MODULE-1: COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY AND PLANTS  

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner should confidently be able too know composition of animal bodyo understand composition of plants and their byproductso differentiate between composition of plants and animalso describe factors affecting chemical composition of plants.

COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY 

The composition of animal body is affected by species, strain, age, sex and state of nutrition.

The percentage composition of animal body

Species

As such or fresh matter basis

Water and fat free basis

Water Protein Fat Ash Protein Ash

Calf (new born)

74 19 3 4.1 82.2 17.8

Steer (thin) 64 19 12 5.1 79.1 20.9

Steer (fat) 43 13 41 3.3 79.5 20.5

Sheep (thin) 74 16 5 4.4 78.2 21.8

Sheep (fat) 40 11 46 2.8 79.3 20.7

Pig (8 kg) 73 17 6 3.4 83.3 16.7

Pig (30 kg) 60 13 24 2.5 84.3 15.7

Pig (100 kg) 49 12 36 2.6 82.4 17.6

Hen 56 21 19 3.2 86.8 13.2

Horse 61 17 17 4.5 79.2 20.8

Man 59 18 18 4.3 80.7 19.3

Water

Water content of animal body is variable and decreases as age increases. For example,

o A cattle embryo contains -- 95% watero A new born calf contains -- 75-80% watero 5 months old calf contains -- 66-72% watero Mature animal contains -- 50-70% water

The distribution of water within the body is not uniform. Blood plasma contains 90-92%, heart, kidney and lungs – 80%; muscles – 75%, bones – 45% and tooth enamel only 5% water. Water content of animal body also depends on nutritional status of the animal.

Fat

Fat is the most variable of all components. Fat content of animal body increases with age. Fat is usually found in adipose tissues, which is present under the skin, around kidney, around intestine and other internal organs.

Protein

It is the major constituent of dry matter in muscles, soft tissue, liver, heart, kidney, lungs, intestines, etc. Muscles contain nearly 75-80% protein. Protein is also present in hair, nails, feathers, hooves, skin, wool, tendons and bones. Protein along with some inorganic elements is responsible for the structure of the animals.

Carbohydrates

It is present only around 1% of the total animal body. It is being constantly formed and broken down and serves a multitude of functions. It is usually present as glucose or glycogen in liver and muscles.

Inorganic elements

Animal body contains many minerals. The amount of mineral in animal body vary which depend on the function of the particular part of the body. Concentration of some minerals in animal body is as follows:

o Calcium - 1.3%,  Phosphorus - 0.7%o Sodium - 0.16%,  Potassium - 0.19%o Magnesium - 0.04%,  Sulphur - 0.15%

Calcium is the mineral that occurs in largest amount in the body and is almost entirely present in bones and teeth. Phosphorus is present in bones in close association with calcium. Phosphorus is also present in association with proteins, fats and other inorganic salts. Na, K and Cl are present in inorganic form in various fluids. Other minerals form component of tissues, fluids or enzymes.

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS 

The composition of plants shows wide variations. The principal constituent of living plants is moisture. The moisture content of plants is highly variable. Young plants have more moisture content. As the plant mature, the moisture content decreases.

The dry matter of plant contains mainly carbohydrates. Carbohydrate serves as a structural and reserve material in plants. In seeds carbohydrates occur principally as starch while in stems and to a certain extent in leaves a considerable proportion of carbohydrate is present in the form of structural carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin). The lignin content of plant tissues increases with maturity of the plant.

Protein is primarily present in active tissue such as the leaf. As the plant mature there is migration of the protein from the leaves to the seeds to serve as a reserve material for germination. Young tissues of plant, fruits, and seeds, especially leguminous, are rich in protein.

Fat is present at highest level in the seeds followed by leaves and stem. Oil-bearing seeds have higher percentage of protein and fat compared to cereals.

The mineral content of plants is highly variable. It differs with species and plant parts and is also influenced by soil and other environmental factors.

In plants there are various organic acids (citric, malic and fumaric), which are important for metabolism in the cells of plant.

Vitamins both fat-soluble and water-soluble are also present in plants.

The percentage chemical composition of some plants and their byproducts

Water

Protein

Fat Carbohydrate

Ash

Green plantsBerseem 90.0 2.0 0.3 6.3 1.4

Cow pea 80.0 2.5 0.5 15.0 2.0

Maize 75.0 2.0 0.6 21.0 1.4

Pasture grass

84.0 3.6 1.0 10.0 2.4

Cereal grainsWheat 13.0 12.0 2.0 71.2 1.8

SeedsGroundnut 6.0 27.0 45.

020.0 2.0

Plant byproductsPaddy straw

10.0 3.5 1.5 70.5 14.5

Wheat straw

10.0 3.5 1.5 76.5 8.5

Rice bran 10.0 10.0 15.0

55.0 10.0

Wheat bran

10.0 10.0 3.0 70.0 7.0

Difference between plants and animals in their composition

S.No.

Parameters Animal Plant

1. Major constituent Water Water

2. % dry carbohydrate 1 75

3. Reserve energy as Fat Carbohydrate (Starch)

4. Structural component

Protein and mineral

Carbohydrate (Cellulose, hemicelluose)

5. As source of protein Good Poor (except oil seeds)

6. Mineral content Constant to species

Variable

7. Variation in composition

Less Wide

Factors affecting chemical composition of plants

Plant factor - Chemical composition of different varieties of same species of forage vary because of different genetic material.

Agro-climatic condition - Atmospheric temperature and humidity affect the chemical composition of plants.

Cultivation practices – seed rate, seed treatment, time of sowing, method of sowing, manure and fertilizer, irrigation, weeds and disease control influence growth rate and the chemical composition of plants.

Stage of growth – The content of crude protein, soluble ash is higher just before flowering and goes down at seed formation stage, whereas crude fibre and dry matter content increase as the plant matures. Ether extract goes down progressively at maturity of the plant.

Processing and preservation practices – Different processing methods may change particle size, particle shape, nutrient content and composition of plant materials.

MODULE-2: IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Learning objectives  

After  studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answero Functions of watero Water requirement and factors modifying water requiremento Effect of water restrictiono Water resourceso Regulation of water intakeo Water quality

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENTS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

The efficiency of animal production depends on nutritional status of animal and management practices. Nutrition plays a pivotal role in animal production and health as:

It brings out the genetic potentiality of the animal. For example, even if a cow has a capacity of producing 25 litres of milk per day as per genetic makeup, the cow can not produce 25 litres of milk per day if it is underfed.

It makes the animal production economical as the cost of feeding of animals accounts for 70-75% of total animal production cost.

It minimises the competition between human and animal for food by introducing non-conventional feeds for animal feeding.

It manipulates feed ingredients for effective utilisation of nutrients.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

Life can not be sustained without water. Animals may live for more days without food but die in fewer days if

deprived of water. Functions of water as a major component in body metabolism.

o As a major factor in body temperature regulation.o All the biochemical reactions that take place in an animal require

water.o Act as solvent for a wide variety of compounds.  Due to this solvent

action, it helps in the transport of dissolved nutrients in the system and helps in the excretion of end products of metabolism.  Many

compounds readily ionize in water.  Salts within the body dissociate into ions, which have specific action in body tissues.  It serves as a carrier of digestive juices, enzymes and hormones.

o It is a medium for hydrolysis of nutrients in the system.o It provides cell rigidity, fluidity and elasticity.o It serves as lubrication fluid in the synovial cavities.o It serves as a medium for transportation of semisolid digest in the

gastrointestinal (GI) tract; medium for various solutions like blood, tissue fluids and cell secretions and excretory fluids such as urine and sweat.

WATER REQUIREMENT

Water requirements for any class or species of animals depends on dietary and environmental factors

Water consumption is related too Heat productiono Energy consumptiono Body surface area in non-stressing situations.

All environmental temperature that do not result in heat stress, there is a good linear relationship between dry matter consumption and water consumption.

Non-heat stressed non-lactating cattle may drink 5-6%body weight per day.

Water consumption may increase by 12% or more of body weight per day during heat stress.

Animal Litres/day

Dairy cattle 38-110

Beef cattle 22-66

Sheep and goat

4-5

Horses 30-45

Swine 11 -19

Chickens 0.2-0.4

Turkey 0.4-0.6

Animals will consume 2 to 5kg of water for every 1 kg of dry feed consumed when they are not heat stressed.

Birds require less than mammalian species.

Young animals generally require more water than adult per unit of body weight.

FACTORS MODIFYING WATER REQUIREMENT

Physiological status of animalo Young calves consume more watero Pregnant and lactating animals consume more water.

Ambient temperature, Relative humidity, Wind velocity, Rain fall Dry matter intake Composition of feed:

o Feed with high level of salt increases the water intake.o Feed with high protein leads to higher production of uric acid /

urea which in turn increasses water requiremento High fibrous feed also leads to increase in water requirement.

Variation of species Frequency of watering the animal Diurnal and seasonal variation Animals can tolerate higher salinity than humans. Low quality water leads

to reduction in water intake and feed consumption and decreased production.

EFFECT OF WATER RESTRICTION

Moderate water restriction decreases  o feed intake                                                    o productivityo urine and faecal water excretion

 Severe water restriction leads to o rapid weight loss, increase in blood concentrationo increased renal excretion of sodium, potassium and

nitrogen                                                        o Increased pulse rate and rectal temperature especially at hot

temprature because animal has no longer enough water to evaporateo Nausea, difficulty in muscular movements and death

WATER SOURCES

Drinking water Water contained in feed or bound water Metabolic water or oxidation water: Water that is provided to the animal by

metabolic processes is called as metabolic water or oxidation water. Oxidation of carbohydrates yield 60% of its weight as water, protein yields 42% and fats yield 100%. Metabolic water plays important role under certain physiological conditions of the animal. In hibernating animals it is the only source of water. To a certain extent metabolic water is a source of water for animals living in deserts.

MODULE-3: IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Learning objectives  

After  studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answero classification of mineralso functions of minerals.o dietary sourceso mineral absorption, imbalance and prevention

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

In animal tissues and feeds,  minerals are present in varying amounts and concentrations.

The seven minerals / elements that are present  in high concentration (>70 mg/kg live weight) are termed as major minerals. 

They are as follows:o Calcium (Ca)o Phosphorus (P)o Magnesium (Mg)o Sodium (Na)o Potassium (K)o Chlorine (Cl)o Sulphur (S)

Trace elements or Micro minerals are those minerals that are pesent in low concentration (<70 mg/kg live weight) but are physiologically equally important

The following fifteen trace elements are essential to fullfil physiological functions in the body

Iron (Fe)  Chromium (Cr)

Copper (Cu)  Fluorine (F)

Cobalt (Co) Tin (Su)

Manganese (Mg) 

Vanadium (V)

Zinc (Zn)  Silicon (Si)

Iodine (I) Nickel (Ni)

Selenium (Se) Arsenic (As)

Molybdenum

(Mo)

 

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

The main structural components of bones and teeth are to give rigidity and strength eg. calcium and phosphorus

Magnesium, fluorine, silicon in bones and teeth also contribute to the mechanical stability of the body.

Small fractions of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus and most of the sodium, potassium and chloride in the body fluid and in the soft tissues acts as electrolytes.

Electrolytes in body fluids like blood and cerebrospinal fluid helps to o maintain acid – base balance and osmotic pressure.o regulate membrane permeability.o exert characteristic effect on the excitability of muscles and nerves.

Salts in the saliva, gastric and intestinal juices and rumen fluid are appropriate medium for the action of enzymes and growth of microbes.

Essential trace elements are integral part of or components of certain enzymes.

o Example:

Element

Enzyme

Copper Cytochrome oxidaseZinc Carbonic anhydraseSelenium

Glutathione peroxidase

Trace elements are also components of biologically important compounds – such as

o Iron in haemoglobino Cobalt in vitamin B12

o Iodine in the hormone thyroxine Trace elements also function as activators of enzymes.

DIETARY SOURCE OF MINERALS

Farm animals derive most of the mineral nutrients from:o Concentrate feed and forages that they consume.o Mineral supplements such as bone meal mineral mixture, common

salt, calcite, shell grit etc.,o Drinking water – minor sourceo Soil contamination of herbage source for grazing animals.

MINERAL ABSORPTION, IMBALANCE AND PREVENTION

Mode and site of absorption of minerals:

Minerals are mainly absorbed as ions. The major site for absorption

o Small intestine and anterior part of the large intestine Large amounts of minerals entering the digestive tract in digestive juices

are reabsorbed together with those originating directly from the food. Mode of excretion varies with species of animal Ruminant tends to excrete Ca and P in the faeces whereas monogastric

species excrete Ca and P mainly in the urine.

Effects of deficiencies and imbalance of minerals on animals and their prevention:

Ingestion of diets that are deficient, imbalanced or excessively high in certain minerals induces changes in their concentration in the animal tissues from below or above the permissible limits affecting physiological functions:

o Retarded growtho Decreased food utilization and productivityo Disturbances in fertility and general healtho Surplus of ions in the basic medium of intestine may lead to

precipitation of inorganic insoluble salts and decreased availability of respective mineral.

o Eg. Surplus PO4-Ca ions precipitated, Mo-Cu precipitated

Prevention of mineral deficiencies and imbalances:

Supplementation with concentrated source of one or more mineral elementso Suitable mineral mixtureo Suitable lickso Treatment of drinking water with soluble saltso Injection of slowly absorbed organic compoundso Appropriate fertilizer treatment of the soil to improve mineral

composition of herbage.

MODULE-4: IMPORTANCE OF MAJOR MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-1

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following minerals in animal production and health

o Calcium

o Phosphorus

CALCIUM - FUNCTIONS 

Structural component of body (Skeleton and teeth): 99% of the calcium in the body is present in the bones and teeth.

Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood

REGULATION OF CALCIUM METABOLISM

Whenever blood calcium level decreases below the normal, parathyroid gland is stimulated to secrete parathormone. This hormone mobilizes calcium from the bone and also facilitates reabsorption of calcium in the kidney.

It also increases calcium absorption in the small intestine by increasing the synthesis of 1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol (active form of vitamin D) from 25 hydroxy cholecalciferol in the kidneys, which in turn increases the synthesis of calcium binding protein resulting in increased calcium absorption.

High level of blood calcium stimulates the secretion of calcitonin, which has antagonistic action to that of parathormone.

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS -  RICKETS / OSTEOMALACIA

If calcium is deficient in the diet of young growing animals, then satisfactory bone formation cannot occur and the condition known as rickets is produced. 

The symptoms of rickets are misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.

In adult animals, calcium deficiency produces osteomalacia in which the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and not replaced. 

In osteomalacia the bones become weak, fragile and are easily broken. 

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - MILK FEVER

Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition, which most commonly occurs in dairy cows shortly after calving.

It is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms and in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.

The exact cause of hypocalcaemia associated with milk fever is obscure, but it is generally occurs with the onset of lactation,

The parathyroid gland is unable to respond rapidly enough to increase calcium absorption from the intestine to meet the extra demand.

Normal levels of blood calcium can be restored by intravenous injections of calcium gluconate, but this may not always have a permanent effect.

It has been shown that avoiding excessive intakes of calcium while maintaining adequate dietary levels of phosphorus during the dry period reduces the incidence of milk fever.

Feeding acidified diet during the later part of dry period also suggested to prevent milk fever.

Deliberate use of low calcium diets during dry period to increase calcium absorption in the practical prevention of milk fever requires a good estimate of calving date, otherwise calcium deficiency may occur.

Administration of large doses of vitamin D3 for a short period prior to parturition has also proved beneficial.

CALCIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN POULTRY

In hens, deficiency symptoms areo soft beak and bones,o retarded growth and bowed legs,o the eggs have thin shells or there is production of leathery eggs.

CALCIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Dairy cattle : 0.34 % DM Pig : 0.9 % DM Poultry – Broiler : 1.0 % DM Poultry – Layer : 3.5 % DM

Supplementation

Animal byproducts containing bone are excellent sources such as fishmeal, Meat and bone meal, steamed bone meal

Milk and green leafy crops, especially legumes are good sources of calcium. Other sources include ground limestone, dicalcium phosphate

PHOSPHORUS - FUNCTIONS 

Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone. Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of

sugar-phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates. Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein

and lipids which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds. Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid

transport and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes. Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA. Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – RICKETS / OSTEOMALACIA

Rickets / Osteomalacia: Like calcium, phosphorus is also required for bone formation and a deficiency can also cause rickets or osteomalacia.  

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – PICA / DEPRAVED APPETITE

'Pica' or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials.

In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – POOR FERTILITY

Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility, apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of oestrus.

There are many examples where phosphorus supplementation increases fertility in grazing cattle.

PHOSPHORUS - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS – PRODUCTION RELATED

In cows a deficiency of this element may also reduce milk yield. Subnormal growth in young animals and low live weight gains in mature

animals are characteristic symptoms of phosphorus deficiency in all species.

CALCIUM PHOSPHORUS RATIO - NUTRITIONAL SECONDARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM

The optimum calcium phosphorus ratio is between 1:1 and 2:1.o An excess of dietary phosphorus in relation to calcium may result

in a bone disorder called nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH).

o An excess of phosphorus depresses calcium absorption and leads to decrease in blood calcium level which stimulates the release of PTH which mobilizes calcium from the bone.

o The demineralised bone is replaced by fibrous connective tissue. Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs in horses that are fed

large amount of grains or their byproducts without calcium

supplementation. The condition is also referred to as miller’s disease or bran disease or big head disease.

PHOSPHORUS - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Dairy cattle : 0.29 % DM Pig : 0.7 % DM Poultry – Broiler : 0.7 % DM Poultry – Layer : 0.5 % DM

Supplementation

Cereal grains, fish meal and meat products are good sources of phosphorus. Much of the phosphorus present in cereal grains is in the form of phytates,

which are not digested and utilised in monogastrics. In ruminants, hydrolysis of phytates by bacterial phytases occurs in the

rumen and therefore well utilised.

MODULE-5: IMPORTANCE OF MAJOR MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-2

Learning objectives

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following minerals in animal production and health

o Magnesiumo Sodiumo Potassiumo Sulphur

MAGNESIUM - FUNCTIONS 

Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus. Essential constituent of bone and teeth Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP

formation Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the

biosynthesis of proteins

MAGNESIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

In adult ruminants a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany associated with low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) has been known under a variety of names including magnesium tetany, lactation tetany and grass staggers,

Typical symptoms of tetany are Nervousness, Tremors, Twitching of the facial muscles, Staggering gait Convulsions.

MAGNESIUM - DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - POULTRY

In poultry decreased egg production Reduced growth rate, egg production and eggshell thickness

MAGNESIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Ruminants 0.2% in dry matter. Monogastrics 0.05% in dry matter. 

Supplementation

Wheat bran, dried yeast and most vegetable protein concentrate, especially cottonseed cake and linseed cake, are good sources of magnesium. 

The mineral supplement most frequently used is magnesium oxide, which is sold commercially as calcined magnesite.  

SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE - FUNCTIONS

Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered together because of the similarity of their functions and distribution in the body.

Sodium, potassium and chloride are stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

They maintain osmotic presence They regulate acid base equilibrium They control water metabolism in the tissue They are essential for the operation of enzyme systems They are essential for neural and muscular conduction and transmission Nutritionally sodium, potassium and chloride are considered to be of minor

importance because they are present in sufficient quantity in the diet. The danger of excessive intake exist only under special conditions. Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids, while potassium is the main

cation of intracellular fluid.

Chlorine (anion) plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it occurs as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS - POTASSIUM

Deficiency is rare in farm animals kept under natural conditions. Experimental diets low in potassium induces retarded growth, weakness and

tetany, followed by death.

DEFICIENCY - SODIUM

A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure which results in dehydration of the body.

Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of digested proteins and energy.  In hens, egg production and growth are adversely affected.

DEFICIENCY - CHLORIDE

A dietary deficiency of chlorine is rare. If it occurs it may lead to an abnormal increase of the alkali reserve of the blood (alkalosis) caused by an excess of bicarbonate.

EXCESS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE 

Excess of sodium chloride in the diet leads to salt toxicity

Symptoms are excessive thirst, muscular weakness and oedema. Salt poisoning is quite common in pigs and poultry, especially where fresh

drinking water is limited.

SULPHUR - FUNCTIONS

Sulphur is a component ofo Thiamineo Biotino Glutathioneo Insulino Coenzyme Ao Chondroitin sulphate

Sulphur needed for the synthesis of these compounds is derived from sulphur containing amino acids.

Rumen microbes require sulphur for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids

MODULE-6: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-1

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following minerals in animal production and health

o Irono Copper

IRON - FUNCTIONS 

More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most important being haemoglobin and myoglobin.

Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.

Ferritin is a protein containing iron. It is present in the spleen, liver, kidney and bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.

Haemosiderin is an another storage form of iron. Iron has a major role in many of biochemical reactions, particularly in

connection with enzymes of the electron transport chain (cytochromes). Enzymes containing or activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases,

phenylalanine hydroxylase etc.,

IRON - MUCOSAL BLOCK THEORY 

The efficiency of absorption is increased during periods of iron need and decreased during periods of iron overload.

According to Mucosal block theory the mucosal cells of the gastrointestinal tract absorb iron and convert it into ferritin, and when the cells become physiologically saturated with ferritin, further absorption is impeded until the iron is released and transferred to plasma.

The adult's need for iron is normally low, as the iron produced from the destruction of haemoglobin is made available for haemoglobin regeneration, only about 10 per cent of the element escaping from this cycle.

IRON - DEFICIENCY - ANAEMIA 

Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing suckling animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low.

This can occur in piglets housed in pens without access to soil. The piglet is born with very limited iron reserves and sow's milk provides only about 1mg per day.

Providing the sow with supplementary iron in gestation does not increase the foetal piglets liver iron or the amount in the milk.

Anemia in piglets is characterized by poor appetite and growth. Breathing becomes labored and spasmodic-hence the descriptive term 'thumps' for the condition.

Iron deficiency anemia is not common in lambs and calves.

IRON - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Because of efficient recycling, requirement of iron for most of the farm animals is very low @ 25 –100 mg kg –1 dietary dry matter.

In laying hens the iron requirement is more, since egg production represents a considerable drain on the body reserves.

