Water Potable water: • Is safe for humans to drink • has low levels of dissolved salts and

microbes. • Is NOT pure – due to the low levels

of dissolved salts in it.

Pure water vs potable water

Main overall stages

Water Treatment process This is the way we treat our water in Britain

What do you do if you don’t live in a sopping wet country like Britain?

There’s 2 options; both are forms of desalination

Sea water is boiled and then the steam is cooled then it’s condensed.

Sea water is pressurised through a semi-permeable membrane. Water molecules are small enough to pass. But dissolved substances aren’t.

Drawbacks Distillation • Lots of energy

needed to boil water

Reverse osmosis • Lots of energy

needed to provide pressure

Pure water Potable water

Contains ONLY water molecules

Contains water molecules AND dissolved substances

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Key stages in water treatment

What happens at this stage

Screening and grit removal

Removes large solids

Sedimentation Separation of human waste and other organic materials from waste water – this is the effluent

Aerobic treatment of effluent

Air passed through effluent- this kills the harmful bacteria

Anaerobic treatment of sludge

In the absence of air, bacteria produce methane from sludge

Metal ores are a limited resource. Some metals have to be mined from low-grade ores. Some top-notch chemists have come up with ways to extract these in-demand metals (in oppose to more traditional methods). These two methods are chiefly used to extract copper.

Et voila! COPPER METAL is made.

Use scrap iron to displace out the copper OR electrolysis to extract the copper

Ash from plant ash is high in copper compounds. Dissolve these copper compounds in water

Grow plants in soil containing copper compounds. Burn the plants after they’ve grown.

Phytomining

Et voila! COPPER METAL is made

Use scrap iron to displace out the copper OR electrolysis to extract the copper

The soluble copper compounds are dissolved in water

Bacteria is used on copper ore. They make insoluble copper compounds into soluble copper compounds. This product of the bacteria is called the leachate.

Bioleaching

Electrolysis Displacement

What happens

Positive and negative electrodes are placed into solution. Positive copper ions (Cu2+) are attracted to negative electrode

Scrap iron is placed into solution. Iron is more reactive than the dissolved copper and therefore displaces it.

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Alloys These are mixed with other metals to make alloys. They become harder. (because they have different sized atoms – layers don’t slide over each other as easily.

Most metals around us are alloys

Alloy Main metal Other

metals/elements

contained

Uses and properties

Bronze Copper Tin Statues, decorative objects

Hard, resistant to corrosion, resistant

to corrosion

Brass Copper Zinc Door handles, instruments

Hard, resistant to corrosion,

antibacterial

Gold alloy Gold Silver, copper,

zinc

Jewellery, electronics, dentistry

Resistant to corrosion, excellent

conductor of electricity

Steels Iron Carbon, nickel,

chromium

Cutlery, car bodies, building material,

tools

High carbon steel – strong but brittle Low carbon steel – soft and bendable Stainless steel – contains nickel and chromium – hard and doesn’t corrode easily.

Aluminium

alloys

Aluminium Magnesium Aeroplanes

Strong but light (low density).

Resistant to corrosion.

Pure metals They are too soft for many uses. They have regular layers. Atoms are the same size – layers slide over each other easily.

Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the atmosphere.

Sacrificial protection • More reactive metal attached to metal • The more reactive metal will corrode rather than

the less reactive metal. • E.g. Zn or Mg blocks are attached to the hulls/body

of ships to prevent corroding • Mg is attached to steel pipelines and railway lines

to prevent corrosion

Surface coating • A protective layer is put on the metal. I.e. paint or a

film of plastic. • E.g. Grease oil for bike chains, • plastic coating – in fridges, • metal coating – electroplating e.g. 1p and 2p coins,

Galvinising – mixture of both methods • Steel can be galvanised – Steel is coated in a layer

of zinc. This works because the zinc is more reactive than steel

This experiment shows that BOTH water and air are needed for iron to rust.

