination• His purpose was to awaken and cultivate the faith of the

masses of the Church of England• He avoided scheduling his preaching services in conflict

with the services of the parish churches; he saw his services as “preparation” for receiving communion in the Anglican churches

• Wesley organized his followers into “societies” that first met in private homes and later in their own buildings

• The movement grew and so did the organization; eventually he had to use lay preachers

• Conflict with the established Church was inevitable

Conflict with Anglicanism• Wesley belonged to and wished to remain in the Church of

England, and chided those followers who wished to break away from the church

• Many Anglican clergy saw Methodism as an indictment on their own ministries; and Methodist lay preachers had little regard for parish boundaries

• The law allowed for non-Anglican worship services and church buildings, but they had to be registered; this put the Methodist in a difficult situation because the Church of England did not acknowledge their meetings or their buildings

• In 1787, Wesley instructed his preachers to register their buildings and meetings; the first legal step toward the formation of a separate church

Methodist “Ordinations”• Wesley had long believed that “bishop” and “presbyter”

were the same order; thus he believed that he had the power to ordain, though he was hesitant to exercise this power

• The War of Independence of the United States changed the situation; Wesley, though deploring the war, nonetheless ordained Thomas Coke to be a “superintendent” for the new country

• By the time of his death (1791), the Methodist movement was fast becoming a separate church, even in England itself