Increased during pregnancy, haemorrhages, young one when they are maintained on milk diet. Higher growth rate demands 125 ppm in piglet diet and 40 ppm to calves

Supplementation

Feeds of animal origin, such as meat, blood and fishmeals, are excellent sources of iron

Legume and oil seed meal are rich in iron. Cereals straw and bran are rich in iron Ferrous sulphate salts and iron dextran

COPPER - FUNCTIONS 

Copper is the integral component of following enzymeo Ceruloplasmin (ferrooxidase) - conversion of iron into transferrin.o Erythrocuprein - occurs in erythrocytes where it plays a role in

oxygen metabolism.o Cytochrome oxidase , which is important in oxidative

phosphorylation and myelin synthesis.o Lysyl oxidase is needed for the conversion of lysine to desmosine

which forms crosslinks in elastin and collagen fibres.o Tyrosinase is necessary for the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine

to melanin which is necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool.

Copper is the integral component of T uracin, a pigment of feathers. Copper is required for maintenance of crimp of wool.

COPPER - DEFICIENCY

A deficiency of copper impairs the animal's ability to absorb iron leading to anemia,

Deficiency of copper causeso Poor growth

o Bone disorders.o Scouring, gastro-intestinal disturbanceso Infertility,o Depigmentation of hair and wool,o Lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated

with muscular incoordination, and occur especially in young lambs - swayback condition also known as 'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal ataxia. The signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying staggering gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs.

o Loss of 'crimp' in wool - 'stringy' or 'steely' woolo 'falling disease' – sudden death due to rupture of major blood

vesselso Copper deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.

COPPER - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Dietary requirement and supply of coppero Dairy cattle - 10 ppm DMBo Beef cattle, sheep - 5 ppmo Pigs and poultry - 5-6 ppm

Supplementation

Seeds and seed byproducts are usually rich in copper Application of copper containing fertilizer Provision of copper containing salt licks Ingestion of organic complexes of Copper

COPPER POISONING 

Continuous ingestion of copper in excess of nutritional requirements leads to an accumulation of the element in the body tissues, especially in the liver. Hence copper can be regarded as a cumulative poison.

The tolerance to copper varies considerably between species. Pigs are highly tolerant and cattle relatively so. On the other hand, sheep are particularly susceptible and chronic copper poisoning has been encountered in housed sheep on concentrate diets containing 40 mg/kg of copper.

Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells, jaundice, loss of appetite and death from hepatic coma.

COPPER-MOLYBDENUM - SULPHUR INTERRELATIONSHIP / 'TEART'

Sulphide is formed by ruminal microorganisms from dietary sulphate or organic sulphur compounds.

The sulphide then reacts with molybdate to form thiomolybdate which in turn combines with copper to form an insoluble copper thiomolybdate (CuMoS4) thereby limiting the absorption of dietary copper.

In addition it is considered likely that if thiomolybdate is formed in excess; it may be absorbed from the digestive tract and exert a systemic effect on copper metabolism in the animal.

MODULE-7: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-2

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following micro minerals in animal production and health

o Zinco Manganese

ZINC - FUNCTIONS 

High concentrations of zinc is present in the skin, hair and wool of animals. Several enzymes in the animal body are known to contain zinc; these include

carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.

In addition zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems

ZINC - DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS

Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and leads to reproductive disorders in farm animals.

Gross signs of zinc deficiency in chicks areo retarded growth,o foot abnormalities,o 'frizzled' feathers,o bone abnormality referred to as the 'swollen hock syndrome' in

poultry. Symptoms of zinc deficiency in calves include inflammation of the nose and

mouth, stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis.

ZINC - DEFICIENCY - PARAKERATOSIS 

Zinc deficiency in pigs causes parakeratosis, a skin disorder.  Reddening of the skin followed by eruptions, which develop, into scabs. Parakeratosis is aggravated by high calcium levels in the diet and

reduced by decreased calcium and increased phosphorus levels.

Pigs given diets supplemented with high levels of copper, for growth promotion, have an increased requirement for zinc.

ZINC - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Poultry 40 mg.kg feed Pig 40 mg/kg feed Cattle 30 mg/ kg feed

Supplementation

Yeast is a rich source, and zinc is concentrated in the bran and germ of cereal grains.

Animal protein byproducts such as meat meal and fishmeal are usually richer sources of the element than plant protein supplements.

MANGANESE - FUNCTIONS 

 Manganese is important in the animal body aso An activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinaseso As a constituent of enzymes such as arginase, pyruvate carboxylase

and manganese superoxide dismutase.o Manganese through its activation of glycosyl transferases, is required

for the formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.

o Manganese containing superoxide dismutase catalyses the reactions that promote immunity in animals.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY GENERAL SYMPTOMS

Manganese deficiency in all species leads to retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities, ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure. Low manganese diets for cows and goats have been reported to depress or delay oestrus and conception, and to increase abortion.

In pigs lameness is a symptom due thickening and shortening of bones of the legs. Other abnormalities associated with deficiency include impaired glucose utilization and a reduced vitamin K induced blood clotting response.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY - PEROSIS OR 'SLIPPED TENDON'

Manganese is an important element in the diet of young chicks, a deficiency leading to perosis or 'slipped tendon', a malformation of the leg bones.

There is enlargement of the hock joint, thickening and shortening of the tibia which causes Achilles tendon to slip from its condyle causing the leg of the bird to be pulled sideward and backward.

MANGANESE - DEFICIENCY - NUTRITIONAL CHONDRODYSTROPHY

Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces hatchability and shell thickness, and causes head retraction in chicks, causes a condition called as nutritional chondrodystrophy which is characterized by the shortening of the bones of the wings and legs, shortening of the lower mandible leads to parrot beak condition

MANGANESE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Poultry: 50 mg/Kg of feed Pig: 40 mg/Kg of feed Cattle: 25 mg/Kg of feed Sheep: 40 mg/Kg of feed

Supplementation

Rich sources are rice bran and wheat bran, offals. Most green foods contain adequate amounts. Manganese salts: oxide, chloride, carbonate

MODULE-8: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-3

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following minerals in animal production and health

o Cobalto Selenium

COBALT - FUNCTIONS 

Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin B12

Cobalt acts as an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions

COBALT - DEFICIENCY 

Deficiency - Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus

Cobalt deficiency causes vitamin B 12 deficiency in ruminants Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus

o Decreased feed intakeo Emaciation - Loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal muscleso Decreased growth rateo Fatty degeneration of liver

COBALT - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

0.07 ppm in the DM – dairy cattle, sheep 0.1 ppm – beef cattle and lambs

Supplementation

Cobalt can be supplemented either througho salt lickso mineral mixtures oro by placing cobalt oxide bullet in the ventral sac of rumen using a

cobalt gun. pellets

SELENIUM - FUNCTIONS 

Selenium is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme which catalyses the removal of hydrogen peroxide, thereby protecting cell membrances from oxidative damage.

Selenium has a sparing effect on vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption of the vitamin. This is due to its role in preserving the integrity of the pancreas and thereby ensuring satisfactory fat digestion.

Selenium also reduces the amount of vitamin E required to maintain the integrity of lipid membranes and aids the retention of Vitamin E in plasma.

SELENIUM - DEFICIENCYDeficiency - Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb disease / mulberry heart disease

The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).

Nutritional myopathy , also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.

The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected

animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a trembling and staggering gait.

Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads.

A popular descriptive name for this condition is white muscle disease.

The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result. Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to

those of calves. The condition is frequently referred to asstiff lamb disease.

In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and selenium deficiency are myopathy and cardiac disease.

The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated staggering gait, or are unable to rise.

The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected. Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the

lesions of the cardiac muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is commonly known as mulberry heart disease.

Last modified: Wednesday, 4 July 2012, 03:10 PM

SELENIUM TOXICITY - ALKALI DISEASE AND BLIND STAGGERS

Some species of plants (Astragalus racemosa) that grow in seleniferous areas contain very high levels of selenium.

Alkali disease and blind staggers are localized names for chronic diseases of animals grazing certain seleniferous areas in the USA.

Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail and hoof deforrmities.

Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure, can arise from sudden exposure to high selenium intakes.

SELENIUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Calves and lambs : 0.1 mg / kg feed Growing pigs        : 0.05 mg / kg feed Poultry                  : 0.1 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Fish meal is a good source of selenium. Seleno-methionine, seleno-cysteine and sodium selenite are supplemental

sources for selenium.

MODULE-9: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-4

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following micro minerals in animal production and health.

o Iodineo Molybdenumo Fluorineo Arsenico Chromium

IODINE - FUNCTIONS 

Iodine plays an important role in the synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid gland.

The thyroid hormones accelerate reactions in most organs and tissues in the body, thus increasing the basal metabolic rate, accelerating growth, and increasing the oxygen consumption of the whole organism.

IODINE - DEFICIENCY - GOITRE

When the diet contains insufficient iodine the production of thyroxine is decreased.

The main indication of such a deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland.

The thyroid being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals manifests itself as a swelling of the neck. 

Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most outstanding consequences of reduced thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in iodine give birth to hairless, weak or dead young.

IODINE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Pig: 80-160 micro gram /day Poultry 5-9 micro gram /day Sheep 50 -100 micro gram /day Cattle 400- 800 micro gram /day

Supplementation

The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin like seaweed's, fish meal etc,.

In areas where goiter is endemic, precautions are generally taken by supplementing the diet with the element, usually in the form of iodized salt.

MOLYBDENUM - FUNCTIONS 

The biological functions of Molybdenum, apart from its reactions with copper, are concerned with the formation and activities of the following enzymes.

o xanthine oxidase,o cytochrome C oxidaseo aldehyde oxidase.

MOLYBDENUM - DEFICIENCY 

Molybdenum deficiency has not been observed under natural conditions in any species.

MOLYBDENUM - TOXICITY 

The prominent manifestations of molybdenum toxicity in cattle are diarrhoea, scouring, harsh, staring coats and weight loss. This condition is termed as 'teart' or 'peat scours'. This condition may be counteracted by oral or intravenous administration of copper.

MOLYBDENUM - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Since the requirement is very low, it is met from the usual diet

Supplementation

Not warrented

FLUORINE 

Fluorine is a very toxic element, with ruminants being more susceptible than non-ruminants. It causes a condition called as fluorosis.

There is dental pitting and wear, leading to exposed pulp cavities. Further increases in fluorine cause depression of appetite, lameness and reduced production.

Bone and joint abnormalities also occur, probably owing to ingested fluorine being deposited in the bone crystal lattice as calcium fluoride.

The commonest sources of danger from this element are fluoride-containing water, herbage contaminated by dust from industrial pollution and the use of soft or raw rock phosphate supplements. Processed phosphates are generally safe.

ARSENIC

Animals given an arsenic-deficient diet had rough coats and slower growth rates than control animals given a supplement of arsenic.

A long term study with goats showed interference with reproduction (abortion, low birth weights) and milk production and sudden death.

The toxicity of the element is well known; symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and severe abdominal pain.

CHROMIUM

Chromium was first shown to be essential for normal glucose utilization in rats.

Chromium appears to have a role in glucose tolerance, possibly forming a complex between insulin and its receptors. Chromium is a component of glucose tolerance factor (GTF)

Chromium may also play a role in lipid synthesis.

MODULE-10: IMPORTANCE OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-I

Learning objectives

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the definition, classification, differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins and the importance of the following fat soluble vitamins in animal production and health

o Vitamin Ao Vitamin D

DEFINITION 

Vitamins are organic compounds required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism. Absence or deficiency of vitamins causes deficiency disorders

CLASSIFICATION

Vitamins may be classified based on their solubility as fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins.

o Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A, D, E and K.o Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin B complex group and

vitamin C.o The B complex group of vitamins includes the following:

1. Vitamin B1 (thiamin)2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid)4. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)5. Panthothenic acid6. Folic acid7. Vitamin B12 (Cyano cobalamine)8. Biotin9. Choline

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FAT SOLUBLE AND WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Differences fat soluble water soluble vitaminsNames A,D,E,K Vitamin C

B Vitamins

Solubility Soluble in fats and organic solvents

Water soluble

Digestion and absorption

Requires fat and bile Easily absorbed in intestine

Excretion Via faeces Via Urine

Storage Stored in the body in fat depots and in liver

Not stored in body except Vitamin B12

Toxicity An overdosage can lead to toxicity

Usually not toxic as it is readily excreted when given in excess

VITAMIN A - FUNCTIONS 

Synthesis of glycoprotein to maintain integrity of epithelial cells In bone formation synthesis of mucopolysacharides Synthesis of the visual pigment Rhodopsin Retinol and retinoic acid (RA) are essential for embryonic development

during fetal development.

FUNCTIONS VITAMIN A AND VISION

Rhodopsin synthesis – Visual cycle

The retina is located at the back of the eye. When light passes through the lens, it is sensed by the retina and converted to a nerve impulse for interpretation by the brain.

Retinol is transported to the retina via the circulation, where it moves into retinal pigment epithelial cells.

There, retinol is esterified to form a retinyl ester, which can be stored. When needed, retinyl esters are broken apart to form 11-cis retinol, which can be oxidized to form 11-cis retinal.

11-cis Retinal can be shuttled to the rod cell, where it binds to a protein called opsin to form the visual pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple).

Rod cells with rhodopsin can detect very small amounts of light, making them important for night vision.

Absorption of a photon of light catalyzes the isomerization of 11-cis retinal to all-trans retinal and results in its release.

This isomerization triggers the generation of an electrical signal to the optic nerve.

The nerve impulse generated by the optic nerve is conveyed to the brain where it can be interpreted as vision.

Once released all-trans retinal is converted to all-trans retinol, which can be transported to the retinal epithelial cell to complete the visual cycle.

Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation, known as "night blindness."

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – BITOT'S SPOTS

Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva (corner of the eye) called Bitot's spots.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – XEROPHTHALMIA (DRY EYE)

Severe or prolonged vitamin A deficiency causes a condition called xerophthalmia (dry eye)

Xerophthalmia is characterized by changes in the cells of the cornea that ultimately result in corneal opacity, keratinization of the cornea, corneal ulcers, scarring, and blindness.

Some times vitamin A deficiency can lead to obstruction of lacrimal ducts due to degenerated epithelial cells leading to decreased out put of tears.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – CONGENITAL BLINDNESS

Vitamin A is needed for bone formation. If vitamin A is deficient optic foramen is not formed properly.

Small size optic foramen leads to the constriction of optic nerve. Permanent damage to the nerve can lead to permanent blindness.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – ANTI-INFECTIVE VITAMIN

Vitamin A is involved in the formation and protection of epithelial cells. Damage to epithelial cells can cause easy entry of pathogenic microbes

leading to infection. So infection of gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract and

skin is common in Vitamin A deficiency. As vitamin A helps to prevent these infections it is called anti infective

vitamin.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – NUTRITIONAL RUOP

In poultry Vitamin A deficiency leads to high mortality rate. Early symptoms include retarded growth, weakness, ruffled plumage and a

staggering gait. Egg production and hatchability are reduced. Nasal and ocular discharge,

drowsiness, pale comb and wattles, eyelids stuck shut with thick exudates.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON IMMUNE SYSTEM

Vitamin A is commonly known as the anti-infective vitamin, because it is required for normal functioning of the immune system.

The skin and mucosal cells (cells that line the airways, digestive tract, and urinary tract) function as a barrier and form the body's first line of defense against infection.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON BONE FORMATION

Vitamin A is essential for normal bone formation as it is involved in the synthesis of mucopolysacharides needed for laying down of the bone matrix.

Hence a deficiency of vitamin A can lead to developmental bone deformities.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON REPRODUCTION

Normal levels of vitamin A are required for sperm production. Similarly, normal reproductive cycles in females require adequate

availability of vitamin A. Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to infertility or sterility in male Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to vaginitis, abnormal oestrous cycle, early

embryonic mortality, abortion and defective formation of foetus in females.

VITAMIN A - DEFICIENCY – EFFECT ON CEREBROSPINAL FLUID PRESSURE

One of the initial effects of vitamin A deficiency is elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure.

The mechanism whereby the increase in CSF pressure is brought by thickened duramater leading to under absorption of CSF.

VITAMIN A - TOXICITY 

The condition caused by vitamin A toxicity is called hypervitaminosis A. It is caused by over consumption of vitamin A. Symptoms include nausea, headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dizziness, and

dry skin.

VITAMIN A - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Growing Cattle :80 IU/ kg body weight Dry cow :76 IU/ kg body weight Lactating cow: 110 IU/ kg body weigh Piglet :500 – 1000 IU / kg feed Pig : 2000 – 3000 IU / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler : 1500 IU / kg feedo Layer : 4000 IU / kg feed

Supplementation

Animal source: Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut), egg yolk, milk fat.

Plant source: All green leaves are rich in provitamin A, beta-carotene. Conversion of carotene to vitamin A takes place in the intestinal mucosa. One molecule of beta-carotene is converted into two molecules of retinol. Conversion efficiency depends upon the species of animal. Highest efficiency is seen in chicken and rat. Vitamin A value is expressed as IU . One IU = 0.3 micro gram of crystalline

retinol.

MODULE-11: IMPORTANCE OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-II

Learning objectives

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the definition, classification, differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins and the importance of the following fat soluble vitamins in animal production and health

o Vitamin Do Vitamin Eo Vitamin K

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – RICKETS

Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.

The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and arching of back.

Occasionally there is paralysis. Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also

noticed

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – OSTEOMALACIA

Resorption of calcium and phosphorus from the bone. Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities. It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased

amount of calcium and phosphorus.

VITAMIN D - DEFICIENCY – RUBBERY LEGS IN POULTRY

In poultry bones and beak become soft and rubbery; legs become weak. Egg production is reduced and eggshell quality deteriorates.

VITAMIN D - TOXICITY

Vitamin D toxicity (hypervitaminosis D) induces abnormally high serum calcium levels (hypercalcemia), which could result in

o bone loss,o kidney stones, ando calcification of organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a

long period of time.

VITAMIN D - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating cow :30 IU/ kg body weight Piglet :100-200 IU / kg feed Pig : 200 – 400 IU / kg feed

Poultryo Broiler : 200 ICU / kg feedo Layer : 600 ICU / kg feed

Supplementation

Cod liver oils (rich source), Egg yolk and sun dried roughage's/grains. Colostrum contains 6 to 10 times the amount present in ordinary milk. Provitamin D: Ergosterol - plant and 7-dehydrocholestrol – skin of animals.

VITAMIN E - FUNCTIONS

Vitamin E functions in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant In association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase,

it protects cells against oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are formed during cellular metabolism and, as they are

capable of damaging cell membranes, enzymes and cell nuclear material, they must be converted into less reactive substances if the animal is to survive.

This protection is particularly important in preventing oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids produces hydroperoxides, which also damage cell tissues and more lipid free radicals so that prevention of such oxidation is of vital importance in maintaining the health of the living animal.

The animal has two main methods of protecting itself against oxidative damage. Firstly, radicals are scavenged by vitamin E as a first line of defence and secondly, glutathione peroxidase destroys any peroxide formed before they can damage the cell.

These two defence mechanisms complement one another. Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of

the immune system.

VITAMIN E - DEFICIENCY

Deficiency – Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb disease / mulberry heart disease / exudative diathesis / crazy chick disease

The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).

Nutritional myopathy , also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.

The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a trembling and staggering gait.

Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads.

A popular descriptive name for this condition is white muscle disease. The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result. Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to those

of calves. The condition is frequently referred to asstiff lamb disease. In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and selenium

deficiency are myopathy and cardiac disease. The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated staggering gait, or are unable to

rise. The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected. Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the lesions

of the cardiac muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is commonly known as mulberry heart disease.

Vitamin E deficiency in chicks may lead to a number of distinct diseases: nutritional myopathy, encephalomalacia and exudative diathesis. In nutritional myopathy the main muscles affected are the pectorals although the leg muscles also may be involved.

Nutritional encephalomalacia or crazy chick disease is a condition in which the chick is unable to walk or stand, and is accompanied by hemorrhages and necrosis of brain cells.

Exudative diathesis is a vascular disease of chicks characterized by a generalized oedema of the subcutaneous fatty tissues, associated with an abnormal permeability of the capillary walls.

Both selenium and vitamin E appear to be involved in nutrition myopathy and in exudative diathesis but selenium does not seem to be important in nutritional encephalomacia.

VITAMIN E - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating cow : 2.5 IU/ kg body weight Piglet               : 5- 10 IU / kg feed Pig                   :  20  - 30 IU / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler  : 5 - 10 IU / kg feedo Layer   : 5  IU / kg feed

Supplementation

Green fodders, cereal grains, vegetable oils, fats, and nuts, oil seeds and legumes.

VITAMIN K - FUNCTIONS

Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver and also for the synthesis of factors plasma thromboplastin and tissue thromboplastin involved in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.

The inactive vitamin K dependent zymogens are converted into calcium binding proteins which activate them.

VITAMIN K - DEFICIENCY – SWEET CLOVER DISEASE

Low prothrombin level in blood leads to haemorrhagic conditions. In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K. Sweet clover when it gets mould infested contains a compound dicoumarol,

which lowers prothrombin content of blood leading to haemorrhagic disease and hence vitamin K is also called as anti haemorrhagic vitamin.

In chicks Vitamin K deficiency causes anaemia and delayed clotting time of blood.

VITAMIN K - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Piglet  : 0.25 – 0.50 mg / kg feed Pig      : 1.0 – 1.5 mg / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler : 0.50 mg / kg feedo Layer : 0.50 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver, fish and synthesised by bacteria in gastro intestinal tract.

MODULE-12: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-I

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Thiamin (Vitamin B1) Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

VITAMIN C - FUNCTIONS

Plays an important role in the formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance (Capillaries, teeth, bone)

Plays an important role in the oxidative reduction reaction of living cells. Plays an important role in the metabolism of tyrosine Plays an important role in the absorption of iron and incorporation of plasma

iron into ferritin. Plays an important role in the hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone,

tryptophan, phenylalanine

VITAMIN C - DEFICIENCY – SCURVY

Scurvy in adults: Weakness, bleeding, loosens teeth, swollen joints hemorrhages.

Infantile scurvyo Anorexia,o Listlessness,o Leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of long bone.o Gums swollen,o Dyspnoea,o Cyanosis,o Convulsions and death if not treated.o Delay in wound healing.

VITAMIN C - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Vitamin C is dietary essential only in man, guinea pig and other primates, red vented bulbul and fruit eating batas these species lack the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase.

Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin. Other species synthesise vitamin C from glucose.

Supplementation

Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables are rich sources.

VITAMIN B1 - FUNCTIONS

Thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme involved in oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A. and of alpha ketoglutarate to succinyl COA in TCA cycle.

VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – GENERAL SYMPTOMS

Anorexia,

Emaciation, Muscular weakness and progressive dysfunction of the nervous system

VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – STAR GAZING

In Chicks deficiency of thiamine leads to anorexia, emaciation, polyneuritis characterized by head retraction, nerve degeneration and paralysis which other wise called as star gazing posture

VITAMIN B1 - DEFICIENCY – CHASTEK PARALYSIS

Thiamine deficiency in foxes causes Chastek paralysis.

VITAMIN B1 - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 41 mg / day Piglet : 0.5 1.0 mg / kg feed Pig : 2 - 3 mg / kg feed Poultry – Broiler : 1.5 mg / kg feed Poultry – Layer : 0.8 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Yeast, germ and bran of cereal grains. Pork is rich in thamine.

VITAMIN B2 - FUNCTIONS

It is a constituent of flavoproteins, Flavin mononucleotide and Flavin adenine dinucleotide.

They are involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. In sows riboflavin is necessary to maintain normal oestrous activity and

prevent premature parturition.

VITAMIN B2 - DEFICIENCY – CURLED TOE PARALYSIS / CLUBBED DOWN CONDITION

Poor appetite, retarded growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and eye abnormalities.

In chicks riboflavin deficiency causes curled toe paralysis caused due to peripheral nerve degeneration, in which the chicks walk on their hocks with the toes curled inwards.

In breeding hens deficiency causes decreased hatchability. Embryonic abnormalities occur including the clubbed down condition in which the down feather continues to grow within the follicle leading to curled feather.

VITAMIN B2 - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow   : 156 mg / day Piglet                  : 1 – 3 mg / kg feed Pig                      : 4 – 5 mg / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler     : 2 - 3 mg / kg feedo Layer       : 2 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Synthesised by yeast, bacteria and fungi. Rich sources are liver, yeast, milk and green leafy vegetables. 

MODULE-13: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-II

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health

o Niacino Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)o Pantothenic acid

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - FUNCTIONS

Nicotinamide functions in the animal body as the active group of two important coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).

These coenzymes are involved in the mechanism of hydrogen transfer in living cells.

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - DEFICIENCY

In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth, anorexia, enteritis, vomiting and dermatitis.

In fowls a deficiency of the vitamin causes bone disorders, feathering abnormalities and inflammation of the mouth and upper part of the oesophagus.

Deficiency symptoms are particularly likely in pigs and poultry if diets with a high maize content are used, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or of tryptophan

Pellagra is commonly observed in human population where is predominant part of diet.

NIACIN (NICOTINAMIDE) - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 289 mg / day Piglet : 5 – 7 mg / kg feed Pig : 15 – 20 mg / kg feed Poultry – Broiler : 27 mg / kg feed Poultry – Layer : 10 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

It can be synthesised from amino acid tryptophan in the body tissues. If the diet is rich in protein containing tryptophan than dietary requirement

of the vitamin is low. Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast, groundnuts and sunflower

meals. In cereals the vitamin is present in the bound form.

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - FUNCTIONS

Of the three related compounds (pyridoxine, the corresponding aldehyde derivative as pyridoxal and the amine as pyridoxamine.) the most actively functioning one is pyridoxal in the form of the phosphate.

Pyridoxal phosphate plays a central role as a coenzyme in the reactions by which a cell transforms nutrient amino acids into mixtures of amino acids and other nitrogenous activities of transaminases and decarboxylases, and over 50 pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes have been identified.

The vitamin is believed to play a role in the absorption of amino acids from the intestine.

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - DEFICIENCY

Affects the animal's growth rate.

Convulsions may also occur, possibly because a reduction in the activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase results in an accumulation of glutamic acid.

In addition, pigs exhibit a reduced appetite and may develop anemia. Chicks on a deficient diet show jerky movements, while in adult birds

hatchability and egg production are adversely affected.

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 48 mg / day Piglet : 0.5 – 1.0 mg / kg feed Pig : 2 – 3 mg / kg feed Poultry – Broiler : 3mg / kg feed Poultry – Layer : 3 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

The vitamin is present in plants as pyridoxine whereas animal products may also contain pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.

Pyridoxine and its derivatives are widely distributed in yeast, pulses, cereal grains, liver and milk.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - FUNCTIONS

Pantothenic acid is a constituent of coenzyme A, which is the important coenzyme of acyl transfer.

It is also a structural component of acyl carrier protein, which is involved, in the cytoplasmic synthesis of fatty acids.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - DEFICIENCY – GOOSE-STEPPING' GAIT

Deficiency of pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair, scaliness of the skin and a characteristic 'goose-stepping' gait

In severe cases animals are unable to stand. In the chick, growth is retarded and dermatitis occurs. In mature birds, hatchability is reduced.

PANTOTHENIC ACID - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating cow : 425 mg/day Piglet : 5 mg / kg feed Pig : 10 – 15 mg / kg feed Poultry- Broiler and Layer : 10 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas, yeast and molasses. Cereal grains and potatoes are also good sources of the vitamin.

MODULE-14: IMPORTANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH-III

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to answer about the importance of the following water soluble vitamins in animal production and health

o Folic acido Biotino Cholineo Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)

FOLIC ACID - FUNCTIONS

Folic acid is converted into tetrahydrofolic acid which functions as a coenzyme in the mobilization and utilisation of single-carbon groups (e.g.) formyl, methyl that are added to, or removed from, such metabolites as histidine, serine, glycine, methionine and purines.

FOLIC ACID - DEFICIENCY

A variety of deficiency symptoms in chicks and young turkeys have been reported, including

o poor growth,o anaemia ,o poor bone development ando poor egg hatchability.

FOLIC ACID - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 35 mg / day Piglet : 0.15 – 0.30 mg / kg feed

Pig : 0.50 – 0.90 mg / kg feed Poultry- Broiler : 0.55 mg / kg feed Poultry – Layer : 0.25 mg / kg feed

Supplementation

Folic acid is widely distributed in nature; green leafy materials, cereals and extracted oilseed meals are good sources of the vitamin.

Folic acid is reasonably stable in food stored under dry conditions but it is readily degraded by moisture, particularly at high temperatures.

It is also destroyed by ultraviolet light.

BIOTIN - FUNCTIONS

Biotin serves as the prosthetic group of several enzymes which catalyse the transfer of carbon dioxide from one substrate to another.

In animals there are three biotin-dependent enzymes of particular important:

o pyruvate carboxylase,o accetyl coenzyme A carboxylase,o propionyl coenzyme A carboxylase.

BIOTIN - DEFICIENCY IN PIGS

In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions, alopecia (hair loss) and a dry scaly skin.

In growing pigs, both growth rate and food utilization is adversely affected. In breeding sows, a deficiency of the vitamin can adversely influence

reproductive performance.

BIOTIN - DEFICIENCY – FATTY LIVER AND KIDNEY SYNDROME

In poultry, biotin deficiency causes reduced growth, dermatitis, leg bone abnormalities, cracked feet, poor feathering and fatty liver and kidney syndrome (FLKS).

Fatty liver and kidney syndrome , which mainly affects two-to five-week-old chicks, is characterized by a lethargic state with death frequently following within a few hours.

On autopsy, the liver and kidneys, which are pale and swollen, contain abnormal depositions of lipid.

BIOTIN - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow :  6  mg / day Piglet                : 0.05 mg / kg feed Pig                    : 0.1 mg / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler   : 0.15 mg / kg feedo Layer     : 0.10 mg / kg feed

Avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs can induce biotin deficiency, which combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.

Supplementation

Biotin is widely distributed in foods; liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds and vegetable are rich sources 

CHOLINE - FUNCTIONS

Choline is an essential structural component of body tissues. It is a component of lecithins which play a vital role in cellular structure and

activity. It also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver by preventing

the accumulation of fat in this organ. It serves as a donor of methyl groups in trans methylation reactions and is a

component of acetylcholine which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses.

Choline can be synthesized in the liver from methionine and the level of methionine in the diet therefore influences the exogenous requirement for this vitamin.

CHOLINE - DEFICIENCY – PEROSIS OR SLIPPED TENDON

Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver, have been produced in chicks and pigs.

Chorine is also concerned with the prevention of perosis or slipped tendon in chicks.

CHOLINE - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 1733 mg / kg feed Calf    : 1000 mg / kg feed Pig     : 900 mg / kg feed Piglet : 250 mg / kg feed Poultry

o Broiler : 1300 mg / kg feedo Layer   : 500 mg / kg feed

The choline requirement of animals is unusually large for the vitamin, but in spite of this, deficiency symptoms are not common in farm animals because of its wide distribution, its high concentrations in foods and because it can be readily derived from methionine.

Supplementation

Green leafy materials, yeast, egg yolk and cereals are rich sources of choline.

VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - FUNCTIONS

The coenzymic forms of vitamin B12 function in several important enzyme systems.

These include isomerases, dehydrases and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of methionine from homocysteine.

Of special interest in ruminant nutrition is the role of vitamin B12 in the metabolism of propionic acid into succinic acid.

In this pathway, the vitamin is necessary for the conversion of methylmalonyl coenzyme A into succinyl coenzyme A

VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - DEFICIENCY

Poor growth, Poor feathering, Decreased hatchability, Dermatitis and rough coat.

VITAMIN B12 (CYANOCOBALAMINE) - REQUIREMENT AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Requirement

Lactating Cow : 600 µg / day Piglet : 5 – 8 µg / kg feed Pig : 15 µg / kg feed Poultry – Broiler: 9 µg / kg feed Poultry – Layer : 3 µg / kg feed In poultry housed with access to litter, majority of the vitamin requirements

can be obtained from the litter. Microorganisms in the rumen synthesize B12. However, if levels of cobalt in

the diet are low, a deficiency of the vitamin can arise.

Supplementation

Vitamin B12 is considered to be synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and its presence in foods is thought to be ultimately of microbial origin.

The main natural sources of the vitamin are foods of animal origin, liver being a particularly rich source.

MODULE-15: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS, THEIR CLASSIFICATION & ENERGY FEEDS

Learning objectives  

This module will enable the learner o to identify the category of a given feed / fodder. This fundamental

knowledge will be useful in comparing the nutritive value of different feed / fodder that will be dealt in subsequent chapters.

o to categorise a given feed / foddero feed ingredients that provide higher level of energy to livestock and

poultry.o to understand the nutritive value as well as the limitation

of ingredients that are used as energy source. This knowledge will be useful to formulate ration to livestock and poultry.

o to answer the nutritive value of energy feed ingredients. 

INTRODUCTION

Readers are advised to go the sub segments sequentially as it will help these to understand the subject easily.

A visit to feed mill or nutrition laboratory to feel the texture of the samples of feed ingredients is advisable prior to reading this chapter. However, it is not mandatory, as relevant photographs are inserted for the reader to recognize the feed ingredients.

Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

Readers are advised to thoroughly understand this chapter as it forms the foundation for feed formulation.

Feed or feed ingredients that supplies higher-level of major nutrients but contains less than 18 % crude fibre are called as concentrates and those having more than 18% crude fibre are classified as roughage.

Concentrates containing higher than 18% protein are called protein rich concentrates while those containing less than 18% protein are called “Energy rich concentrates”.

CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDSTUFFS

This section deals with the classification of feeds and fodders that are fed to livestock and poultry.

Students are advised to visit near by livestock farm to get conversant with the feed ingredients fed to livestock and poultry. They are also advised to visit following chapters, incase they are unable to identify / recognize the ingredients.

Feedstuffs are classified as follows:

CEREAL GRAINS(Maize, Barley, Oats, Wheat, Rice, Rye, Millets, Sorghum and Bajr

a)Cereal Grains:

Cereal grains are rich in starch containing 8-12% of crude protein with low lysine and methionine, 2-5% fats, less than 0.15% of calcium and relatively higher phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.

Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates, which has the ability to immobilize dietary calcium.

Cereal grains are rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but deficient in vitamin A and riboflavin except yellow maize, which is rich in provitamin A.

The commonly used cereals in feed are maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice etc,.

CP: 8-12% TDN: 68-72% Fat: 2-5% Low in lysine,

Methionine. P in the form of

phytates Ca; 0.15%; P

0.3 –5.0%

Maize or Corn (Zea maize):

Maize has high metabolisable energy value with low fibre content and 8-13% of crude protein.

The maize kernel contains two main proteins Zein and Glutelin.

Recently, new variety of maize (Floury 2) was produced at UK with high methionine and lysine.

Farm animals are fed with crushed maize. Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to

propionic acid proportion in rumen and hence depresses the butterfat content of milk.

Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content are prone toaspergillus flavus infestation and produce aflatoxin.

High TDN: 85% Prone to

Aflatoxin Flaked maize

depress milk fat%

Barley (Hordeum vulgare):

Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude protein having low lysine and less than 2% of oil content.

Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening pigs in UK.

The awns of barley should be removed, crimped or coarsely ground before feeding poultry or swine.

Veriety “Notch 2” developed at UK is rich in lysine.

 Main ingredent used for fattening of pigs

in UK

Oats (Avena sativa):

Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 - 16% with 7-15% of crude protein.

Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient in oats but abundant in glutamic acid.

Cattle and sheep are fed with crushed or bruised oats whereas pigs and poultry are fed with ground oats.

Abundant in Glutamic acid

Wheat (Triticum aestivum):

Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein. The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin)

and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is referred as gluten.

Wheat gluten decides whether the flour is suitable for bread or biscuit making.

Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since it form dough, which traps the gasses, produced during yeast fermentation.

Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in the mouth and may lead to digestive upset.

Strong gluten suitable for bread making.

Do not feed finely ground wheat to farm animals

Rice (Oryza sativa):

The crude protein and energy values are comparable to maize.

It is widely used for human consumption.

Nutritive value comparable to Maize

Rye (Secale cereale):

Rye is similar to wheat in composition and regarded as least palatable among cereals.

Rye is prone to ergot infestation. Rye should be crushed and fed to livestock.

 

Millets :

Millets are cereals having high percent of fibre and produce small grains and are mostly grown in tropics.e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.

 

Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare):

Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical composition but they have higher protein and low fat than maize.

Pig and poultry can be fed with cracked grain whereas cattle are fed with ground sorghum.

Lower in fat than Maize

Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides):

Nutritive value of bajra is similar to sorghum with 8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.

Seeds are hard so they have to be ground or crushed before feeding to cattle.

Rich in Tannin

MILLING BYPRODUCTSBran:

It is the outer coarse coat of the grain separated during processing. E.g. rice bran, wheat bran, maize bran.

Rice bran:

Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.

The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in the market for livestock feeding.

De-oiled Rice bran is fed to livestock

Wheat bran:

Wheat bran is an excellent food for horses with more fibre content.

It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counteract scouring when it was given dry.

It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility.

 

Laxative, good for horse; cattle

Flour:  

Flour is soft, finely ground meal of the grains with 16% protein and 1-1.5% crude fibre consisting primarily of gluten and starch from endosperm. E.g. corn flour.

CP: 16%;CF:1.5%

Gluten:

Gluten is a tough substance obtained after the removal of starch from flour.

This is not usually given as a feed to non- ruminants due to poor quality protein, bulkiness, unpalatability.

E.g. corn gluten

Middling:

A byproduct from flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular particles of bran, endosperm and germ.

Middlings contain 15-20% protein and deficient in calcium.

 

15-20% protein Deficient in Calcium

Grain screening:

Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign materials of value as a feed, separated through cleaning of grains with screen is called grain screening.

Nutritive value varies according to proportion of weed and foreign materials.

Polishing:

During rice polishing this byproduct accumulates to contain 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.

It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.

Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.

 

CP: 12%   Rich in B-

Complex & Energy 

Molasses:

It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared from selected plant material.

It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicellulose and minerals.

Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz.

o Cane molasses,o Beet molasses,o Citrus molasses ando Wood molasses.

Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10% ash.

While Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher protein (6%).

Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when oranges or grapes are processed for juice.

Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein and palatable to cattle.

Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.

It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.

Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration and upto 5% in poultry ration.

The molasses quality in terms of sweetness is indicated in Brix unit.

Cane molasses usually have 80.0 degree Brix unit.

 

Cane molasses – 3% CP,  

Beet molasses – 6% CP,

Citrus molasses – 14% CP,  

Wood molasses – 2% CP

Good source of energy 

Appetiser

Reduces dustiness

Binder in pellet making

Upto 15% in cattle ration

Upto 5% in poultry feed ration.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FAT

Dairy cows in early lactation demands a high-energy ration.

A higher level of energy in the ration can be achieved by increasing the amount of cereal grains.

However, higher levels of grain are not desirable owing to negative effects on rumen metabolism.

In this juncture, fats have received increased interest and are considered to be potential source of energy in the rations of lactating cows.

Hence, strategies that would actually enable more fat to be included in the ruminant diet through protected fat gained considerable importance.

Similarly high growth rate in broilers / egg production in layers lead to increased energy density in diet and this could be achieved only by inclusion of fat in the diet.

Fat (Vegetable /Animal) provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate or protein.

Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and lessens the wear on feed mixing equipments.

Vegetable oils like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow are extensively used in livestock / poultry feeding.

Animal fat contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, C24.

Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of linoleic acid.

Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids leads to rancidity and therefore anti oxidants like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.

High producing livestock and poultry needs high energy feed to meet their nutritional demand.

Fat; oil provides 2.25 % more energy than protein and Carbohydrate.

Higher level of PUFA leads to rancidity.

Anti oxidants like BHT or Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.

MODULE-16: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS  

Learning objectives

In this module the learner will be able to o know about the plant protein sources.o answer the difference between vegetable protein supplements and

animal protein supplements

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS

Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding. This chapter will enable you to make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein sources are generally costlier.

Protein supplements can be obtained from animal origin or plant origin.

Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus, and fewer than 2.5% fibre while plant origin has mostly less than 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus and over 2.5% fibre.

Other sources from which protein supplements can be obtained include NPN compounds, single cell protein etc.

Animal Origin Plant OriginMostly over 47% protein Mostly under 47% protein

Mostly over 1.0% Ca Mostly under 1.0% Ca

Mostly over 1.5% P Mostly under 1.5% P

Mostly under 2.5% fibre Mostly over 2.5% fibre

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS OF PLANT ORIGIN

Protein supplements can be obtained from animal origin or plant origin.

Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus, and fewer than 2.5% fiber while plant origin has mostly less than 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus and over 2.5% fibre.

Other sources from which protein supplements can be obtained include NPN compounds, single cell protein etc.

Animal

Plant

> 47% CP

< 47% CP

> 1.0% Ca

< 1.0% Ca

> 1.5%

< 1.5

P % P<

2.5% CF

> 2.5% CF

OIL SEED CAKE / MEAL AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE Oil bearing seeds are grown for many

purposes like vegetable oil for human, for paints and other industrial purposes.

The byproducts left after extraction of oil from oil seeds are used for feeding all kinds of livestock.

Oil content and protein content varies according to the method of processing.

Three main processes are used for removing oil from oil seeds. 

o Use pressure to force out oil (ghani and expeller).

o Use of an organic solvent to dissolve the oil from the seed.

Material of higher oil content undergoes modified screw pressing to lower the oil content to a suitable level followed by solvent extraction.

Only material with oil content of less than 35% is suitable for solvent extraction.

Processes to remove oil

Ghani / Expeller –   Use pressure to force out oil.

Organic solvent –Solvents dissolve oil.

Expeller followed by solvent – (High oil Materials).Use force followed by solvent extraction

Nutritive value 

Protein:

Oil seed proteins have low cysteine and methionine and  lysine content.

Therefore they cannot provide adequate supplementation to the cereal proteins with which they are commonly used.

They should be used in conjunction with an animal protein when given to simple stomached animal.

95% of the nitrogen in oil seeds meals is present as true protein with digestibility of 75-90%.

 

   

Vegetable protein sources are low in Lysine, Methionine & Cystein

Fat:

When the oil content is high in the oil seed cakes, it makes a significant contribution to the energy content of the diet.

This purely depends upon the process employed in extracting oil and its efficiency.

Digestive disturbances may occur from uncontrolled use of cakes rich in oil.

Milk or body fat may be soft and carcass quality is lowered when the oil is unsaturated.

 

Vegetable protein source in conjunction with cereals will be low in Lysine & Methionine

Micronutrients:

The oil seed meals usually have high phosphorus content, which generally tend to aggravate their low calcium content.

They may provide useful amount of B vitamins but poor sources of carotene and vitamin E.

Commonly used oil cake / meals in livestock feed are groundnut or peanut oil meal, soybean oil meal, linseed meal, coconut meal, cotton seed meal, safflower meal, sunflower meal, mustard cake, sesame seed meal, rape seed meal, palm kernel meal etc.

 

 

High Phosphorus &Vitamin B

MODULE-17: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - VEGETABLE PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-I

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer the nutritive value of the following vegetable protein supplements:

o Groundnut cakeo Soyabean mealo Safflower meal/Kardi mealo Sunflower cakeo Cotton seed meal

GROUNDNUT CAKE

Groundnut cake is one of the best protein supplement for livestock feeding and is extensively used.

Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.

Groundnut cake refers to expeller pressed and two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.

The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.

Groundnut cake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in cysteine, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium.

In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.

Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage from growing crop to the formulated feed or stored raw material.

Drought may leads to cracked seeds, which favours the insect infestation.

Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus on food and feed materials.

Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.

High moisture in the crop, which harvested around wet period and also inadequately dried products, favours the fungal growth and toxin production.

There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2 out of which B1 is most toxic.

The susceptibility to these toxins differs among the species, turkey poults and ducklings are highly susceptible, calves and pigs are susceptible whereas mice and sheep are resistant.

In the same species, young animals are more susceptible than adults.

Can be included upto 25 % in pig ration ; 30% in cattle ration.

Deficient in lysine, methionine and cysteine.

Aflatoxin, metabolite ofAspergillus flavus is most potent toxic.

Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.

Among B1, G1, B2, G2 Aflatoxin, B1 is most toxic.

Turkey poults and ducklings are highly susceptible.

The most common symptoms in the affected animals are liver damage with marked bile duct proliferation, liver necrosis and hepatic tumors while the other symptoms include gastritis and kidney dysfunction.

 SOYBEAN MEAL

Soybean meal contains 44% crude protein with all indispensable amino acids except cysteine, methionine whose concentrations are        sub- optimal.

It can be fed to all livestock including poultry up to 30% of the ration.

The common adulterant includes urea, castor husk and Mahua oil cake.

Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans have number of toxic and inhibitory substances.

