watershed hydrology, a hawaiian prospective: evapotranspiration ali fares, phd evaluation of natural...
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Watershed Hydrology, a Hawaiian Prospective:
Evapotranspiration
Ali Fares, PhDEvaluation of Natural Resource
Management, NREM 600UHM-CTAHR-NREM
Objectives of this chapter Explain and differentiate
among the processes of evaporation from a water body, evaporation from soil, and transpiration from a plant
Understand and be able to solve for evapotranspiration (ET) using a water budget & energy budget method
Explain potential ET and actual ET relationships in the field.
Under what conditions are they similar?
Under what conditions are they different?
Understand and explain how changes in vegetative cover affect ET.
Describe methods used in estimating potential and actual ET
Conservation of Energy
The conservation equation as applied to energy, or conservation of energy, is known as the energy balance.
How precipitation is partitioned into infiltration, runoff, evapo-transpiration, etc., similarly, we can look at how incoming radiation from the sun and from the atmosphere is partitioned into different energy fluxes (where the term flux denotes a rate of transfer (e.g. of mass, energy or momentum) per unit area).
Water & Energy relationship There is strong link between the water and energy balance: Partitioning of incoming radiation into the various fluxes of
energy ( energy for ET, energy to heat the atmosphere and energy to heat the ground) depends on the water balance and how much water is present in soils and available for evapotranspiration.
the partitioning of precipitation into the various water fluxes (e.g. runoff and infiltration) depends on how much energy is available for ET.
Just as changes in water balance were reflected in changes in storage in water amounts (soil moisture in a root zone; level of a lake) changes in energy balance are reflected in temperature changes.
Just as we wrote water balances for a number of different control volumes, we could write energy balances for the same control volumes.
Evapotranspiration
ΔS= watershed storage variation (mm): Send–Sbeginning
P = Precipitation (mm)
Q = Stream flow (mm)
ΔD = Seepage out – seepage in (mm)
ET = evaporation and transpiration (mm)
ET = P – Q – ΔS - ΔD
Energy Budget for an ideal surface
Energy budget is: Rn = H + LE + G where Rn is net radiation at the
surface; H is sensible heat exchanged with the
atmosphere; LE is latent heat exchanged with the
atmosphere; and G is heat exchanged with the ground.
Net Solar Energy Flux The net flux of solar energy entering the land surface
is therefore given as K = Kin - Kout = Kin (1-a) where K in is the incident solar energy on the surface, and it
includes direct solar radiation (i.e. that which makes it through the atmosphere unscathed) and diffuse (due to scattering by aerosols and gases);
Kout is the reflected flux; a is the albedo Solar radiation is measured in specialized
meteorological stations with radiometers.
Evapotranspiration More than 95% of 300mm in
Arizona > 70% annual precipitation in
the US In General: ET/P is
– ~ 1 for dry conditions– ET/P < 1 for humid climates &
ET is governed by available energy rather than availability of water
For humid climates, vegetative cover affects the magnitude of ET and thus, Q (stream flow).
In Dry climate, effect of vegetative cover on ET is limited.
ET affects water yield by affecting antecedent water status of a watershed high ET result in large storage to store part of precipitation
evapotranspiration summarizes all processes that return liquid water back into water vapor
- evaporation (E): direct transfer of water from open water bodies or soil surfaces
- transpiration (T): indirect transfer of water from root-stomatal system• of the water taken up by plants, ~95% is returned to the
atmosphere through their stomata (only 5% is turned into biomass!)
• Before E and T can occur there must be:• A flow of energy to the evaporating or transpiring
surfaces• A flow of liquid water to these surfaces, and• A flow of vapor away from these surfaces.
• Total ET is change as a result of any changesThat happens to any of these 3.
Evapotranspiration
Three main factors affect E or T from evaporating & transpiring surfaces:– Supply of energy to
provide the latent heat of evaporation
– Ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporative surface
– Supply of water at the evaporative surface
Source of energy? Is solar radiation
What take vapors away from evaporating surface? Wind and humidity gradient
Evaporation includes:– Soil -- vegetation
surface – transpiration– => Evapotranspiration,
ET
The linkage between water and energy budgets
Is direct; the net energy available at the earth’s surface is
apportioned largely in response to the presence or absence of water.