Rusting experiment

Rusting is corrosion specific to iron/steel

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Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Renewable resource A resource that we can replace once we use it

Finite resource A resource that cannot be replaced once it has been used.

Chemistry helps develop new processes to ease the dependence on natural ones. Clothing – Man-made Gore-Tex, nylon, microfibres, etc. are blended with natural ones (cotton, wool, silk, etc). Improving processes and products- E.g. better fertilisers or making processes more efficient. New products – Making new products with new uses. E.g. medicines

What humans use the Earth’s resources for • Food • Warmth • Shelter • Transport

Natural Resources from the Earth give us • Food • Timber • Clothing • Fuel

Reduce. We use lots of these resources • Metals • Glass • Plastic • Metal • Clay ceramics • Building materials However, we need to be mindful of all the energy and raw materials that are used to produce these. E.g. Mining rocks and ores has an environmental impact because the they need quarrying.

Reuse Some products such as glass bottles can be reused. Obviously, they need to be collected, cleaned and redistributed before reuse.

Recycle Certain materials can be recycled. The materials are usually- collected, remoulded or recast into new

products.

Material How are these recycled?

Glass • Separated into different colours

• Crushed • Melted • Remoulded

Plastics • Separated into different types of plastic

• Melted • Remoulded

Metals • Separated • Melted • Recast

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What are LCAs? LCAs are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products. These stages are considered • Extracting and processing raw materials • Manufacturing, packing and distributing • Use during its lifetime • Disposal at end of product’s life. E.g. recycling,

reuse, landfill, etc.

What is considered for a product/process’s LCA? • Use of and

sustainability of raw materials

• Energy usage at all stages

• Use of water at all stages

• Production and disposal of waste products and pollutants at all stages

• Transportation and distribution at all stages

Misusing LCAs Mischievous companies or manufacturers may choose not to disclose a 100% accurate LCA report if their product/process: • creates too much

pollution; • all waste ends up in

landfill; • their products aren’t

recyclable, etc. These companies may misuse these LCAs to have a better public image or appear more environmental in the media than they actually are.

Plastic bag Paper bag

Raw material Crude oil or natural gas

Wood

Energy used in J 2.5 2.8

Mass of solid waste

19 69

Mass of CO2 produced in kg

0.34 0.73

Volume of fresh water used in dm3

301 5,094

Exam question focus The specification says you need to be able to compare the LCAs of a paper and plastic shopping bags. Below is an example of these LCAs.

An example of an exam question and how you could tackle it could be…. A company stated: ‘A Life Cycle Assessment shows that using plastic bags has less environmental impact than using paper bags’. Evaluate this statement. Use your knowledge and the information from the table above. (6 marks)

To get all 6 marks, your answer should compare things like: • Whether the raw materials are finite or renewable

resources • Energy usage • Biodegradability • Carbon neutrality – (trees can be replanted) • Waste • Amount of CO2 given off • Volume of fresh water used

• Finish off with a conclusion!!! Say which one is has less of an environmental impact. Don’t sit on the fence. For the sake of ease, just side with the one that from the data and your own knowledge has more going for it.

• Even though plastic and paper bag LCAs are mentioned in the spec, you may be given something else to compare and evaluate, so use the same skills to tackle the question.

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Ceramics, polymers and composites

Type of glass Borosilicate glass Soda-lime glass

What it’s

made from

Sand

Boron trioxide

Sand

Sodium carbonate

Calcium carbonate

Uses • Lab glassware

• Cooking items –

pan glass lids,

measuring jugs

• Windows

• Containers –

bottles, jars, etc

Properties/ot

her notes

• Higher melting

point than soda-

lime glass.