For example, in some species, the long-term use of soybean leads to goiter due to the presence of goitrogenic material.

Six protein inhibitors have been identified in soybean; out of these two inhibitors namely Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-Birkchymotrypsin inhibitors are practically significant.

o Trypsin inhibitors especially interferes the protein digestion in monogastric animals.

o Protein indigestibility affects growth rate, egg production and feed

Raw soybean has

Goitrogenic material. Six protein

inhibitors Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor & Bowman-Birkchymotrypsin inhibitors are important.

Haemogglutinin agglutinates RBC.

Genistein is phyto estrogenic compound.

Heat treatment inactivates these anti nutritional properties.

efficiency and also may lead to hypertrophy of pancrease and excess endogenous loss of essential amino acids.

Haemogglutinin (Lectin) present in soybean agglutinates red blood cells of rats, rabbits and human except sheep and calves.

o Lectins are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate moieties in the epithelial cell lining of small intestine, disrupting the brush boarder and reducing the efficiency of absorption.

Genistein, a plant estrogen in soybean has the potency of 4 x 10-6 time as that of diethyl stilbestrol.

These toxic inhibitory substances and other factors in soybean like saponins can be inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.

SAFFLOWER MEAL / KARDI MEAL

The meal is produced after removal of most of the hull and oil from the safflower seed.

Usually decorticated forms contain 40-45% protein with 10% fibre.

Safflower meal has low lysine and methionine content.

It should be fed to the non-ruminants like pigs in conjunction with other lysine rich protein concentrates.

SUNFLOWER CAKE

Sunflower cake contains 40% of protein with low lysine and twice the amount of methionine than soy protein.

It has very short shelf-life. The expeller variety of sunflower seed

meal or cake has high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids that tends to produce soft pork in pigs and soft butter in cows when fed in large amount.

It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level and 10% to poultry ration.

Sunflower cake is not recommended for calves, lambs,   chicks and young pigs.

PUFA makes fat soft.

Not recommended for calves, lambs, chicks and young pigs.

COTTONSEED MEAL It has a good quality of protein

but with low content of cysteine, methionine and lysine.

The calcium to phosphorus ratio is about 1:6, so calcium deficiency may occur.

It cannot be fed to pigs and poultry due its dusty nature.

Lactating cows can be fed with cotton seed meal but when it was given large amount, milk may become hard and firm, so butter made from such milk fat is difficult to churn and may also tend to develop tallowy taints.

Both decorticated cottonseed oilcake as well as undecorticated cottonseed oilcake are available in the market with two grades (Grade I & II) in each variety.

Cottonseed meal contains 0.3-20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment known as Gossypol, a

Wide Ca:P – 1:6 Gossypol – antioxidant

& polymerization inhibitor.

Not suitable to pigs & poultry

Milk firm & hard. Expeller process, Ca

OH & Fe reduces

polyphenolic aldehyde. It is an antioxidant and

polymerization inhibitor. It is toxic to simple-stomached

animals and the symptoms include depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to cardiac failure.

Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium hydroxide and iron salts.

Shearing effect of screw press in expeller process is an efficient gossypol inactivator.

gossypol toxicity.

MODULE-18: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - VEGETABLE PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-II

Learning objectives

After studying this module the learner should confidently be able to answer the nutritive value of the following vegetable protein supplements:

o Coconut mealo Linseed mealo Mustard cakeo Sesame seed meal / Gingelly oil cake / Til cakeo Rapeseed meal / Canola mealo Palm kernal mealo Leguminous seed

COCONUT MEAL

It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-6.5% oil content.

The higher oil in meals tends to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence low oil content meal should be preferred.

It should be restricted in swine and poultry as it contains low protein and high fibre and low fibre coconut meal can be fed to monogastric animals with lysine and methionine supplements.

Coconut meal produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.

Not recommended to swine & poultry.

Produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.

LINSEED MEAL

Among the oilseed residues, linseed is unique because it readily dispersible in water, forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-10% of mucilage.

Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associated enzyme, linase in immature linseed hydrolyses it with the evolution of hydrocyanic acid.

HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and hence, depending on the species the minimum lethal dose taken orally has been estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight.

Proper water washing, drying and storage can reduce glycosides in the feedstuffs.

Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also rich in phosphorus part of which is present as phytase but has only moderate calcium content.

It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline.

Mucilage forms viscous slime in water.

Linamarin and linase produce HCN

Linseed cake/meal is not suitable to poultry but good feed to horses

It also has protective action against selenium poisoning.

Linseed oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market.

Linseed cake refers to expeller pressed and two verieties (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market.

Linseed cake/meal is not suitable to poultry but good feed to horses and ruminants.

and ruminants.

MUSTARD CAKE

It is widely used in cattle feed in Northern India.

Its nutritive value is lesser than groundnut cake.

D.C.P and T.D.N values are 27% and 74 % respectively.

Up to 10% of the ration, it can be fed to poultry and for pigs it may be up to 20%.

It has rich calcium and phosphorus content of about 0.6% and 0.1% respectively.

27% D.C.P and 74 % T.D.N

SESAME SEED MEAL / GINGELLY OIL CAKE / TIL OILCAKE

It contains 40% protein rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low lysine.

It was produced from the residues of sesame meal after removal of oil from sesame seed.

There are three verities – red, black, white.

White is of high nutritive value than red.

It has high phytic acid, which make phosphorus unavailable to monogastric animals.

Sesame seed meal has laxative action and can be included in the cattle ration upto 15%.

Sesame seed meal is not suitable to young pigs and poultry.

Can be included in the cattle ration upto 15%.

Three varieties – red, black, white.

RAPESEED MEAL / CANOLA MEAL

It contains low protein content than soybean meal with balanced essential amino acids.

It also contain 14% fibre with low ME. It has favourable calcium phosphorus

ratio. Rapeseed meal contains tannins and

consequently lowers the digestibility Presence of glucosinolates accompanied

by thioglucosidase (myrosinase) may lead to goiter and liver and kidney dysfunction in some animals.

Canadian produced a variety of rapeseed, which is also referred as canola, and hence meal derived from canola is referred as Canola meal.

Canola meal is low in glucosinates and warrants lysine supplementation.

 

 

Favourable calcium phosphorus ratio.

Tannins reduces digestibility.

Goitrogenic.

 

PALM KERNEL MEAL

It contains low protein with poor balance of amino acids.

Calcium and phosphorus ratio is much more favourable than other oil seed meal.

Since the meal is dry and gritty, it is not readily eaten.

When fed to cow it increases the fat content. Palm kernal meal is not suitable to pig and

poultry. Palm kernal meal increases fat content of

milk and can be included upto 20% in the diet.

Not suitable to pig and poultry

Increases fat content of milk and can be included upto 20% in the diet.

MODULE-19: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - ANIMAL PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-1

Learning objectives 

This module will enable you to make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein sources are generally costlier.

ANIMAL PROTEIN CONCENTRATES Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference.

Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.   

Animal protein concentrates are included only upto 15% in the ration.

They are included mainly to makeup the deficiency in essential amino acids content.

Animal protein concentrates are expensive.

While feeding animal protein concentrates, care should be taken to prevent spread of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) in cattle and Scrapie in sheep and goat.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

Included only upto 15% to makeup deficiency in EAA, Expensive.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) in cattle Scrapie in sheep & goat.

Misfolded protein (prion) transmitted by feeding protein of bovine origin to cattle / sheep and goat.

(BSE) and Scrapie are caused by misfolded protein (prion) present in bovine tissues and transmitted by feeding protein of bovine origin to cattle / sheep and goat.

Animal protein concentrates should be free from pathogens likesalmonella and E.coli.

Protein supplements from animal origin are Fish meal, Meat meal, Blood meal, Hatchery waste, Milk products.

Should be free from pathogens likesalmonella and E.coli.

Last modified: Tuesday, 27 March 2012, 03:42 PM

FISH MEAL The whole or parts of various fishes can be

used as a fishmeal after they have been dried or ground.

Cooking fish and pressing to remove water and oil is preferred as this process sterilizes fishmeal produced by drying the cooked fish.

It has high levels of protein, amino acids like lysine, methionine and tryptophan and minerals like calcium and phoshorus.

Apart from these, fishmeal is rich in vitamin B complex and growth promoting effect of Animal Protein Factor (APF).

Two main process are employed to process this sort of meals.

Batch process (under vacuum) or a continuous process.

In both the cases heating is carried out in steam jacketed vessels.

Next one is Flame drying process in which meal is dried in a revolving drum by hot air from a furnace at one end of the drum.

Fishmeal should be tested for salt toxicity, E.coli bacteria.

Fishmeal has greatest usage in feeding simple-stomached animals due to high quality protein having adequate quantity of essential amino acids.

Young animals need more fishmeal than

High in Lysine, Methionine; Trytophan.

High in Ca ; P.

Rich in Vit B Complex ;

Animal Protein Factor.

Check fish meal for salt; E.coli

Inclusion level:

Upto 10% in young animal diet.

5% in older animal diet.

the older ones because the young ones require high quality protein in addition to growth promoting factor.

Such diets may include up to 10% of fishmeal.

In older animals fishmeal is included at 5% and it may be eliminated entirely from diets for those in the last stages of fattening.

SQUILLA MEAL

It is an important byproduct from fisheries. This product has rich protein and its calcium content is high when compared

to phosphorus being 2% only.

MEAT AND BONE MEAL Rendering is a process that

converts waste animal tissue into stable, value-added materials.

The carcasses of animals can be used as meat meals after drying or grinding.

The product must be substantially free of hooves, horns, bristle, hair and feathers, skin and contents of stomach and viscera.

Its protein content ranges from 60-70% useful as lysine supplement but less amount of amino acids like methionine and tryptophan affect their protein quality.

It has fat level upto 9%. The enteric factor from the

intestinal tract of swine, the ‘Ackerman’ factor and growth factor in ash are important in meat meal.

Meat meal is more valuable for simple-stomached animals than

Ackerman factor in the intestinal tract of swine.

Growth factor in ash.  

Carcasses of animals rendered & converted into stable value-added material.

60-70% protein and good source of lysine.

Meat and bone meal has been banned in the feeding of ruminants due to the possibility of BSE

ruminants. Meat meal as well as meat and

bone meal are readily eaten by pig and poultry and can be included upto 15% in the diet.

Meat and bone meal has been banned in the feeding of ruminants due to the possibility of BSE

LIVER RESIDUE MEAL

This can be supplied in place of fishmeal mainly in poultry and livestock. A good quality of this meal should contain 65% protein, 5%lysine, and nearly

1%methionine and cysteine. It is offered at about 5 to 10% diet level in poultry and animal feeding.

BLOOD MEAL This meal is

obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered animals and poultry.

It is in the form of dark brown coloured powder with a characterstic smell.

Rich source of lysine, methionine, leucine with 80% protein but deficient in isoleucine and hence low biological

Obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered animals and poultry.

Rich source of lysine, methionine, leucine with 80% protein but deficient in isoleucine and hence low biological value.

Unpalatable.

value. It is a good

food for boosting dietary lysine levels but is unpalatable.

It is not recommended for young stock since it's use has resulted in reduced growth rates in poultry.

HATCHERY WASTE

It is otherwise known as Incubator waste or Hatchery By Product Meal (HBPM).

The mixture of infertile, unhatched eggs and eggshells have been cooked, dried, and powdered to produce this kind of meal.

It is found to replace 33% of fishmeal especially in Broiler chicks to enhance weight gain.

Mixture of infertile, unhatched eggs and eggshells cooked, dried and powdered.

Can replace 33% fishmeal.

HYROLYSED FEATHER MEAL

The poultry feathers subjected to hydrolysis produce hydrolysed feather meal.

The digestibility of nutrients is increased.

Poultry feathers are more prone to get Salmonella infection easily, so strict control have to be maintained while processing this meal.

This meal is not recommended for weaner, creep fed pigs or chicks.

POULTRY LITTER

Dried poultry excreta has been used as ruminant feed. Poultry manures vary in composition depending upon their origins.

MODULE-20: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - ANIMAL PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS-II

Learning objectives  

This module will enable you to make decision in cutting the cost of feed, as protein sources are generally costlier.

SKIM MILK Skim milk is a residue remains after

the cream has been separated from milk.

Fat content is below 1% with concentrated SNF.

Skim milk can be used as a main protein supplements in the diet of simple-stomached animals.

It is effective in bridging gap between demand and supply of essential amino acid in cereal-based diet.

Removal fat results in concentrated SNF.

Used in simple-stomached animals to cereal based diet to makeup amino acid imbalance.

WHEY

During cheese making process, casein precipitates and the remaining product is whey.

Whey protein is B-lactoglobulin and is used as a constituent in milk replacer for young calves.

Most of the whey protein is B-lactoglobulin and is used as a constituent in milk replacer for young calves.

NON PROTEIN NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

NPN is an important source of nitrogen for ruminant animals.

Its use depends upon the ability of the rumen microbes to use them in the synthesis of their own cellular tissue

Rumen microbes use NPN in the synthesis of their own cellular tissues and thus supply animal protein in the form of microbial protein. 

s and thus supply animal protein in the form of microbial protein.

UREA

It is a nitrogen rich (46%), white, crystalline compound with the formula NH2-C=O-NH2.

Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea with the help of urease enzyme and produce ammonia.

The wastage of nitrogen may occur with excessive absorption of ammonia from the rumen leading to ammonia toxicity which cause ataxia, muscular twitching, tetany, excessive salivation, bloat and respiratory disorders.

Urea should be given in such a way as to slow down its rate of breakdown and enhance NH3 utilization for protein synthesis.

Rumen microbes require readily available source of carbohydrate to serve as energy for capturing ammonia and therefore urea diet should contain readily available carbohydrate so that the animal can satisfy the needs of its rumen microorganisms.

One gram of urea should be given along with 0.13g of anhydrous sodium sulfate at the N:S ratio of 15:1 thus minimize sulfur containing amino acids deficiency.

Urea does not provide energy, minerals, or vitamins to animals so adequate

Urea can provide 287.5 % of Crude protein (46 x 6.25).

Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea with urease to produce ammonia.

Excessive absorption of ammonia from the rumen leads to ataxia, muscular twitching, tetany, excessive

supplementation of these nutrients in diet is necessary.

To avoid the danger of toxicity, frequent, small intake of urea is preferable.

salivation, bloat and respiratory disorders.

Readily available carbohydrate and slow urea hydrolysis enables microbes to utilize ammonia effectively for microbial prolification.

N:S ratio of 15:1 is necessary to avoid sulfur containing amino acids deficiency.

Urea mixed in concentrates

Growing and lactating ruminants are fed with urea, which is incorporated into the concentrate portion of the ration at 3% or at 1% of total dry matter intake through complete diet.

The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal over 260kg of body weight.

Urea can be fed in several forms. It is available in solid blocks as urea molasses

mineral blocks, which provide energy, vitamin and minerals.

Urea can be included at 3% of concentrate or 1% in complete diet.

Maximum allowance

Intake of block is restricted by their high salt content and hardness of the blocks.

There is some danger of excessive urea intakes, should the block crumble or should there be readily available source of water allowing the animal to cope with the high salt intakes.

Solution of urea (Uramol) containing molasses and variable amount of vitamins, minerals are now in use.

Urea is also used in the upgradation of poor quality roughages like paddy straw.

Urea should never be fed to monogastric animals, birds and young rumiants.

136g/animal

Urea blocks with high salt and hardness restrict intake.

Urea should never be fed to mono gastric animals, birds and young ruminants. 

BIURET

Heating urea produces Biuret. It is a colourless, crystalline compound

having 40.8% nitrogen equivalent to 225% of crude protein.

Biuret is expensive compared to urea and requires longer adaptation period for the microbes to utilize.

Biuret contains 225% crude protein.

Require longer adaptation period.

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN(SCP)

Nowadays, single cell organisms like yeast and bacteria are exploited in various fields.

They can grow very rapidly and double their cell mass in large-scale

Single cell organisms like yeast & bacteria grow rapidly and provide protein.

fermentors. A range of nutrient

substrates can be used including cereal grains, sugar beet, sugar cane, and its byproducts, waste products from food manufacture to culture bacteria such asPseudomonas sp are grown.

SCP has high levels of nucleic acids of 5-12% DM in yeast and 8-16% DM in bacteria.

Some of the purine and pyrimidine bases in these acids can be used for nucleic acid biosynthesis.

Uric acid or allantoins, the end products of nucleic acid catabolism, are excreted in the urine of animals consuming SCP.

Although SCP does contain a crude fibre fraction and lacks cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, it contains glucans, mannans and chitin.

Dietary SCP for broilers is 2-5% concentration and nearly 10% is recommended for laying hens.

Single cell protein can be included at 2-5% in broilers and 10% in layers.

MODULE-21: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS -

FORAGE GRASSES

Learning objectives 

This module will provide information on the merits and demerits of grasses and legumes. The nutritional disorders associated with them are highlighted and system of grazing pasture is elaborated.

NUTRITIONAL DIS ORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH GRASSES AND LEGUMES

Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding. This chapter will enable you to manage your farm with the available roughages as well as to understand the options available to cultivate appropriate fodder to meet the demand of the farm.

Grasses are the best and cheapest bulk feed for the livestock.

The grasses are the most widely distributed herbaceous plants, either annuals or perennials and are more than 10,000 species.

In the natural pastures and grazing area of the country, different kinds of native grasses such as Bracharia, Anjan, Hariyali, Giant star, Marvel, Spear, etc. are found to grow under rainfed conditions.

Under irrigated conditions, grasses like Napier Bajra hybrids, Guinea grass and Deenanath grass are suitable for cultivation.

Non legume forages contain 5-10 % crude protein, 0.3-0.5 % calcium and 0.2-0.3 % phosphorus while legume forages like Cow pea, Leucerne and Sesbania contain 20-25% crude protein, 1.4-1.6 % calcium and 0.1-3 % phosphorus on dry matter basis.

 Non-Legumes

Legumes

C.P

5-10% 20-25%

Ca 0.3-0.5% 1.4-1.6%

 P 0.2-0.3% 0.1-3%

PASTURE

Pastureland can be classified as natural or cultivated.

Natural pastureland includes rough and hilly grazing land

Cultivated pastureland may be sub divided into permanent or temporary depending upon its usage.

Natural pastureland includes large number of species whereas cultivated pasture land contain fewer number of chosen species.

The Indian grass cover has been classified into following five groups based on the dominant grass species: 

o Schima – Dichanthium type

o Dichanthium – Cenchrus –Lasiurus type

o Phragmites – Saccharum – Imperata type

o Themeda – Arudinella type

o Temperate - Alphine type 

 

 

NUTRIENTS IN PASTURE

The nutrient composition is extremely variable; for example, the crude protein may range from 3 per cent in very mature herbage to 30

C.P: 3-30%

C F: 20-40%

Fat: 4%

per cent in young heavily fertilised grass.

The crude fibre content is inversely related to crude protein content and may range from 20 in young grass to as much as 40 per cent in very mature grass.

Consequently the digestibility declines as the plant matures.

In early stages of growth, moisture content is high about 75 to 85% and as the plant mature, it falls to about 60 per cent.

The pasture lipid content rarely exceeds 4 per cent of the dry matter.

Based on the stage of growth, soil type, amount of fertiliser applied etc the mineral content varies with species.

Green herbage is exceptionally rich in carotene, the precursor of vitamin A and quantities as high as 55 mg per 100 grams of dry matter of young green crops.

The nutritive value of temperate grass varies from tropical grass.

Temperate species of grass belong to (C3) three carbon compound phosphogylcerate as important intermediate in photosynthethetic

Legumes have ability to grow in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content.

fixation of carbon dioxide, where as tropical grasses have (C4) pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is fixed in four carbon compound – Oxaloacetate.

Hence the tropical grass species contain low protein content compared to temperate grasses.

Legumes belong to leguminosea and have ability to grow in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria. Example – cowpea, bersem, lucerne etc,.

Legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content, particularly calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper and cobalt.

NITRATE POISIONING

Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous fraction (NPN) present in forages.

Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals. The toxic effect on ruminants is

caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen.

Recently fertilized plants have higher nitrate levels.

Grazing herbage containing more than 700 ppm of nitrate nitrogen / kg dry matter is considered to produce toxic effect by converting

Nitrate reduced to nitrite in rumen to become toxic.

Nitrite combines with hemoglobin to form methemoglobin.

Methemoglobin can’t

to nitrite. Nitrite is absorbed into red blood

cells and combines with hemoglobin (oxygen carrying molecule) to form brown pigment called methemoglobin.

Methemoglobin cannot transport oxygen and hence the animal's heart rate and respiration increases, the blood and tissues of the animal take on a blue to chocolate brown tinge, muscle tremors can develop, staggering occurs, and the animal eventually suffocates and die.

transport oxygen. Increased heart rate

& respiration. Suffocates; die.

BLOAT

Occurs in grazing land with predominant legumes like lucerne and clover.

Ruminants carry an active population of microorganisms that generate large volumes of gas during the normal process of digestion.

This gas either is belched up or passes through the gastrointestinal tract.

Bloat occurs when eructation of

Bloat occurs when eructation of gas is interfered.

Gas is trapped in small bubbles in foam in the rumen causing an obvious swelling on the left side of body.

gas is interfered.

Natural foaming agents (Saponin) in legumes cause a stable foam to form in the rumen.

Gas is trapped in small bubbles in this foam in the rumen and the animal cannot belch up the gas.

Pressure builds up in the rumen causing an obvious swelling on the left side of the body.

Vegetable oils are effective for preventing and treating pasture bloat because they break down the frothy condition in the rumen contents.

PHYTO-ESTROGENS

Pasture plants like subterranean clover, red clover and Lucerne contain Oestrogenic activity.

Oestrogenic hormones may be produced either by pasture legumes (plant oestrogens or phytoestrogens), or by soil-borne fungi that live on pasture plants or on dead and decomposing organic matter at the base of pasture.

Phyto-estrogen causes infertility, dystocia and other reproductive problems.

Subterranean clover, red clover and Lucerne contain Oestrogenic activity.

Phyto-estrogen causes infertility, dystocia & other reproductive problems.

GOITROGENIC SUBSTANCE

The genus Brassica includes cabbages, turnips and cauliflower. They contain goitrogenic substance – thiocyanate which interferes with the uptake of iodine by thyroid gland leading to goiter.

Forage brassicas also cause heamolytic anaemia in ruminants.

Thiocyanate interferes with the uptake of iodine by thyroid gland leading to goiter.