Reasons for studying it are:– To develop a better understanding of Hydrological
cycle– Be able to quantify or estimate E and ET (soil, water or
snowmelt)
Energy Budget Net radiation:
Rn=(Ws+ws)(1- α)+Ia-Ig
Rn is determined by measuring incoming & outgoing short- & long-wave rad. over a surface.
Rn can – or +
If Rn > 0 then can be allocated at a surface as follows:
Rn = (L)(E) + H + G + Ps
L is latent heat of vaporization, E evaporation, H energy flux that heats the air or sensible heat, G is heat of conduction to ground and Ps is energy of photosynthesis.
LE represents energy available for evaporating water
Rn is the primary source for ET & snow melt.
In a watershed Rn, (LE) latent heat and sensible heat (H) are of interest.
Sensible heat can be substantial in a watershed, Oasis effect were a well-watered plant community can receive large amounts of sensible heat from the surrounding dry, hot desert.
See Table 3.2 comparison See box 3.1 illustrates the
energy budget calculations for an oasis condition.
An island of tall forest vegetation presents more surface area than an low-growing vegetation does (e.g. grass).
The total latent heat flux is determined by:– LE = Rn + H
Advection is movement of warm air to cooler plant-soil-water surfaces.
Convection is the vertical component of sensible-heat transfer.
Water movement in plants Illustration of the energy
differentials which drive the water movement from the soil, into the roots, up the stalk, into the leaves and out into the atmosphere. The water moves from a less negative soil moisture tension to a more negative tension in the atmosphere.
Yw~ -1.3 MPa
Yw~ -1.0 MPa
Yw~ -0.8 MPa
Yw~ -0.75 MPa
Yw~ -0.15 MPa
Ys~ -0.025 MPa
Soil Water Mass Balance
Lysimeters have a weighing device and a drainage system, which permit continuous measurement of excess water and draining below the root zone and plant water use, evapotranspiration.
Lysimeters have high cost and may not provide a reliable measurement of the field water balance.
• There are different ways to estimate drainage.• The direct method is the use of lysimeters.
Water Mass balance Equation
ET = Evapotranspiration R, I = Rain & Irrigation D = Drainage Below Rootzone RO = Runoff S = Soil Water Storage variation U = upward capillary flow
S =(I + R + U) - (D + RO + ET)
Evapo-transpiration
Transpiration
Evaporation
Rain
Runoff
Drainage
Root ZoneWater Storage
Irrigation
Below RootZone
Calendar Days (1997)
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Dai
ly E
vap
otr
ansp
irat
ion
(m
m)
1
2
3
4
5
Col 3 vs Col 4 Col 1 vs Col 1
Daily ET
Col 1 vs Col 1 Col 3 vs Col 7
ET Standard Deviation
Cu
mu
lati
ve E
vap
otr
ansp
irat
ion
(m
m)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Col 1 vs Col 1 Col 3 vs Col 8
Cumulative ET
Calendar Days
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Std
. Dev
. (m
m)
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Dai
ly D
rain
age
(mm
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Cu
mu
lati
ve d
rain
age
(mm
)
0
150
300
450
600
750
900Cumulative drainage
Daily drainage
Standard Deviation
Days of the Month (April 1996)
27.0 27.5 28.0 28.5 29.0
Hou
rly
ET
(m
m)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.61.8 m2 wetting area
16.3 m2 wetting area
7.3 m2 wetting area
Days of the Month (April 1996)
27.0 27.2 27.4 27.6 27.8 28.0 28.2 28.4 28.6 28.8 29.0
Cum
ulat
ive
Dai
ly E
T (
mm
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
61.8 m2 wetting area
16.3 m2 Wetting area
7.3 m2 Wetting area
Fig. 6
Rain
/Irrig. (mm
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Drain
age (mm
)
0123456
Month Date
Daily E
T (m
m)
0
1
2
3
4
5 C
B
A
Drainage Below the Rootzone
Daily Evapotranspiration
Irrigation or Rainfall
March 30 April 9 April 19
Daily Potential Evapotranspiration (mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Da
ily E
va
po
tra
ns
pir
ati
on
(m
m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
PEo vs ET Col 7 vs Col 8
r2 = 0.88
Y = 0.724 X
Effects of Vegetative Cover
ET / Potential ET
Available Soil Water
ET & Available Soil Water