• Most widely-used

glass

Composite

material

Matrix/

binder

Reinforcement

fibres/fragments

Uses

Concrete Cement

and

water

Crushed rock and

sand

Building

material

Fibreglass Polymer Glass fibes Building

material,

storage tanks

Plywood Glue Wood fibres Building

material

Carbon

fibre

Polymer Carbon fibres/carbon

nanotubes

Sports

equipment

HDPE • Not branched, • Harder • Higher softening point, • Branches are packed closer

together

• Polymerised in low pressure

LDPE • Lots of branches • Low density, • polymer chains can’t

pack closely

• Polymerised In high pressure

Same monomer, different properties example

Different polymers have different properties depending upon: • Which monomers they’re made from • The conditions used to make them

Composites

Glass

Polymers

Ceramics

Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace. Properties : Hard, unreactive and resistant to heat

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The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to make nitrogen-based fertilisers.

Here’s the low-down of all the key points of the Haber process:

Notes/info

Raw materials

Hydrogen From reaction steam with methane

Nitrogen From air

Equation Equation N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

RHS reaction = exothermic LHS reaction = endothermic Reaction is reversible

Catalyst iron It is finely divided

Temperature 450oC Compromise temperature

Pressure 200atm Compromise pressure

Pressure- 200 atm used because a higher pressure favours the RHS reaction so there’s a higher yield of NH3 produced. Why? - because there are fewer moles of product. The equilibrium opposes higher pressures, meaning higher yield is achieved. But- If the pressure was any higher, it’d be too expensive to maintain.

Temperature- 450 oC used because a higher temperature favours the RHS reaction so there’s a higher yield of NH3 produced. Why? - The RHS is exothermic. A VERY high temperature would favour the endothermic LHS reaction - to oppose the increased temperature. A VERY low temperature favours the RHS reaction to oppose the temperature decrease. Also, a very low temperature would make the rate of reaction to slow. The compromise of having a ‘not too high’ and ‘not too low’ temperature is settled with.

Le Chatelier’s Principle Any change made to a reaction which is in equilibrium, will result in the equilibrium position moving to minimise the change made Fritz Haber – Mostly

serious but knows how to party

Catalyst – Finely divided iron is used. It is finely dived to have a high surface area which speeds up the rate of reaction. It is cheap. It doesn’t change the position of the equilibrium

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Part 2 – Analysing different water samples

1. Place the water sample in the conical flask.

Set up the apparatus for distillation as shown

in the diagram.

2. Heat the water using the Bunsen burner

until it boils. Then reduce the heat so that

the water boils gently.

3. The distilled water will collect in the cooled

test tube. Collect about 1 cm depth of water

in this way, then stop heating.

4. Analyse the water you have distilled with

cobalt chloride paper.

A fertiliser is a substance that increases agricultural productivity. I.e. They help crops grow bigger and faster and so will increase the yield.

NPK fertilisers contain a mixture of soluble compounds of Nitrogen (N), phosphurous (P) and potassium (K).

Some of the salt compounds used in NPK fertilisers come from: • Chemical reactions (acid-base

reactions) • Mining rocks (which contain these

salts/compounds)

NPK fertilisers are classed as formulations because they contain N, P and K in specific ratios to one another. However, different formulations (with N, P&K in different, but yet specific ratios) are used for different soil types. BUT, all of these fertilisers ALL contain N,P&K.

Compound Source Method of extraction

Potassium chloride Mined Dissolved and used directly

Potassium sulphate Mined Dissolved and used directly

Phosphate rock Mined Reacted with nitric acid or sulphuric to make soluble salts.

Base acid Salt

Ammonia Nitric acid Ammonium nitrate

Ammonia Sulphuric acid

Ammonium sulphate

Ammonia Phosphoric acid

Ammonium chloride

Required practical 8 – water purification

This table shows how different ammonium salts, used in fertilisers that are manufactured through chemical reactions

This table shows salts used in fertilisers that are mined .

Part 1 – Purification of sea water by

distillation

1. Collect 50cm3 of sea water – use

measuring cyclinder. Put water in

conical flask

2. Attach delivery tube to conical flask

– see diagram

3. Set up equipment as shown.

4. Heat the water until you have

collected about 5cm of distilled

water.

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