SYSTEMS OF GRAZING IN A PASTURE

Three system of grazing are followed.

o Continuous grazing.o Rotational

grazing ando Strip grazing.

In continuous grazing animals are kept on the same area through out the year.

o It is essential that the stocking rate (no

Continuous grazing.

Rotational grazing. 

Strip grazing. 

 

of animals per unit area) maintains balance between the growth of new herbage and its harvesting by grazing animals in order to provide constant supply of fresh grass.

o Overstocking leads to inferior herbage for grazing leading to reduction in animal performance and understocking leads to uneconomical returns.

In rotational grazing, the livestock are periodically moved to fresh paddocks, to allow pastures to regrow.

o In this system, pasture is divided into several fenced paddocks and is grazed for short time at a high stocking rate.

o The pasture is then rested for longer period for grasses to grow.

Strip grazing is a grazing management system that involves giving the livestock a fresh allocation of pasture each day.

o It is usually organised within a paddock grazing system and the animals are

Balance eating & herbage regrowth.

Overstocking – inferior grass.        

Understocking -uneconomical.        

 

controlled by the use of an electric fence.

o Strip grazing systems are often employed where there is a significant excess of forage available early in the season and where providing the livestock with access to a larger area would result in wastage - for example through trampling or spoiling by dung.

MODULE-22: COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS - CULTIVATED FODDER, CROP RESIDUES, ROOTS AND

TUBERSLearning objectives  

After studying this module, the learner will confindently reply on the various cultivated fodder crops, crop residues, roots and tubers.

CEREAL FODDER CROPS

Cereal crops cultivated for fodder includes sorghum, maize, oats and bajra.

On drymatter basis the crude protein content ranges from 8-12% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.5%.

Cereal fodders are annual crops and the fodder should be harvervested at 2/3rd or 50 % flowering stage (around 45 to 60 days for most of the crops) .

Intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive value of the harvested fodder. Fodder sorghum as well a fodder maize under irrigated conditions yield about 40-45 tonnes

CP: 7-9%

Ca: 0.4-0.6%

P: 0.2-0.5%

Harvest in 45 days

40-45 t/ha,

Oats: 25t/ha

per hectare while fodder bajra and oats yields 25-30 tonnes per hectare.

One may get 50 % of these yields under rainfed conditions.

CULTIVATED GRASSES

Cultivated grasses includes Bajra Napier hybrid (Co. CN -4), Guinea grass, (Co. GG 3) para grass, Cenchrus ciliaris. On drymatter basis the crude protein content ranges from 6-10% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4%.

Grass fodders are perennial in nature and have to be harvested at the recommeded intervals. First harvest of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done at 75 days after planting and the subsequent cuttings are done at 45 days interval.

Bajra Napier hybrid (Co.CN4) yields 400 tonnes/ hectare; Guinea grass (Co. GG 3) yields 300 tonnes/hectare; Para grass yields 80-100 tonnes/hectare.

Cenchrus is suitable for rainfed areas and yields about 40 tonnes/hectare. Intercropping legumes improves the nutritive value of the harvested fodder.

CP: 6-10%

Ca: 0.4-0.6%

P: 0.2-0.4%

Harvest Co4 in 45 days,150 t/ha,

Others: 100 t/ha

CULTIVATED LEGUME FODDER CROPS

Berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus and stylo are the common leguminous crops grown in India. On drymatter basis, they contain from 15-25 per cent crude protein with 1-2% calcium and 0.2-0.4% phosphorus leading to wide calcium to phosphorus ratio.

Legumes yields 75-100 tonnes per hectare but cowpea yields only 20 tonnes per hectare. Legume fodders are liable to produce “bloat” if given in large quantities and thus it is advisable that they should always be given along with some dry fodder (not exceeding a maximum of 1/3rd of total green roughages).

Ca: 1.0-2.0%P: 0.2-0.4%Harvest in 45 days,75 t/ha,Cowpea: 30 t/ha

Perennial legume fodders such as Desmanthes and Lucerne are harvested at 75 days after sowing and subsequently at 45 days intervals for Desmanthes and 30 days interval for Lucerne.

Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should be harvervested at 50% flowering stage and are ready by 50-60 days. Intercropping with cereal or grasses increases the total green fodder yield per unit of land and thereby avoids overfeeding of legume alone that may lead to bloating in animals. CP: 15-25%

TREE FODDERS Tree fodders form the staple fodder for

small and large ruminants in most parts of our country.

They enhance animal productivity by overcoming seasonal nutritional deficits.

Further, trees can tolerate varied climatic and environmental conditions, propagate readily and can serve as a valuable source of protein and minerals.

The non leguminous tree fodders includes

Mimosine causes reduction in growth, excessive salivation,

leaves of neem, banyan and fig while leguminous tree fodders includes leaves of gliricidia, subabool, acacia, sesbania.

The crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in non-leguminous tree fodders to 19-22% in leguminous tree fodders.

The calcium content ranges from 1-3 % and phosphorus ranges from 0.3-0.5%.

The major constraint in the use of tree fodders is the presence of anti-nutritional factors.Subabool – Mimosine:

o In subabool, Mimosine is a toxic non-protein free amino acid otherwise chemically similar to tyrosine.

o Mimosine can cause problems when the forage is eaten in large quantities for a long period.

o Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxy pyridone (DHP) in the rumen.

o DHP reaches thyroid gland and inhibits biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.

Symptoms includes reduced growth, excessive salivation, loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged thyroid gland and poor reproductive efficiency.

Certain strains of rumen microbes at Australia that are capable of detoxifying mimosine have been identified and are now being inoculated to livestock of other nations to overcome mimosine toxicity.

loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged thyroid gland & poor reproductive efficiency

Mimosine is a toxic amino acid.

Mimosine is degraded to DHP in rumen.

ROOTS AND TUBERS

Roots are underground parts of plant e.g., Turnip, beet root, carrot etc., Tubers are thickend stem usually formed in underground e.g., potatoes,

Cassava, Sweet potatoes. Roots contains sucrose while tubers contains starch or fructan as

carbohydrate. Feeding livestock with roots and tubers are common in Europe. However, Cassava is widely fed to livestock in India. Cassava contains two cyanogenetic glucosides, which liberates

hydrocyanic acid (HCN).

HCN poisoning leads to death and wilting reduces HCN content to safe level.

CROP RESIDUES

Crop Residues are the left over portion of the crop after the main crop is harvested for human consumption.

Crop residues may be grouped under the following headings

Straws

Stover Aerial portion of other crops

Others

Wheat

Paddy

Oats

Barley

Millets

Maize

Sorghum

Sugarcane tops

Groundnut haulms

Soyabean haulms

Corn cobs

Bagasse

Peanut hull

Rice hull

Nutritional quality of crop residues

Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy and micronutrients.

They are usually high in cell wall constituents like lignin and silica. Hence their palatability is low leading to low voluntary intake. Their digestibility is also low and bulky in nature.

Straws

Straws are produced from most cereal crops and from some legumes. They consist of the stem and leaves of plants after the removal of the ripe

seeds by threshing. They are fibrous, rich in lignin and of extremely low nutritive value. Straw feeding is not recommended for pig and poultry.

Paddy straw

The Paddy straw consist of lignin, about 6-7% dry matter is however lower than that of other cereals straw.

But it has an exceptionally high ash content (17% of dry matter) having high silica level.

In contrast to other straws, the stems are more digestible than the leaves. The poor nutritive values of straws may be attributed to the following facts.

o Straw digestion is limited due to the formattion of strong physical and/or chemical bonds between lignin and the structural polysaccharides (Cellulose and Hemicellulose).

Although cellulose by itself has a highly ordered crystalline structure, it has a very strong association with lignin, which even the most potent cellulosic enzymes cannot have access to the cellulose unless the bondage between lignin and cellulose is broken.

o Crystalline structure of cellulose is also responsible for low digestibility of cellulose.

o Highly deficient in other nutrients like minerals, vitamins, fatty acids and in proteins. 

o High silica content of straw is known to depress organic matter digestibility.

It is economical to increase the nutritive values of all types of poor quality roughages by physical, chemical or biological treatment.

Legume straws

The husks of the pods with leaves and tender stems are remain as byproducts after harvesting the seeds of pulses.

These products can be utilised as nutritious cattle feeds. Most common pulse are

o Urad (Phaseolus mungo),o Moong (Phaseolus radiatus),o Moth (P.aconiti folius),o Cow peas (Vigna catiang ) etc.

The energy value of these straws is comparable with those of cereal straws but they are a fairly good source of digestible protein.

Supplementation with energy-rich feeds like cereal grains will, however will be necessary in the case of high milk producing cattle.

Other straws (Cereals) that are commonly fed to animals are

Wheat straw, Rye straw and Oat straw.

Stover

Consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum or soybean plants that are left in a field after harvest.

It can be directly grazed by cattle or dried for use as fodder (forage). Its nutritive value is similar to straw.

Sugarcane tops

It is the top portion that has been removed from the highest fully formed node in sugarcane.

It includes the green leaves, bundle leaf sheath and variable amounts of immature cane.

At the time of sugarcane harvest, abundant quantities of sugarcane tops are available.

Though sugarcane tops serve as green fodder, it has low nutritive value (4 % crude protein and 48 per cent TDN), dries up quickly and hence wasted.

To preseve sugarcane tops in succulent form, ensiling with one percent urea, molasses and salt is beneficial. 

Haulms

The stems of peas, beans etc., are called as haulms. The aerial portion of groundnut plant (groundnut haulms) and Soybean plant

(Soybean haulms) can serve as a potential source of fodder for livestock. Haulms contain about 15 percent crude protein and 30 % crude fibre and

have better nutritive value than stovers.

Others

A corncob is the left over protion after removal of maize grain. Corncobs can be used as fibre souce in ruminant feeding. Bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after sugarcane is crushed to

extract their juice. It has very low palatability. Hulls are outer shell of pods and are fibrous in nature with low nutritive

value.

MODULE-23: MEASURES OF FOOD ENERGY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 

Learning objectives  

This module will enable the learner to know abouto the different system of measuring energy value of feed and fodder.

Various methods of measuring energy value are also described.o how the energy values are quoted. Important points have been listed

in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

o to estimate the energy value of feeds and fodder and understand how energy is expended in the body.

MEASURES OF FOOD ENERGY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS The force that enables to sustain life activities

is energy. Various types of energy, such as chemical,

electrical and mechanical, radiant can be

 

 

converted from one form to the other. The plants trap energy from sun to synthesize

complex constituents (chemical energy) that are broken to yield energy for maintenance of life in the animal for performance of work /production.

Energy required for maintenance of life includes:

o Mechanical energy for essential muscular activities like heart beat, respiration etc.,

o Chemical energy like movement of dissolved substance against concentration gradient, synthesis of enzymes & hormones.

Energy required for performance of work / production includes:

o Muscular work.o Milk production.o Growth.o Egg production.o Wool production.

Force that sustains life activity is energy.

Various types of energy are interchangeable.

Energy is required for maintenance of life and performance of work / production.

SYSTEMS OF EXPRESSING ENERGY VALUE OF FEEDSTUFFS

Food evaluation systems are based on digestible, metabolic and net energy.

The various systems in vogue are DE, ME, NE, physiological fuel value, total digestible nutrients, starch equivalent, Armsby NE system and Scandinavian food unit system.

Actually, the only useful form of energy is Net energy.

Although the experimental determination is somewhat tedious, in most of the developed countries, most systems of feed evaluation at present is based on net energy.

Gross energy. Digestible

energy. Metabolisable

energy. Net energy. Physiological

fuel value. TDN. Starch

equivalent. Armsby NE

system. Scandinavian

food unit.

Basic unit of energy:  

Calorie: One calorie is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water to 15.5°C from 14.5°C. 1000 calories = 1Kcal (amount of heat required to raise 1kg of water to 1°C). 1000 Kcal      = 1Mcal or Therm.

Joule:The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) advocates to use the term Joule as against Calorie. 1 calorie = 4.184 joules.

Calorie is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water to 15.5°C from 14.5°C.

GROSS ENERGY

It is defined as the energy liberated as heat when feed, faeces or any other substance is fully oxidised by burning a sample completely in a bomb calorimeter.

DIGESTIBLE ENERGY

It is the energy of the feed less the faecal energy. Energy lost in faeces accounts for the largest loss of energy, which ranges

between 20 to 40%.

METABOLISABLE ENERGY

It is the digestible energy less the energy lost in urine and combustible gases leaving the digestive tract , chiefly methane.

It can also be defined as ingested gross energy minus faecal energy minus urinary energy minus gaseous energy.

It is the portion of energy available for metabolism. ME is commonly used to evaluate feedstuffs for poultry because the birds

void urinary and faecal losses together. Urinary losses of energy is quite stable in a given species and is usually 2-

3% of GE. The losses are more in ruminants.

HEAT INCREMENT (HI)  Heat increment is the amount of energy lost as a result of chemical

and physical processes associated with digestion and metabolism. HI increases with the amount of feed consumed and may be used in

animals reared in cold environment to warm the body otherwise. HI is a wasteful process. HI is also called as specific dynamic effect it consists of the following

o Heat of nutrient metabolism.

o Heat of fermentation.o Heat production from work by the kidney.o Heat production from increased muscular activity due to

nutrient metabolism. HI is greater in ruminants compared to monogastrics

NET ENERGY (NE)

Net energy is obtained from ME by subtraction of heat increment. NE is that portion of energy that is completely useful to the animal for

maintenance and production purpose. The portion of NE used for maintenance is the energy required to sustain

life processes. The other portion of NE is used for tissue gain or milk or egg production.

MODULE-24: TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND STARCH EQUIVALENT  

Learning objectives 

This module deals witho Total Digestible Nutrientso Factors affecting TDN value of feed o Merits and Limitations  o TDN in energy evaluation o Kellner's Starch equivalent  o Calculation of Starch Equivalent  o Merits and Limitations 

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

This is the simplest form of energy evaluation wherein the animal requirements and the value of feeds in meeting these requirements are expressed in terms of the weight of digestible material in the feed.

The digestibility of nutrients is determined by digestibility trials. TDN is simply a figure, which indicates the relative energy value of a feed to

animals. It is ordinarily expressed in Kg or in percent. It can be calculated by the formula

TDN (%) = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fibre + % digestible N-free extract + (2.25 x % digestible ether extract).

% TDN =  % DCP + % DCF + % DNFE +(2.25 x % DEE)

The digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.25 because on oxidation fat provides 2.25 times more energy as compared to carbohydrates.

The digestible protein is included in this equation because of the fact that excess of protein eaten by the animals serve as a source of energy to the body.

The principle of determining the TDN of feed is essentially the same as proposed by Henneberg and Stohkmann at the Weende’s experiment station.

The feed and faeces are subjected to the proximate analysis namely, CP, EE, CF and NFE.

The amounts of these nutrients not recovered in the faeces are considered to be digested.

FACTORS AFFECTING TDN VALUE OF FEED

% Dry matter:o In high moisture feed the nutrient concentration is less and so the

TDN value on fresh matter basis will be less. % Digestibility of dry matter:

o The presence of indigestible substances like lignin, acid insoluble ash will interfere the digestibility of other useful nutrients.

o Hence feeds with high lignin and/or acid insoluble ash will have low TDN values.

Presence of minerals:o Since minerals as such contribute no energy, high mineral containing

feeds will have low TDN. % Digestible fat in the feeds:

o The feeds containing high digestible fat will have high TDN value because due weightage is given for its high energy content in TDN system.

o For feeds containing more digestible fat the TDN value sometime exceeds 100%.

MERITS AND LIMITATIONS

Merits:

It is easiest to determine the digestible values through digestive trials unlike the ME and NE, which require complicated equipments and procedures.

The TDN values for most of the feedstuffs are obtained from carefully conducted digestion trial and are available in standard books.

The energy requirements of the ruminant were in TDN values.

Limitations:

Only the loss in faeces is accounted for in this method, but losses in combustible gases, heat of fermentation and urine are not considered. This is a strong limitation to the usefulness of TDN for evaluating feeds for ruminants.

It over estimates the value of roughages. This is because the losses in methane and heat are relatively larger per unit TDN for roughages than for concentrate Eg. 1 kg of TDN in low-grade roughage contains only 50% of the net energy present in 1 kg of TDN in maize grain. Thus, low quality feeds are over estimated by the TDN system.

If feeds are high in fat content, the TDN value some time exceed 100 in percentage (Eg.) Pure fat which has 100% digestibility would theoretically have a TDN value of 225% (100 x 2.25 = 225). Animal fat – 175%, maize oil – 172%.

The term total digestible nutrients consider only the energy giving nutrients whereas the micronutrients like minerals have not been included.

TDN IN ENERGY EVALUATION

Position of TDN in energy evaluation system:

TDN is based on the Atwater physiological fuel values for human nutrition. In human after digestion and absorption the energy losses of carbohydrate

and fat is negligible, only for protein there is some metabolic loss. So, for all three nutrients the physiological fuel values represent the

metabolisable energy values. In case of ruminants (where the TDN system is commonly followed) even

after digestion there is high gaseous loss that occurs in the form of methane and CO2 in case of carbohydrates.

Moreover the urinary loss is high in case of ruminant animals when compared to human beings. Hence it can be concluded that,

o As far as carbohydrate (CF ; NFE) and fat is concerned the TDN system can be fit into DE system in ruminants.

o In case of protein, the TDN system not only considered faecal loss but also urinary loss. So in case of protein the TDN system can be fit into ME system.

o If the TDN system completely fits into the DE system, then the %DCP should be multiplied by a figure of 1.3.

Utility of TDN system as an energy measure:

In India TDN system is commonly followed energy evaluation system for ruminants.

The famous Morrison standard, which is extensively used by American farmers, is based on TDN system.

It can be used for feeding pigs and horses and it is also reliable for comparative evaluation of ruminant rations of similar composition.

It is often preferred to express TDN in calories of DE. DE can be calculated by multiplying TDN with a factor of 4.4. It is found experimentally that the average caloric value of 1 gram of TDN is 4.4 Kcal (= 17.5 KJ).

KELLNER'S STARCH EQUIVALENT

The classical method developed by Kellner in 1907 in Germany is a net energy system, since the production value of feeds is measured by their utilization for fat deposition in adult animals relative to the fat producing power of 1 kg of starch.

Kellner’s system was based on the determination of carbon nitrogen balance by respiration experiments.

Definition:

SE is defined as the number of Kg of starch that produces the same amount of fat as 100 kg of the respective feed.

This value is also called as starch value of the feedstuff.

SE = ( Weight of fat stored per unit of food/ Weight of fat stored per unit weight of starch) X 100.

One kg of starch fed in excess of maintenance requirement produced 248 g of body fat or since 1 gram of fat is equivalent to 9.5 Kcal, the NE value of 1 kg of starch for fattening is 2360 Kcal (2.36 Mcal).

Kellner expressed the energy value of feedstuff by its fat producing ability relative to that of pure starch.

(Eg.) When we say that the SE of wheat bran is 45, it means that 100 kg of wheat bran can produce as much animal fat as 45 kg of pure starch when fed in addition to maintenance ration or in other words 100 kg of wheat bran contains as much net/productive energy as 45 kg of the starch.

Starch value of typical feedstuffs has been determined by carbon-nitrogen balance experiments.

For rationing diets, starch values are computed from their content in digestible nutrients.

Kellner determined the actual fat producing power of isolated nutrients typical of the proximate constituents of feedstuffs and the results are summarized in the table below.

Digestible nutrients

Fat deposited (g)

Starch equivalent factor

Starch 250 250 =1.0250

Crude fibre 250 250 =1.0250

Ether extractFrom oil seeds 600 600 =2.4

250From cereals 525 525 =2.1

250From roughages 474 474 =1.9

250Protein 235 235 =0.9

250

It appears from the table that the starch values of starch, crude fibre and NFE are equal.

The fat producing power of protein is lower, since breakdown of protein to nitrogen free substances and formation and excretion of urea need energy.

The fat producing power of ether extract from oil seeds is considerably higher than that from cereals and roughages because the latter fractions contain a greater percentage of non-glyceride compounds such as waxes and pigments than the pure fat from oil seeds.

CALCULATION OF STARCH EQUIVALENT

The percentages of the digestible nutrients are multiplied by the respective starch equivalent factors.

The arithmetic sum of these products is called as production value/starch value.

As the calculated production values differed with the actual values Kellner used a standard for concentrates called as golden number and correction factor for roughages.

Concentrate – Golden number (0.95):

For concentrates the actual starch value is obtained from the production value by multiplying with the ‘ golden number’ or ‘value number’.

The value number expresses the ratio between the starch value of a feedstuff and that of the pure nutrients contained in the feedstuff.

Actual SE of concentrates =

 Calculated production value x 0.95 Golden number

Roughages (Correction factor):

The production value of a roughage would be reduced by 0.58 units for every 1 per cent crude fibre present in the roughages.

Actual SE of roughages =

 Calculated production value x (CF% x 0.58 ) Correction factor

MERITS AND LIMITATIONS

Merits: 

To express the energy value of feedstuff Kellner used starch, which is well known by the farmers. So the farmers easily understand it. 

In many European countries this system was once very popular and even now used in some.

It is a productive type system, which considers all the energy losses including faecal, urinary, gaseous and heat losses.

Limitations:

The starch equivalent system suffers from the same weaknesses as other net energy systems namely,

The starch value of the ration is not constant at different levels of feeding, but decreases with increasing levels.

The starch value differs considerably for different productive purposes, even at the same level of feeding.

Kellner expressed energy values for feedstuffs and requirements for all functions in starch equivalents for fattening. For fattening the efficiency is lower than for other functions like growth, lactation, etc.

Position of SE in energy evaluation:

As the SE considered all the energy losses from the body and only the useful energy is stored as fat, this system can be fit into the NE system.

MODULE-25: FOOD UNIT AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUE 

Learning objectives 

This module deals witho Armsby's Net energy system o Physiological fuel value  o Atwater ’s average Gross energy value  o Atwater’s digestible energy value  o Atwater physiological fuel values

ARMSBY'S NET ENERGY SYSTEM

Armsby used calorimeter for his NE determination unlike Kellners C-N balance.

Kellner compared two levels above maintenance and measured energy values of foods for fattening.

Armsby, however, compared two levels below maintenance – the higher level was close to maintenance – and calculated the NE value of feed by relating the addition of more food to the resultant saving in body tissues.

As the utilization of ME for maintenance is markedly higher than for fattening the evaluation of the same feedstuff according to Kellner and Armsby leads to different results.

Armsby expressed the NE value in therms (1 therm = 1 Mcal = 1000 Kcal).

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUE

Based on the composition of carbohydrate, fat and protein the heat of combustion of the feed sample can be worked out using appropriate factors.

From the gross chemical composition of the feed samples the amount of energy yielding nutrients namely carbohydrate, fat and protein are estimated.

If the amount of each is known it is easy to workout the heat of combustion of the feed sample using appropriate factors.

The heat of combustion of individual carbohydrates, proteins and fats differ with their composition. (Eg.) As determined by Atwater GE of sucrose is 3.96 Kcal/gram and that of starch is 4.23 Kcal/gram.

Energy yield of butterfat was found to be 9.21 Kcal/gram and that of lard, 9.48 Kcal/gram.

For practical use individual figures were averaged to apply to the major food stuffs (carbohydrate, fat and protein) as gross energy of food.

ATWATER ’S AVERAGE GROSS ENERGY VALUE

Average gross energy value can be worked out based on composition of carbohydrate, fat and protein using appropriate value. The following values were assigned to calculate the gross energy value.

Atwater ’s average gross energy value factors

Carbohydrate - 4.15 Kcal/g Fat - 9.4 Kcal/g Protein - 5.65 Kcal/g

ATWATER’S DIGESTIBLE ENERGY VALUE

Since none of the foodstuff is completely absorbed, some energy is excreted in the faeces and therefore the Gross Energy value of feed stuff does not represent the actual energy require for the body cells. Hence, the following digestibility coefficient of 98% to carbohydrate, 95% to fat and 92% protein are applied to monogastric animals.

The calorific values of the three nutrients are multiplied by the corresponding digestible coefficients to get the digestible values.

Atwater ’s digestible energy value factors

1 g carbohydrate = 4.15 x 0.98 = 4 Kcal 1 g fat = 9.40 x 0.95 = 9 Kcal 1 g protein = 5.65 x 0.92 = 5.2 Kcal

ATWATER PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUES

While carbohydrates and fats are completely oxidized to CO2 and water in body cells after digestion and absorption, proteins are not completely oxidized by the cell. Nitrogenous components removed from the protein in the form of urea, creatine, and uric acid that are excreted in the urine. Many combustion of urine experiments showed that the unoxidised matter is equivalent to 7.9 Kcal/gram of nitrogen, which in terms of protein is 1.25 Kcal/gram of protein.

This energy represents metabolic loss and must be subtracted from the ‘digestible protein’. After considering this Atwater has given factors for ME, which is also known as physiological fuel values.

Atwater physiological fuel value factors

Carbohydrate – 4.15 x 0.98 = 4 Kcal/g Fat – 9.40 x 0.95 = 9 Kcal/g Protein – (5.65 – 1.25) x 0.92 = 4 Kcal/g In ruminants gaseous loss also costs much of energy thus these physiological

fuel values are not applicable in the case of ruminants. These values have been used in calculating the TDN of feedstuffs, but it is a crude procedure for ruminants.

MODULE-26: DIRECT CALORIMETRY 

Learning objectives  

This chapter deals with calorimeter and its types.

DIRECT CALORIMETRY

This is simple in theory, difficult in practice; sensible heat loss (heat of radiation conduction) from the animal body can be measured with two general types of calorimeters, adiabatic and gradient.

The insensible heat (latent heat of water vaporized from the skin and the respiratory passages) is estimated by determining in some way the amount of water vapour added to the air, which flows through the calorimeter. For this, rate of airflow and change in humidity is measured.

There are two kind of calorimeterso Adiabatic calorimeter

o Gradient calorimeter

ADIABATIC CALORIMETER

In this type an animal is confined in a chamber constructed in such away that heat loss through the walls of the chamber is reduced to near zero.

This is attained by a box within a box. When the outer box or wall is electrically heated to the same temperature as

the inner wall, heat loss from the inner wall to the outer wall is impossible. Water circulating in a coil in such chamber absorbs the heat collected by the

inner wall; the volume and change in temperature of the water can be used to calculate sensible heat loss from animal body.

The construction and operation are complicated and very expensive.

GRADIENT CALORIMETER

Calorimeters of this type allow the loss of heat through the walls of the animal chamber.

The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a constant temperature with a water jacket; the temperature gradient is measured with thermocouples which line the inner and outer surfaces of the wall.

By the use of appropriate techniques it is possible to measure separately the radiation component of the sensible heat loss.

The amount of water vapour added to the air is measured by assessing the rate of airflow and change in humidity .

The main advantage of this type of calorimeter is also the accuracy in measurement.

The disadvantage is very expensive to construct and complicated to operate.

MODULE-27: INDIRECT CALORIMETRY 

Learning objectives  

This chapter deals with indirect calorimetry.

INDIRECT CALORIMETRY

Because the animal body ultimately derives all of its energy from oxidation, the magnitude of energy metabolism can be estimated from the exchange of respiratory gases.

Such measurements of heat production are more readily accomplished than are measurements of heat dissipation by direct calorimetry.

A variety of techniques are available for measuring the respiratory exchange; all ultimately seek to measure oxygen consumption and CO2 production per unit of time.

Open circuit system:

Devices allow the animal to breath atmospheric air of determined composition; the exhaust air from a chamber or expired air from a mask or cannula, is either collected or else metered and sampled and then analysed for O2 and CO2 content.

Analysis of gases has been accomplished with chemical and volumetric or manometric techniques. 

Closed circuit system:

Devices require the animal to rebreathe the same air. CO2 is removed with a suitable absorbent which may be weighed before and

after use to determine its rate of production. The use of oxygen by the animal body decreases the volume of the

respiratory gas mixture, and this change in volume is used as a measure of the rate of oxygen consumption.

Oxygen used by the animal is then replaced by a metered supply of the pure gas.

Both O2 consumption and CO2 production must be corrected for any difference in the amounts present in the circuit air at the beginning and end of the experiment.

Methane is allowed to accumulate in the circuit air and the amount present is determined at the end of the experiment.

Indirect Calorimetry by the measurement of respiratory exchange:

The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is therefore converted into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.

The overall reaction for the oxidation of a carbohydrate such as glucose is

And for the oxidation of the typical fat, tripalmitin, is

 

In an animal obtaining all its energy by the oxidation of glucose, the utilisation of 1 litre of oxygen would lead to production of 673/(6x22.4)=5.007 Kcal of heat, for mixtures of carbohydrates the average value is 5.047 Kcal, and for mixtures of fats alone, the average value is 4.715 Kcal per litre. Such values are known as thermal equivalents of oxygen, and are used in indirect calorimetry to estimate heat production from oxygen consumption.

Animals do not normally obtain energy exclusively from either carbohydrate or fat.

They oxidise a mixture of these (and of protein also), so that in order to apply the appropriate thermal equivalent when converting oxygen consumption to heat production it is necessary to know how much of the oxygen is used for each nutrient.

The proportions are calculated from what is known as the respiratory quotient (RQ).

This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used.

Since, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated from the molecules of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.

From equation (1) the RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1, and from equation (2) that of the fat, tripalmitin, as 51 CO2/72.5 O2=0.70.

If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can then be determined from standard tables. For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the oxidation of a mixture of 67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent of oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 Kcal/litre.

The mixture oxidised generally includes protein. The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the output of

nitrogen in the urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.

The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is completely oxidised) varies according to the amino acid proportions but averages 5.3 Kcal per g.

Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body cannot oxidise nitrogen, and the aveerage amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein is 4.3 Kcal.

For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbondioxide is produced and 0.96 litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.

In practice heat production calculate from respiratory exchange in ruminants is corrected for this effect by the deduction of 0.5 Kcal for each litre of methane.

An alternative means of over-coming difficulties of this kind is to calculate heat production from oxygen consumption alone.

If a respiratory quotient of 0.82 and a thermal equivalent of 4.8 are assumed, departures from this RQ of between 0.7 and 1.0 cause a maximum bias of no more than 3.5% in the estimate of heat production.

A further simplification is possible in respect of protein metabolism. The thermal equivalent of oxygen used for protein oxidation is 4.5 Kcal per

litre, not very different from the value of 4.8 assumed for carbohydrate and fat oxidation.

If only a small proportion of the heat production is caused by protein oxidation it is unnecessary to assess it separately, and so urinary nitrogen output need not be measured.

An example of the calculation of heat production from respiratory exchange is shown below:

Calculation of the heat production of a calf from values for its respiratory exchange and Urinary Nitrogen excretion.

Results of the experiment (per 24 hours)

Oxygen consumed 392.0 litres

Carbon dioxide produced

Nitrogen excreted in urine 14.8 g.

Heat from protein metabolism

Protein oxidised (14.8 x 6.25) 92.5 g.

Heat produced (92.5 x 4.3) 398 Kcal

Oxygen used (92.5 x 0.96) 88.8 litres

Carbon dioxide produced (92.5 x 0.77) 71.2 litres

Heat from carbohydrate and fat metabolism

Oxygen used (392.0 – 88.8)

3033.2 litres

Carbon dioxide produced (310.7 – 71.2)

239.5 litres

Non-protein respiratory quotient 0.79

Thermal equivalent of oxygen when RQ = 0.79 4.79 Kcal/litres

Heat produced (303.2 x 4.79)

1452 Kcal

Total Heat produced (398 + 1452)

1850 Kcal

INTRODUCTION

Indirect Calorimetry by the measurement of respiratory exchange:

The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is therefore converted into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.

The overall reaction for the oxidation of a carbohydrate such as glucose is

And for the oxidation of the typical fat, tripalmitin, is

In an animal obtaining all its energy by the oxidation of glucose, the utilisation of 1 litre of oxygen would lead to production of 673/(6x22.4)=5.007 Kcal of heat, for mixtures of carbohydrates an average value is 5.047 Kcal per litre. Such values are known as thermal equivalents of oxygen, and are used in indirect calorimetry to estimate heat production from oxygen consumption.

For an animal catabolishing mixtures of fats alone, (of 4.715 Kcal per litre calculated from equation (2) above).

Animals do not normally obtain energy exclusively from either carbohydrate or fat.

They oxidise a mixture of these (and of protein also), so that in order to apply the appropriate thermal equivalent when converting oxygen consumption to heat production it is necessary to know how much of the oxygen is used for each nutrient.

The proportions are calculated from what is known as the respiratory quotient (RQ).

This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used.

Since, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated from the molecules of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.

From equation (1) the RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 Co2/6 O2 = 1, and from equation (2) that of the fat, tripalmitin, as 51 CO2/72.5 O2=0.70.

If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can then be determined from standard tables. For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the oxidation of a mixture of 67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent of oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 Kcal/litre.

The mixture oxidised generally includes protein. The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the output of

nitrogen in the urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.

The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is completely oxidised) varies according to the amino acid proportions but averages 5.3 Kcal per g.

Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body cannot oxidise nitrogen, and the aveerage amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein is 4.3 Kcal.

For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbondioxide is produced and 0.96 litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.

In practice heat production calculate from respiratory exchange in ruminants is corrected for this effect by the deduction of 0.5 Kcal for each litre of methane.

An alternative means of over-coming difficulties of this kind is to calculate heat production from oxygen consumption alone.

If a respiratory quotient of 0.82 and a thermal equivalent of 4.8 are assumed, departures from this RQ of between 0.7 and 1.0 cause a maximum bias of no more than 3.5% in the estimate of heat production.

A further simplification is possible in respect of protein metabolism. The thermal equivalent of oxygen used for protein oxidation is 4.5 Kcal per

litre, not very different from the value of 4.8 assumed for carbohydrate and fat oxidation.

If only a small proportion of the heat production is caused by protein oxidation it is unnecessary to assess it separately, and so urinary nitrogen output need not be measured.

An example of the calculation of heat production from respiratory exchange is shown below:

Calculation of the heat production of a calf from values for its respiratory exchange and Urinary Nitrogen excretion.

Results of the experiment (per 24 hours)

Oxygen consumed 392.0 litres

Carbondioxide produced

Nitrogen excreted in urine 14.8 g.

Heat from protein metabolism

Protein oxidised (14.8 x 6.25) 92.5 g.

Heat produced (92.5 x 4.3) 398 Kcal

Oxygen used (92.5 x 0.96) 88.8 litres

Carbondioxide produced (92.5 x 0.77) 71.2 litres

Heat from carbohydrate and fat metabolism

Oxygen used (392.0 – 88.8) 3033.2 litres

Carbondioxide produced (310.7 – 71.2) 239.5 litres

Non-protein respiratory quotient 0.79

Thermal equivalent of oxygen when RQ = 0.79 4.79 Kcal/litres

Heat produced (303.2 x 4.79)

1452 Kcal

Total Heat produced (398 + 1452) 1850 Kcal

CARBON NITROGEN BALANCE TECHNIQUE

Measurement of energy retention by the Carbon and Nitrogen balance technique:

The main forms in which energy is stored by the growing and fattening animal are protein and fat, for the carbohydrate reserves of the body are small and relatively constant.

The quantities of protein and fat stored can be estimateed by carrying out a carbon and nitrogen balance trial; that is by measuring the amounts of these elements entering and leaving the body and so, by difference, the amounts retained.

The energy retained can then be calculated by multiplying the quantities of nutrients stored by their calorific values.

Both carbon and nitrogen enter the body only in the food, and nitrogen leaves it only in faeces and urine.

Carbon, however, leaves the body also in methane and carbon dioxide and the balance trial must therefore be carried out in a respiration chamber.

The procedure for calculating energy retention from carbon and nitrogen balance data is best illustrated by considering an animal in which storage of both fat and protein is taking place.

In such an animal intakes of carbon and nitrogen will be greater than the quantities excreted, and the animal is said to be in positive balance with respect to these elements.

The quantity of protein stored is calculated by multiplying the nitrogen balance by 100/16 (=6.25), for body protein is asumed to contain 16% nitrogen. It also contains 51.2% carbon, and the amount of carbon stored as protein can therefore be computed.

The remaining carbon is stored as fat, which contains 74.6% carbon. Fat storage is therefore calculated by multiplying the carbon balance, less that stored as protein, by 100/74.6.

The energy present in the protein and fat stored is then calculated by using average calorific values for body tissues.

These values vary from one species to another, for cattle and sheep those used are commonly 9.37 Kcal per g for fat and 5.32 Kcal per g for protein.

MODULE-28: PROTEIN EVALUATION OF FEEDS-SIMPLE STOMACH ANIMALS

Learning objectives  

This module describes the chemical and biological methods of evaluating protein quality and quantity. The differences between monogastric and ruminants in evaluating protein quality have

emphasized to focus differentiation for better understanding.  Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

It will enable the reader to choose the right feedstuff to feed based on protein quality to your livestock / poultry as quality of protein plays a major role in their productivity and profitability.

Last modified: Monday, 23 July 2012, 10:34 AM

DETERMINATION OF THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PROTEIN

In Simple-stomached animals :

Nutritive value of protein can be determined either by

 Chemical evaluation or  Biological experiments.

CHEMICAL EVALUATION The level of individual essential amino acids in the test materials are

assessed and the results are interpreted as follows:

Chemical score:

In this concept it is considered that the quality of a protein is decided by that essential amino acid which occurs in greatest deficit when compared with a standard.

The standard generally used is egg protein. The content of each of the essential amino acid of the protein is

expressed as a proportion to that of the standard protein. The lowest proportion is taken as the score of the protein. Eg. In wheat protein the essential amino acid in greatest deficit is

lysine. The lysine content of egg and wheat protein is 72 and 27g/kg DM

respectively, and the chemical score for wheat protein is 27/72=0.37. Disadvantage: No account is taken of the deficiencies of acids other

than the amino acid in greatest deficit.

Essential amino acid Index : (EAAI)

 Is defined as the geometric mean of the egg ratios of essential amino acids.

Advantage : Predicting the effect of supplementation in combination of proteins.

Disadvantage: Protein having different amino acid profile may have same or a very similar index.

Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 11:59 AM

BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS

A knowledge of the amino acid content of proteins can only help to interpret nutritional differences among proteins in terms of their amino acid make up.

Quantitative data regarding the relative digestibility coefficient and nutritive value of protein i.e. suitability to meet the protein requirements of the body can be obtained only through experiments on animals or human beings.

o Digestibility Co-efficient.o Protein efficiency ratio (PER)o Net protein retention (NPR)o Gross protein value (GPV) o Nitrogen Balance Experiments o Biological value o Net protein utilization (NPU) o Protein replacement value (PRV)  

DIGESTIBILITY COEFFICIENT

Before the ingested food becomes available, it must undergo digestion during which it is broken down to simpler substances, which are absorbed in the body.

Proteins differ in their digestibility. The term digestibility Coefficient of protein refers to the percentage of the

ingested protein absorbed into the blood stream after the process of digestion is complete.

The digestible protein in a food may be determined by digestibility trials. For determination of digestibility coefficient the following data are required.

o Food nitrogen in take.o Total faecal nitrogen excreted and metaboic faecal nitrogen (when an

animal is fed on nitrogen - free diet certain amount of nitrogen is excreted in the faeces. This is derived mainly from the digestive juices. This is called metabolic faecal nitrogen).

Digestible protein figures are not entirely satisfactory assessments of a protein, because the efficiency with which the absorbed protein is used differs considerably from one source to another.

In order to take this into account, methods of evaluating proteins have been derived which are based on the response of experimental animals to the protein under consideration.

PROTEIN EFFICIENCY RATIO (PER)

The protein efficiency ration normally uses growth of the rat as a measure of the nutritive value of dietary proteins.

It is defined as the weight gain per unit weight of protein eaten and may be calculated by using the following formula.

PER = Gain in body weight / Protein consumed

Usually a diet containing 10% of protein and eaten by male albino rats of 21 days old is used and the assay period is four weeks.

NET PROTEIN RETENTION (NPR)

A modification of PER method, where the weight gain of the experimental group is compared with a group on a protein - free diet, gives the “net protein retention”.

NPR = (Weight gain by test protein group – weight loss of non protein group)/Weight of protein consumed

GROSS PROTEIN VALUE (GPV)

The live weight gains of chicks receiving a basal diet containing 80g crude protein/kg are compared with those of chicks receiving the basal diet plus 30g/kg of a test protein, and of others receiving the basal diet plus 30g/kg of casein.

The extra live weight gain per unit of supplementary test protein, stated as a proportion of the extra live weight gain per unit of supplementary casein, is the gross protein value of the test protein, i.e.

GPV = A /Ao

o Where A is g increased weight gain/g test protein, and Ao is g increased weight gain/g casein.

NITROGEN BALANCE EXPERIMENTS

A more accurate evaluation of protein may be obtained by using the results of nitrogen balance experiments.

In such experiments the ‘N’ consumed in the food is measured as well as that voided in faeces, urine and any other ‘N’ containing products such as milk, wool or eggs. When the ‘N’ intake is equal to the out put the animal is in ‘N’ equilibrium.

When the intake exceeded the out go, it is in positive value, when the out go exceed the intake the animal is in negative value.

BIOLOGICAL VALUE

It is a direct measure of of the proportion of the food protein which can be utilised by the animal for synthesising body tissues and compounds and may be defined as the percentage of the nitrogen absorbed which is retained by the animal.

A balance trial is conducted on albino rats in which nitrogen intake and urinary and faecal excretion of nitrogen are measured and the results are used to calculate the biological value as follows.

Part of the faecal N is not derived from the feed but from endogenous losses and is called metabolic faecal N. Urinary n also contains a proportion of N known as endogenous urinary N .

It is N derived from irreversible reactions involved in the break down and replacement of various proteins structures and secretions.

MFN and EUN can be estimated in an animal fed a nitrogen - free diet. Since these fractions represent the already used up protein they have to be

subtracted from faecal and urinary N lossses to arrive at a more precise BV.                    

While estimating BV the protein intake must be sufficient to bring about N retention. It should not be in excess of maximum retention.

The diet must be adequate in all other nutrients. The amino acid mixtures absorbed by the animals are required for the

synthesis of body proteins. The efficiency of this synthesis depends upon how close the amino acid

proportions of the abosorbed mixture resemble those of body proteins, and partly on the extent to which these proportions can be modified.

The biological value of a food protein, therefore, depends upon the number and kind of amino acids present in the molecule: the nearer the food protein approaches the body proteins in amino acid makeup, the higher will be the biological value.

Animals have little ability to store amino acids in the free state and if an amino acid is not immediately required for protein synthesis it is readily broken down and either transformed into a dispensable amino acid which is needed by the animal, or used as an energy source.

Since indispensable amino acids cannot be effectively synthesised in the animal body, an imbalance of these in the diet leads to a wastage.

Food proteins with either a deficiency or an excess of any particular amino acid will tend to have a low biological value.

If we consider two food proteins, one deficient in lysine and rich in methionine and the other deficient in methionine but containing an excess of lysine, then if these proteins are given separately to young pigs, they will both have low biological values because of the imbalance of these two indispensable amino acids.

If however the two proteins are given together, then the mixture of indispensable amino acids will be better balanced and the mixture will have a higher biological value than either protein given alone. Such proteins supplement each other.

In practice, and for a similar reason, it often happens that a diet containig a large variety of proteins has a higher biological value than a diet containing only a few.

This also explains why biological values for individual foods cannot be applied when mixtures of foods are used, since clearly the resultant biological value of a mixture is not simply a mean of the individual components. For the same reason it is impossible to predict the value of a protein, as a supplement to a given diet, from its biological value.

Animal proteins generally have higher biological values than plant proteins, although there are exceptions such as gelatine, which is deficient in several indispensable amino acids.

NET PROTEIN UTILISATION (NPU)

The usefulness of a protein to animal will depend upon its digestibility as well as its biological value.

The products of these two values is the proposition of the nitrogen intake which is retained and is termed as “Net protein utilization”.                           

PROTEIN REPLACEMENT VALUE (PRV)

This value measures the extent to which a test protein will give the same balance as an equal amount of a standard protein.

Two nitrogen balance determinations are carried out, one for a standard such as egg or milk protein, which is of high quality, and one for the protein under investigation.

The PRV is calculated as follows:

                            PRV = (A – B) / N intake

Where A = N balance for standard protein in mg/basal kJ, B = N balance for protein under investigattion in mg/basal kJ.

The method can also be used to compare two proteins under similar conditions, when no standard value for replacement is required.

The PRV measures the efficiency of utilisation of the protein given to the animal.

Other methods measure the utilisation of digested and absorbed protein.

MODULE-29: PROTEIN EVALUATION OF FEEDS-RUMINANTS

Learning objectives  

This module describes the chemical and biological methods of evaluating protein quality and quantity. The differences between monogastric and ruminants in evaluating protein quality have emphasized to focus differentiation for better understanding.  Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

It will enable the reader to choose the right feedstuff to feed based on protein quality to your livestock as quality of protein plays a major role in their productivity and profitability.

CRUDE PROTEIN

The proximate composition of the feed provides this information. However, the evaluation of feed based on the Crude protein content is not

satisfactory as the utility of protein cannot be judged based on chemical composition.

DIGESTIBLE CRUDE PROTEIN

As determining the DCP of large number of foods is impracticable, often the crude protein value of the feed and the digestible coefficient of crude protein is referred from the tables available in the literature.

This holds good for concentrates which has relatively constant composition and digestibility coefficient.

With roughage, a different approach is usually taken owing to their greater variability and relatively greater importance of metabolic faecal nitrogen in material of low protein content.

In this case regression equation for DCP and CP are used to calculate the former. A typical equation

DCP ( g/kg DM) = CP(g/kg DM) X 0.9115 – 36.7

Is widely used for grasses, hays and silages.

DEGRADABLE AND UNDEGRADABLE PROTEIN

Proposed by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) for the UK and based on the classification of protein as ‘Rumen degradable (RDP) and undegradable dietary protein(UDP)’.

The requirements of RDP & UDP to ruminants under various physilogical conditions have been assesed and fed accordingly.

METABOLISABLE PROTEIN

‘Metabolisable protein’ system is used in the USA . Metabolisable protein is that part of the dietary protein which is absorbed

by the host animal and is available for use at tissue level. It consist partly of dietary true protein which has escaped degradation in the

rumen but which has been broken down to amino acids which are subsequently absorbed from the small intestine.

Microbial protein, synthesised in the rumen, similarly contributes to metabolisable protein.

Calculation of ‘Metabolisible Protein’ of diet:

1000g of dietary protein yields 750g of metabolisable protein, but this depends upon the validity of certain assumptions particularly the proportion of dietary crude protein present in non-protein form, the degradability of dietary true protein, and the efficiency of synthesis of microbial protein, which is determined by the supply of energy readily available to the rumen micro-organisms.

In the system of protein allowances, in terms of rumen degradable protein (RDP) i.e. that available to the micro-organisms, and undegradable dietary protein (UDP) which escapes degradation in the rumen but which undergoes digestion and absorption in the lower gut, and utilisation at tissue level.

 In calculating allowances, assumptions have to be made concerning microbial nitrogen requirements, efficiency of NPN capture by rumen micro-organisms, digestibility of protein in the small intestine and utilisation of absorbed nitrogen at tissue level.

The proportion of protein escaping breakdown in the rumen may be estimated in vivo by measuring dietary nitrogen intake, and the non-ammonia nitrogen and microbial nitrogen passing the duodenum. Degradability of nitrogen is then expressed as:

The method requires accurate measurement of duodenal flow and microbial nitrogen. The former, which requires the use of a dual phase marker system, has a large coefficient of variation (between animals) and many published values must be suspect owing to the small number of animals used in their determination.

Microbial nitrogen in duodenal nitrogen is usually identified by means of marker substances such as diaminopimelic acid (DAPA), amino ethylphosphonic acid (AEPA), ribonucleic acid and 35S, 32P and 15N labeled amino acids.

 The concentration of marker in the micro-organisms is measured in a sample of rumen fluid.

Different markers may give results which vary widely, sometimes by as much as 100 per cent and frequently by 20-30 per cent.

The assumption that the micro-organisms isolated from rumen fluid are representative of those in the duodenum is of doubtful validity since the latter include organisms normally adherent to food particles or the rumen epithelium.

The formula for calculating degradability given above ignores the fact that duodenal nitrogen contains a significant fraction which is of endogenous origin.

 It would be more accurate if degradability was calculated as follows:

The endogenous fraction constitutes about 50 to 200 g/kg of duodenal nitrogen but is difficult to quantify,. A value of 150g/kg is frequently assumed.

 Measurements of degradability are thus subject to possible error owing to uncertainties in measuring duodenal flow, microbial nitrogen and the endogenous nitrogen and, in addition, are affected by dietary considerations such as level of feeding and the size and frequency of meals.

It has been calculated that estimates of degradability may vary over a range of 0.3 to 0.35 owing to errors of determination alone.

Despite its inadequacies this technique remains the only method, currently available, for providing an absolute measure of protein degradability and a standard against which other methods have to be assessed.

A method of estimating protein degradation in the rumen by incubation of the food in synthetic fibre bags suspended in the rumen is often used. The degradability figure is calculated as the difference between the nitrogen initially present in the bag and that present after incubation, stated as a proportion of the initial nitrogen.

                    

MODULE-30: VARIOUS PHYSICAL,CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF FEED PROCESSING FOR IMPROVING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF INFERIOR

QUALITY ROUGHAGES 

Learning objectives  

This module provides an insight on the options available to improve the nutritive valueof inferior quality roughages. Reader will realize that simple techniques can enhance nutritive value of inferior quality roughages and thereby profitability in livestock farming.

Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

It will enable the reader to decide effective way of enhancing the nutritive value of inferior quality roughages.

PROCESSING METHODS TO IMPROVE NUTRITIVE VALUEPhysical Chemical Biological Combination

Soaking. Grinding. Steam pressure. Explosion. Irradiation. Pelletting. Supplementation.

Acid treatment

Alkali treatment.

Use of other chemicals- ozone,H2O2.

SCP production.

Use of cellulolytic organisms.

Mushroom Growth.

Physico chemical.

Karnal process.

PHYSICAL TREATMENT

Soaking:

Chopped straw is soaked in water overnight. Softens the straw leading to increased intake.

Disadvantage is mould growth.

Chaffing:

Decreasing particle size. Increases surface area for action of rumen microbes and hence increase digestibility.

Grinding:

Particle size is reduced still further. (0.1 to 0.3 cm ).

Disadvantage is that it increases rumen flow rate, decreases retention time in the rumen leading to decreased production of acetate causing a condition of low milk fat syndrome.

Steam pressure – Straw treated with Steam at pressure of 21.1 kg/cm2 for 10 to 30 seconds. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes cellulose available for microbial action.

Explosion:

Chopped or ground straw is treated with steam at pressure of 22.5 kg/cm2 for two minutes and pressure is suddenly released.

Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes cellulose available for microbial action.

Irradiation:

Straw is treated with γ irradiation. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and makes cellulose available for

microbial action.

Pelleting:

Particle size is reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 cm and pelleted through 1-2 cm die. Retention time in the rumen increases and the disadvantage of only grinding

is overcome.

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Acid treatment:

Straw is soaked in dilute acids for a specified period of time, washed with water drained and fed to the animals.

Not popular due to the corrosive action of acids. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and makes cellulose available for

microbial action.

Alkali treatment:

Straw is treated with NaOH, NH4OH, CaOH, KOH, Urea. When straw is exposed to the alkali the ester linkages between lignin and

cellulose / hemicellulose are hydrolysed causing the cellulose / hemicellulose to be available for digestion by microbes.

NaOH treatment:

Beckman process:

o Straw is soaked for 1-2 days in dilute solution of NaOH (15-30 g / litre), washed to remove excess alkali and fed to the animals.

Dry method:o  Straw is chopped and sprayed with NaOH 300g/ litre (170 litre /

tonne of straw)

Ammonia treatment:

Anhydrous form or concentrated solution is used – 30 to 35 kg/ tonne of straw.

Straw is stacked, ammonia solution is sprayed over the straw, kept covered for 20 days and then fed to the animals.

This method not only increases the digestability of the straw it also increases the nitrogen content of it.

Disadvantage – On opening the stack most of the ammonia is lost by volatilization.

Sometimes there is formation of toxic imidazoles from reactions between ammonia and sugars leads to dementia (Bovine bonkers)

Procedure for preparing Urea Enriched Paddy Straw:

Required Materials:

Paddy straw - 100 kg. Urea - 4 kg. Water (Clean) - 65 litres Spinkler

Procedure:

To enrich 100 kg of paddy straw

Dissolve 4 kg urea in 65 litres of water Spread a polythene sheet/Gunny bag on the floor. Initially spread 5 kg of

paddy straw in layers. Using the sprinkler, sprinkle the prepared urea solution over the paddy

straw ensuing that all the paddy straw is wet by it. Similarly spread another layer of paddy straw over the first layer and repeat

the sprinkling of urea solution. Repeat the spreading and sprinkling for the entire 100 kg of paddy straw

and heap it and cover the straw with polythene sheets to prevent the escape of ammonia liberated from urea. This step facilitates the breakage of lignocellulose bond by ammonia thereby releasing cellulose from lingin bondage for digestion and utilisation.

After 21 days the urea treated paddy straw is ready for feeding.

Click to view animation 

Advantages:

TDN increased from 45 to 60%. CP increased from 2% to 10%. Palatability increased, therefore feed intake increases.

Feeding Urea treated Paddy Straw:

It is advisable to feed the urea treated Paddy Straw for calves above 6 months of age

Adaptation period is required. The same precautions adopted when feeding NPN substances are to be followed.

The urea enriched paddy straw, may be left in the open for 5 minutes prior to feeding in order to remove the pungent odour of urea.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

Growing cellulolytic microorganisms such as white rot fungi Trichoderma viridae, Trichoderma lignorum.

Growing mushrooms:

Straw is steam treated, packed in polythene bags, inoculated with seed material of mushroom, bag when filled with mycelia slit open to allow fruiting, after harvesting of mushrooms the spent straw is used as feed.

Single cell protein production:

Straw is hydrolysed, steam treated, treated with ammonia, inoculated with Candida utilis and incubated, after harvesting of SCP the spent straw is used as feed.

Enzyme treatment:

Pretreatment of straw with lignase

Preparation of silage:

Straw sprayed with water, additives such as molasses added and ensiled in a silo.

Nitrogen content is increased by adding urea or poultry manure. The above treatments cause biodegradation of lignin and increases the

digestibility of cellulose. They also increase the protein content of the straw.

KARNAL PROCESS

Technology developed at NDRI, Karnal. Straw treated with 4%urea at moisture level of 60%.

Stacked in a silo pit under cover for 30 days. A temporary loose brick structure constructed.

Thin layer of urea treated straw spread evenly in this structure. A solution of the following composition is prepared. 60g superphosphate,

60g calcium oxide dissolved in 8 litre water. Sprinkled over the urea treated straw.

Inoculated with 3% Coprinus fimeratius culture. Allowed to remain for 5 days then used for feeding. Main advantage of this process is that free ammonia is converted into

microbial protein and ligno cellulose bond is degraded.

EFFECT OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS

Advantage:

Increases palatability. Increases digestability. Certain treatments increase nitrogen or protein content. Improves animal performance.

Disadvantage:

Increase feed cost. Technology or methodology involved.

MODULE-31: CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS - HAY

Learning objectives  

This module will make the learner to understand the need for conserving fodder and options available to do so. The chemical reactions that take place during preservation and ways and means to avoid losses during preservation have also been detailed.

It will enable the learner to choose the best method of preserving fodder and will help you to tide over shortage of fodder at the time of fodder scarcity.

Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

It will also aid the learner in planning your farm activities and draw schedule foreseeing possible difficulties well in advance.

CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS

Seasonal variaton creates surplus forages at one point of time, that would be wasted if not conserverd.

There are two methods of conserving forages, the simple method is to drive off moisture in forages, while in the other method, natural fermentation is facilitated to retain succulance in the preserved forage.

The driving off moisture from forage forms the basis in hay making while retaing forage’s succulance forms the basis for silage making.

CROP RESIDUES

Hay making:

Reducing the moisture content of the green crop to a level low enough (12-14%) to inhibit the action of plant and microbial enzymes is the aim of hay making.

The harvested crop can be dried either by natural drying or through artificial drying, but natural drying is preferred as there it can be done without incurring expenditure towards electricity.

Hay can be stored satisfactorily in a stack or bale.

Natural drying

Artificial drying

Requisites for good hay:

Good quality hay can be produced by considering the following points.

o Selection of crop – The

Soft pliable stem. Harvest at

2/3rd flowering.

crop to be made as hay should have soft pliable stem.

o Harvesting of crop – The crop should be harvested at 2/3rd flowering stage as it is at that time the plant will have the maximum nutrient in it. Delaying the harvesting further would divert the nutrients from the plant to seed production resulting in low nutritive value of the harvested crop.

o Hay should be leafy and green in colour as they reflect the nutritive value of hay.

o Hay should be free from moulds and weeds.

o Hay should have the characteristic aroma of the crop.

Leafy; green hay. Free from Moulds &

weeds. Characteristic aroma.

SCHEDULE FOR HARVESTING AND CURING OF HAY

Good quality hay can be produced by harvesting the crop early in the morning and left in the field as such for curring.

The harvested crop should be allowed to dry in the field until the moisture content is reduced to about 40%.

Frequent turning is necessary to facilitate uniform drying.

On sunny days field drying of harvested crop for two days is sufficient to make hay.

The air dried crop may be turned with the rake and made into small feathery windrows at the end of first day.

The windrows may be baled at the end of second day and if further drying is required inspite of two days of sun drying, they may be placed over tripods or tetrapods or over the fence to facilitate airation

Hay making:

Harvest in morning.

Left in field for sun drying.

Turing facilitates drying.

during drying. Hay should always be stored in well ventilated

place as they catch fire easily. Average quality hay will have 25-30 per cent crude

fibre and 45-60 per cent TDN. 

Feathery windrows at the end of day.

Place on tripods.

Baled to store.

CHEMICAL CHANGES

Plant & microbial enzymes:

Plant continues to respire even after harvest and during respiration, the sugars are oxidised to CO2 and H2O leading to increase in concentration of cell wall constituents like cellulose and lignin.

Plant enzymes proteolyse the protein resulting in formation of free amino acids that could be lost due to leaching.

Sugars (O) CO2 + H2O

Protein to Amino acids

Oxidation:

During drying, oxidation occurs leading to reduction in the carotene concentration and that is why sun drying should be stopped when greenery starts fading.

But sun drying enhances the vitamin D content in the hay due to irradiation of ergosterol present in green plant.

Reduction in carotene.

Vitamin D high.

Leaching: Loss of

Leaching causes loss of soluble minerals, sugars and nitrogenous constituents in addition to facilitating mould growth.

minerals, sugar & Nitrogen.

Mould growth.

Microbial action:

Microbes flourish during drying for prolonged period under bad weather leading to moldy hay that are unpalatable & harmful to farm animals & man.

Such hay may cause allergic diseases affecting man known as hay fever or farmer's lung.

Drying for prolonged period lead to hay fever.

Plant Species:

Legume hays are rich in protein & minerals than grass hay.

Non-legume hay has more carbohydrate but less palatable.

Legumes are rich in protein & minerals.

Stage of growth/cutting:

The nutritive value of hay depends on the stage of growth of the crop at the time of cutting.

Harvesting matured crop results in hay with lower digestibility, lower net energy value and lower palatability but with larger yield.

Harvesting immature crop results in hay with higher digestibility, higher net energy value and higher palatability but with lower yield.

Hence crop should be harvested when they are about to mature to compromise yield and quality.

Two third flowering stage is the optimum period for harvesting to make good quality

Harvest at 2/3rd flowering to make good quality hay.

hay.

Mechanical damage:

Since leaves lose moisture more quickly than the stems, they become brittle and easily crushed by handling.

Handling hay during early morning minimise loss of leaves.

Flattening of herbage facilitates uniform drying and thereby reduces shattering.

Handling hay during early morning minimize loss of leaves.

CHANGES DURING STORAGE

Dark brown colour observed in over heated hay stored at higher moisture level during stacking is due to oxidative degradation of sugars combining with amino acids or proteins.

Plant respiration ceases at about 40oC, but thermophillic bacteria continue to be active until 72oC and therefore oxidative degradation continues in hay containing thermophilic bacteria.

The heat tends to accumulate in hay stored in bulk and eventually combustion may occur.

Thermophillic bacteria continue oxidation in hay with higher moisture content.

Heat generated by oxidation leads to combustion.

 

Losses in nutritive value of hay are due to:

Losses due to late cutting. Losses of leaves by shattering. Losses due fermentation. Losses due to leaching.

Biochemical changes during and storage of hay:

Carbohydrate:

o Plant continues to respire even after harvest and during respiration, the sugars are oxidised to CO2 and H2O leading to increase in concentration of cell wall constituents like cellulose and lignin.

o Organic acids concentration decreases during wilting.

Nitrogenous constituents:o  Plant enzymes proteolyse the

protein resulting in formation of free amino acids.

o Cynogenic glycosides in forages lose their toxicity during drying due to denaturation of enzymes.

Vitamins:o During Sun drying oxidation

occurs leading to reduction in the carotene concentration and that is why sun drying should be stopped when greenery starts fading.

o But sun drying enhances the vitamin D content in the hay due to irradiation of ergosterol present in green plant.

Sugars   (O)  CO2 + H2O Protein         Amino acids Reduction in

carotene Vitamin D higher

ARTIFICIALLY DRIED FORAGES

Artificial drying is very efficient process but expensive method of conserving forage crops.

Drying is brought about by allowing hot gas (150oC) to pass through herbages for about 20 to 50 minutes depending upon the drier design and the moisture content of the crop.

There are driers wherein gases in the range of 500-1000oC are

Hot gas (150oC) for 20 –50 minutes

Hot gas (500-1000oC) for 0.5-2 minutes.

allowed to pass through to dry herbages within 0.5 to 2 minutes.

MODULE-32: CONSERVATION OF FORAGE CROPS-SILAGE

Learning objectives  

This module will make the learner to understand the need for conserving fodder and options available to do so. The chemical reactions that take place during preservation and ways and means to avoid losses during preservation have also been detailed. It also enable the learner to choose the best method of preserving fodder and will help you to tide over shortage of fodder at the time of fodder scarcity.

Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding.

This module will also aid the learner in planning your farm activities and draw schedule fore seeing possible difficulties well in advance.

SILAGESilage:

Silage is the preserved material produced by the controlled fermentation of crop under anaerobic conditions in a structure known as silo.

Ensilage is the name given to the silage making process.

The main purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent fodders for usage at the time of scarcity.

Silage making involves natural fermentation in anaerobic condition with due care to discourage activities of undesirable bacteria.

Click to view animation 

Preserved forage under anaerobic condition.

Ensilage: Silage making process.

Silo: Silage containers.

Advantages of Silage Making:

Silage can be made even on weather that does not permit hay making.

More number of animals can be reared

Can be made on all weather.

More number of animals/ land.

per unit of land. Year round supply of high quality

succulent fodder is possible. Satisfactory silage can be produced in

spite of weeds, as ensiling process kills many kinds of weed seeds.

Silage making converts stemmy forage crops to soft that are better utilized by the livestock.

Year round fodder supply.

Weeds do not interfere.

Stemmy forage becomes soft.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SILAGE MAKING

Selection of crop:o Crop with soft and pliable stem is

most suitable for silage making. Time of harvest:

o Crop should be harvested when 50% of the crop are in ear emergence stage as at this stage crop will be nutritious as well as with high biomass yield.

Wilting of the crop:o Crops with high moisture (85%) will

produce more effluents that would go as waste.

o To reduce effluent loss, crops with high moisture content are wilted for few hours, until moisture level is reduced to 60 %.

Chaffing of the crop:o The success of silage depends on the

ability to provide anaerobic condition in silo.

o Anaerobic condition prevents oxidation of nutrients in crop and promotes conducive environment for desirable organisms to survive and produce lactic acid.

o Thus in order to prevent the development of air pockets in silo, compression of ensiling materials is important.

o Compression can be achieved better by chaffing the crop.

Factors to be considered:

Crop with soft & pliable.

50% ear emergence.

Wilt until 60% moisture.

Chaffing to pack well.

Smooth & strong silo wall.

2% molasses & 1% salt.

Rapid filling the silo.

Compaction for anaerobic fermentation.

Sealing the silo.

Preparation of the silo:o Several type of containers are used

as silo.o The silo should be cleaned and re

plastered to make the silo walls smooth and strong.

Additives:o Molasses at the rate of 2% (Weight

of forage) provides readily available carbohydrate necessary for increasing the lactic acid production by lactobacillus.

o Further Molasses increases palatability and nutritive value of silage.

o Molasses is sprayed over the forages to facilitate uniform distribution.

o Salt at the rate of 1% (Weight of forage) is also added to improve palatability of silage.

Filling up of the silo:o Rapid filling of silo is desired for

anaerobic condition.o Silage making should not be

undertaken during rainy days. Compaction:

o Compaction of chaffed material can be brought about by manual trampling or by engaging tractor.

o Compaction is the key step in silage as it removes the air pockets to promote anaerobic fermentation.

Sealing of the silo to prevent the entry of air or water:

o To sustain anaerobic condition and to prevent entry of atmospheric air / rain into silo, the silo should be sealed as soon as the silo is filled.

o It is advisable to fill the silo pit to form a dome shape and cover it with insulators like tarpaulin sheet or plaster it with mud.

o Dome shape filling will facilitate rainwater to run off and prevents seepage.

Silage will be ready in four weeks time. Upon opening the silo, the silage should be

taken out daily to feed animals.

PRINCIPLES OF FERMENTATION IN SILO

The fermentation in silo can be regulated by

Encouraging lactic acid formation by bacteria present on the fresh herbage or

Addition of preservatives such as sodium matabisulphite or by direct addition of a weak acid solution.

The first method the soluble carbohydrates present in the plant material is fermented to lactic acid, resulting in a lowering of pH to within the range of 3.8 – 4.2.

o Material of this type has a lactic acid content (8-12% drymatter) and is described as ‘well preserved silage’.

o As long as the silage mass is kept under anaerobic conditions, its pH will remain stable at 4 and the silage can be stored for 3-4 years.

o If, however, rain is allowed to enter the silage (or) if lactic acid concentration is scarce, secondary clostridial fermentation take place.

o There are two types clostridias, while one group cause a break down of the lactic acid with the production of butyric acid, the other group of clostridiaattack amino acids, with the formation of ammonia, organic acids, amines and CO2.

o Either or both of these types of clostridia may become dominant in poorly preserved silage which will have a comparatively high pH value of above 5.

In well preserved silage pH 3.8 –4.2

The process of fermentation can be divided into four phases:

Phase I:o Aerobic phase, plant

enzymes breaks down soluble carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.

Phase II:o Enterobactor species of

bacteria acts on soluble carbohydrates producing acetic acid and lowers the pH slightly.

Phase III:o Lactic acid producing

bacteria (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus spp) ferments soluble carbohydrates present in the plant material to lactic acid resulting in a lowering of pH .

Phase IV:o Lactic acid production

peaks; stabilises to within the range of 3.8 – 4.2. At this pH, crop preservation is good.

The second method of silage making process involves the sterilisation of the mass in the silo by adding chemical sterilisation agents such as formaldehyde, sulphur dioxide or sodium metabisulphate.

The success of this method depends mainly upon ensuring ample mixing with the crop, which may frequently be difficult to

Four phases in silage:o Soluble

carbohydrate converted to CO2; H2O.

o Enterobactor produces acetic acids; lowers pH.

o Lactic acid producing bacteria produce lactic acid; further lower pH.

o pH stabilizes at 3.8 – 4.2. silage well preserved.

Chemical sterilization by formaldehyde/ suplhur dioxide or sodiummetabisulphate

Direct acidification:A.I.Virtanen – acid mixture added to lower pH to 4.0

carry out. The nutritive value of the

preserved material should be very similar to that of the original herbage, if effluent production is not great and satisfactory sterilisation is achieved.

Direct acidification of the crop, is yet an another method of preserving herbage; one such system is the A.I.V. process, named after originator A.I.Virtanen.

The mixture of acids used in this process consists of hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

These acids are added to material during ensiling in sufficient quanity to lower the pH value below 4.

A.I.V. silage has been shown to be palatable and harmless to ruminants.

PRINCIPLES OF FERMENTATION IN SILO

The fermentation in silo can be regulated by

Encouraging lactic acid formation by bacteria present on the fresh herbage or

Addition of preservatives such as sodium matabisulphite or by direct addition of a weak acid solution.

The first method the soluble carbohydrates present in the plant material is fermented to lactic acid, resulting in a lowering of pH to within the range of 3.8 – 4.2.

o Material of this type has a lactic acid content (8-12% drymatter) and is described as ‘well preserved silage’.

o As long as the silage mass is kept

In well preserved silage pH 3.8 –4.2

under anaerobic conditions, its pH will remain stable at 4 and the silage can be stored for 3-4 years.

o If, however, rain is allowed to enter the silage (or) if lactic acid concentration is scarce, secondary clostridial fermentation take place.

o There are two types clostridias, while one group cause a break down of the lactic acid with the production of butyric acid, the other group of clostridiaattack amino acids, with the formation of ammonia, organic acids, amines and CO2.

o Either or both of these types of clostridia may become dominant in poorly preserved silage which will have a comparatively high pH value of above 5.

The process of fermentation can be divided into four phases:

Phase I:o Aerobic phase, plant

enzymes breaks down soluble carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.

Phase II:o Enterobactor species of

bacteria acts on soluble carbohydrates producing acetic acid and lowers the pH slightly.

Phase III:o Lactic acid producing

bacteria (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus spp) ferments soluble carbohydrates present in the plant material to lactic acid resulting in a

Four phases in silage:o Soluble

carbohydrate converted to CO2; H2O.

o Enterobactor produces acetic acids; lowers pH.

o Lactic acid producing bacteria produce lactic acid; further lower pH.

o pH stabilizes at 3.8 – 4.2. silage well preserved.

Chemical sterilization by formaldehyde/ suplhur dioxide or sodiummetabisulphate

Direct acidification:A.I.Virtanen – acid mixture added to

lowering of pH . Phase IV:

o Lactic acid production peaks; stabilises to within the range of 3.8 – 4.2. At this pH, crop preservation is good.

The second method of silage making process involves the sterilisation of the mass in the silo by adding chemical sterilisation agents such as formaldehyde, sulphur dioxide or sodium metabisulphate.

The success of this method depends mainly upon ensuring ample mixing with the crop, which may frequently be difficult to carry out.

The nutritive value of the preserved material should be very similar to that of the original herbage, if effluent production is not great and satisfactory sterilisation is achieved.

Direct acidification of the crop, is yet an another method of preserving herbage; one such system is the A.I.V. process, named after originator A.I.Virtanen.

The mixture of acids used in this process consists of hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

These acids are added to material during ensiling in sufficient quanity to lower the pH value below 4.

A.I.V. silage has been shown to be palatable and harmless

lower pH to 4.0

to ruminants.

NATURE OF CROP

Legumes have low soluble carbohydrate content with high buffering capacity make them difficult to ensile.

However, spraying sugar additive, such as molasses on to the crop at the time of filling the silo provides conducive environment for ensiling.

In order to obtain nutritious as well as maximum yield of crop, they should be harvested when 50% of the crop are in ear emergence stage as digestibility falls rapidly with increasing herbage maturity.

Chopping or crushing the crop exposes the cell sap which tends to produce more favourable condition for microorganism activity.

Spray molasses to legumes to provide readily soluble carbohydrate.

Chopping exposes cell sap for microbial fermentation.

LOSSES OF NUTRIENTS DURING ENSILAGE

Field losses:o Harvesting

and ensiling on the same day prevents loss of water soluble carbohydrates and protein.

o Wilting beyond 5 days leads to 6 to 10 % dry matter losses.

Oxidation losses:o In the

Wilting beyond 5 days leads to 6-10% DM loss.In the presence of air carbohydrate breakdown  to CO2 + H2O.Total DM loss due to fermentation in silage  not to exceed 5%.Effluent loss depends on moisture level.

presence of oxygen, the action of plant and microbial enzymes on substrates such as sugars, leads to the formation of CO2 and water.

o Rapid filling of silo and compression eliminates air pockets leaving unaerobic condition suitable for ensiling and thereby preventing oxidation losses.

Fermentation losses:

o Even though considerable biochemical changes occur during fermentation, the net dry matter loss may not exceed 5% and energy loss

may be still lower as high energy compounds like ethanol are formed during ensiling.

Effluent losses: o Effluents

are highly nutritious as they contain sugars, soluble nitrogenous compounds, minerals and fermentation acids.

o The amount of  drainage effluent produced depends largely upon the initial moisture content of the crop.

o Crops ensiled with moisture of 85% may result in effluent dry matter losses as high as 10%, whereas crops

wilted to about 70% moisture produce little effluent.

SILOS

The size of the container will generally depend upon the number and kind of animals to be fed.

The container plays an important role on the nature and quality of silage.

Types of Silos

Pit silo:

The pit can be excavated in any suitable soil located at non waterlogging area.

Silo can be cylindrical or rectangular with strong stright and smooth walls.

The dimension of the pit varies with circumstances and the number of stock to be fed.

About 10 kg of silage can be accomodated in one cubic feet of silo.

 

Locate at non water logged area.

10 Kg silage /cubic feet.

Characteristics of silo pits:

Size of the silo depends on the number and kind of animals to be fed daily, the length of the feeding period, and the amount of forage available for ensiling.

Silo walls should be strong to withstand pressure with

 

Size depends on number of animals.

Strong walls. Depth facilitate packing. Provision to drain effluents. Accessible for loading &

unloading.

stright and smooth to prevent the formation of air pockets.

Silo should have adequate depth to facilitate better packing.

Silo should have provision to drain effluent.

Silo pits should be conveniently located and accessible in all kinds of weather, for filling as well as for unloading.

To avoid water seepage, silo pits (not tower type) are always located preferably at the highest spot on the farm.

Locate pit at elevated place.

Advantages of pit silo:

A pit silo is very economical to build & last indefinitely.

Less power is required for filling.

The smooth plastered walls allows the silage to settle and retain the juices.

Disadvantage of pit silo:

Unloading silage from silo pit is difficult process.

The pit silo occupies farmland that becomes permanently inaccessible for cultivation.

The main difficulty is ensuring adequate compression.

TRENCH SILO

The process of ensiling using trench silo is more or less similar to pit silo but the only difference is size because trench silo usually have greater length in relation to breadth.

Advantages of trench silo:

Tractors can be used to pack silage. Less power is required for filling the

trench silo. Well adopted to ensile immature corn etc., There is minimum chance of air getting

into the silo as major part of material conserved will settle into the trench below ground level.

Unloading and carrying of silage are much easier.

Disadvantages of trench silo:

Once constructed, it is not easy to abandon.

Relatively more silage is spoilt. The trench silo must be trimmed upon the

edges & cleaned.

Trench silo

TOWER SILO

Tower silo are round, cylindrical with a varying diameter (6 to 10m), placed above the ground and the height varies from 6 to 10m or more.

Tower silos are made of wood, reinforced concrete or sheet metal. The advantage of using wood is that silage acids do not affect it. A chopper blower is necessary for filling up the silo. Silage at bottom one third will be over compressed with butyric acid smell

emanating from it. The silage at the center will be of good quality, whereas it will be often dark

and over heated in the top.

Advantages:

Material can be well preserved with no wastage.

The mass itself applies pressure & acts as air seal to lower layer.

Wilting & sealing are not important as in pit silo.

Minimum dry matter loss.

Disadvantages:

Very expensive.

Chopper blower is required to fill silo.

Emptying is very laborious.

The silage gets dehydrated, in dry hot places.

TUBE SILO

Grass is filled in plastic cylindrical tubes of varying capacity. During ensiling, various additives can be used to regulate the microbial

activity and they may be grouped aso Fermentation stimulants - Culture of lactic acid producing bacteria,

soluble carbohydrate sources.o Fermentation inhibitors - Inorganic acids, antibiotics, sodium

metabisulphite, formaldehyde and formic acids.o Others - Molasses, urea, limestone, poultry manure, salt etc.

Advantages:

It can be shifted to various locations with ease and it does not occupy permanent location.

Disadvantages:

Special machinery is required to fill as well as to evacuate silo.

 

CHARACTERISTIC OF SILAGE

Very good silage:

Clean pleasant fruity odour. Uniformly green or brownish in colour with absence of butyric acid, absence

of moulds, absence of sliminess and absence of proteolysis. The pH is between 3.8 and 4.2. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen should be less than 10 per cent of the

total nitrogen.

Good silage:

There may be traces of butyric acid with pH between 4.2 and 4.5. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen. Other points are same as of very good silage.

Fair silage:

The silage is mixed with a little amount of butyric acid. There may be slight proteolysis along with some mould. The pH is between 4.5 and 4.8. Ammoniacal nitrogen is 15-20 per cent of the total nitrogen. Colour of silage varies between tobacco brown to dark brown.

Poor silage:

Due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis, it has a bad smell. The silage may be infested with moulds. Less acidity, pH is above 4.8. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is more than 20 per cent. Colour tends to be blackish and should not be fed.

Comparison on the Characteristics of Silage

Very good silage

Good silage

Fair silage Poor silage

Butyric acid Absence Traces Little High

pH 3.8 – 4.2 4.2 – 4.5 4.5 – 4.8 > 4.8

Ammonical Nitrogen

< 10 % 10 – 15 % 15 – 20 % > 20 %

Colour Greenish brown Brownish Tobacco brown

Blackish

HAYLAGES

Haylages are low moisture silage with characteristics between those of hay and silage.

It is made from grass and/or legume to a moisture level of about 45-55%. To use up the oxygen and to trap and hold the produced CO2 within the silo,

the silos should be as airtight as possible. This condition will prevent the forage from spoiling by moulding, oxidising,

heating etc. 

Advantages:

Haylage has a pleasant aroma, palatable & high quality feed. Partially dried forage can be made into haylage.

Disadvantages:

Fine chopping, good packing and complete sealing against air entrance inside the silo is more critical than with silage.

The danger of excessive heating that lowers protein digestibility is more. 

MODULE-33: HARMFUL NATURAL CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDS AND FODDERS

Learning objectives  

Harmful natural constituents of feed and foddero This module elaborates on the harmful natural constituents of feed

and fodder and their effect on animals. The harmful natural constituents of feed and fodder have been grouped under six groups to facilitate easy understanding.

o Important points have been listed in the box for ready reference. Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding. This module will enable you to manage feeding of feed and fodder having harmful natural constituents.

HARMFUL NATURAL CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDS AND FODDERS

Harmful natural constituents are also called as anti nutritional factors. Anti-nutritive substance is defined as “those generated in natural feedstuffs

by the normal metabolism of the species and exerts effects contrary to optimum nutrition”.

Type of Anti-nutritive substances

On the basis of the type of nutrient affected and the biological response produced in the animal, the toxic factors can be classified into six major groups as follows:

o Substances depressing digestion or metabolic utilization of protein: Protease inhibitors Lectins or Ricin (hemagglutinins) Saponins Polyphenolic compounds (Tannins)

o Substances reducing the solubility or interfering with the utilization of mineral elements:

Phytic acid Oxalic acid Glucosinolates Gossypol

o Substances inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain vitamins and certain mineral:

Antivitamins A, D, E, K and anti-pyridoxine Antiminerals such as Phytic acid, Oxalic acid etc.,

o Mimosine (Anti hormone)o Nitrates and nitriteso Moulds and mycotoxins in animal feedstuffs

SUBSTANCE DEPRESSING DIGESTION OR METABOLIC UTILIZATION OF PROTEINS

Protease Inhibitors:

Substance that inhibit proteolytic enzymes and thereby growth in non-ruminants are abundant in seeds and legumes.

Six protein inhibitors have been identified in soybean; out of these, two inhibitors namely Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin inhibitors are practically significant.

Trypsin inhibitors especially interferes the protein digestion in monogastric animals.

Protein indigestibility affects growth rate, egg production and feed efficiency and also may lead to hypertrophy of pancrease and excess endogenous loss of essential amino acids.

The inhibitory substances are

 

Kunitz anti-trypsininhibitor; Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin inhibitors are important

Interferes the protein digestion.

Affects growth rate, egg production and feed efficiency.

Heat treatment nullifies the toxic effect.

Test for overheating

mostly heat labile and thus before feeding any leguminous grain to non-ruminants, it is generally corrected by proper heat treatment.

Since overheating can damages some nutrients, such as amino acids and vitamins, quality control tests have been developed to assess the adequacy of heat treatment.

These include trypsin inhibitor and urease assays, cresol red absorption, protein dispersibility index (PDI) and nitrogen solubility index (NSI).

Lectins or ricin (hamagglutinins):

Ricin in castor bean cake is a toxic fraction capable of agglutinating human red blood cells.

Lectins are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate moieties in the epithelial cell lining of small intestine, disrupting the brush border and reducing the efficiency of absorption.

Lectins are destroyed by the same conditions as those used to inactive protease inhibitors.

Lectins reduce absorption capacity.

Heat treatment destroys lectins

Saponins:

Leguminous fodders such as lucerne, white clover, red clover and soyabean contains saponin at 3% and causes saponin poisoning in livestock that can be avoided by mere water soaking and rinsing.

Saponins are bitter in taste, lather forming and inhibit the action of proteolytic enzymes.

They also causes haemolysis of red

Saponins are bitter in taste & lather forming.

Saponins alter the surface tension of rumen fluid.

Gas is trapped in small bubbles in foam in the rumen

blood cells. Adverse Actions upon excessive

eating:o In ruminant saponins results

in formation of bloat by altering the surface tension of the ruminant contents due to entrapment of countless bubbles of fermentation gases throughout the ingesta.

o The compound has got the ability to lyse red blood cells.

o In general the effects of ingestion of saponins include excessive salivation, increased respiratory tract secretion, gastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhoea, haemolysis, haematuria, bloating, reduction of gastric motility, reduction of food intake, reduction of growth rate.

Legume fodders are liable to produce “bloat” if given in large quantities and thus it is advisable that they should always be given along with some dry fodder.

causing Bloat. Saponin rupture

RBC. Increased secretion

of saliva. In respiratory tract. In GI tract

– Vomition / Diarrhoea

Polyphenolic compounds (tannins):

Also known as tannic acid, gallotannin and gallotannic acid.

Thy are naturally occurring compounds having high molecular weight (500-3000) and containing a sufficiently large number of phenolic hydroxyl groups to enable them to form effective cross-links between proteins and other macromolecules.

Chemically tannins may be grouped into two broad categories:

o Hydrolysable tannin and

Form effective cross-links between proteins; other macromolecules.

Binds protein. Lowers palatability. Dry sensation in

mouth. Reduces iron

absorption. Depress cellulase

activity.

o Condensed tannins. Tannins bind proteins. The low palatability of some

herbage plants and some grains have been attributed to their high tannin content.

Many plants employ tannins to deter animals from being grazed.

They are also markedly astringent – that is they cause a dry or puckery sensation in the mouth, by reducing the lubricant action of the glycoproteins in the saliva.

Tannins reduce the bioavailability of plant sources of iron.

High tannin content also depress cellulose activity and thereby affects digestion of crude fibre.

Tannins may cause loss of mucus, epithelial edema, irritation and damage of alimentary canal tissue, which in turn facilitate greater tannin absorption, thus causing toxicity.

Damaged GI tissue facilitate greater tannin absorption; toxicity.

SUBSTANCE REDUCING THE SOLUBILITY OR INTERFERING WITH THE UTILIZATION OF MINERAL

ELEMENTS

Phytic acid:

Phytates are the salts of phytic acid. Phytate forms complexes with mineral

elements like zinc, iron, manganese resulting the minerals insoluble in the intestinal tract.

Thus their absorption is impaired.

Forms complexes with zinc, iron, manganese; impair their absorption.

Oxalic acid:

Oxalic acid (oxalate) poisoning of livestock,

household pets and people. Plants that are rich in oxalates include beet,

spinach and a number of agro-industrial byproducts used as livestock feed ingredient.

Oxalic acids readily forms insoluble salts with calcium and magnesium leading to impaired aborption.

Forms insoluble salts with calcium and magnesium; impair their absorption.

Glucosinolates (Thioglucosides):

Their main biological effect is to depress the synthesis of the thyroid hormone (Tryroxine and Triiodothyronine), thus producing goiter.

Ruminants appear to be less susceptible to the toxic effect of glucosinolates compared with pigs and poultry.

This is probably the result of the glucosinolates being relatively unhydrolysed in the rumen.

An adequate supply of iodized salt is a preventive measure specifically in areas where non-ruminants consume goitrogenic substances in a large dose.

Glucosinolates are responsible for the pungent flavour found in some cultivated plants belonging to the genus Brassica, which includes cabbage, turnips, rapeseed and mustard seed.

Produces pungent odour.

Depress the synthesis of the thyroid hormone.

Pig & poultry are more susceptible.

Gossypol:

Gossypol pigments are polyphenolic compounds found exclusively in the pigment of cottonseed.

It is an antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor.

It is toxic to simple-stomached animals and the symptoms include depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to cardiac failure.

Antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor.

Toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium

Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium hydroxide and iron salts.

Shearing effect of screw press in expeller process is an efficient gossypol inactivator.

Pigs, rabbits, poultry are sensitive.

hydroxide; iron salts.

Pigs, rabbits, poultry are sensitive.

SUBSTANCE INACTIVATING OR INCREASING THE REQUIREMENTS OF CERTAIN VITAMINS AND

HORMONES

Anti-Vitamin A:

Raw soybean contain an enzyme lipoxygenase, which catalysis oxidation of carotene, the precoursor of vitamin A.

The enzyme can be destroyed by heating soyabean for 15 minutes with steam at atmospheric pressure.

Lipoxygenase catalysis oxidation of carotene

Heating destroys Lipoxygenase.

Anti-Vitamin D:

Soy protein (unheated) depresses vitamin D synthesis in chicks and pigs.

The effect could be partially eliminated by increasing the vitamin D in the diet by 10 fold or autoclaving the Soy Protein that was isolated from unheated soya bean.

Depresses vitamin D synthesis.

Increase Vitamin D supplementation by 10 times or autoclave.

Anti-Vitamin E:

Diets containing raw kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) produce muscular dystrophy in lambs by reducing plasma vitamin E.

Autoclaving beans eliminates the anti-vitamin activity.

Raw Kidney beans reduces plasma vitE.

Autoclaving eliminates the

anti-vitamin activity.

Anti-Vitamin K:

Dicoumarol produces fatal hemorrhagic condition in cattle called as “Sweet clover disease”.

Dicoumarol interferes with the blood clothing mechanism by reducing the prothrombin level of the blood.

The effect is due to reducing vitamin K utilization in the production of thrombin.

Dicoumarol interferes with the blood clothing mechanism by reducing vitamin K utilization.

Anti-pyridoxine:

An antagonist of pyridoxine (a member of B Vitamins) occurs in linseed which can be reduced by water soaking and autoclaving.

Mimosine:

Mimosine found in the plants belonging to the genus Leucaena like subabul is a toxic non-protein free amino acid otherwise chemically similar to tyrosine.

Mimosine can cause problems when the forage is eaten in large quantities for a long period.

Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxy pyridone (DHP) in the rumen.

DHP reaches thyroid gland and inhibits biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.

Symptoms include reduced growth, excessive salivation, loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged thyroid gland

Mimosine as degraded DHP inhibits biosynthesis of thyroxine

Reduced growth, loss of hair, enlarged thyroid; poor reproduction.

Rumen microbes atAustralia capable of detoxifying

and poor reproductive efficiency. Certain strains of rumen microbes at

Australia capable of detoxifying mimosine have been identified and are now being inoculated to livestock of other nation to overcome mimosine toxicity.

Acceptable safe daily intake of mimosine was calculated to be 0.14% g/kg body weight.

Among the various livestock, horses, sheep, pigs and even rabbits are highly sensitive to mimosine and thus subabul should not be fed to them.

Ferrous sulphate supplementation also reduce the mimosine toxicity, by forming insoluble red iron complex.

mimosine are now being inoculated to livestock of other nation to overcome mimosine toxicity.

Ferrous sulphate supplementation reduces mimosine toxicity.

Horses, sheep, pigs and even rabbits are highly sensitive to mimosine.

 

Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 04:03 PM 

CYANOGENS Sorghum and sudan grass, linseed 

andcassava root contains relatively high levels of Cyanide.

These plants generally contain cyanogenetic glycoside, which is hydrolysed to hydrocyanic acid (HCN) by the enzyme usually present in the same plant. 

High level of HCN is found in the new growth that follows either a period of drought, or a period of heavy trampling or physical damage by frost etc. 

Heavy nitrate fertilisation of the soil followed by an abundant irrigation or rainfall may increase the HCN poisoning potential of these crops.

High level of HCN is found in the new growth that follows either a period of drought, or a period of heavy trampling or physical damage by frost; heavy fertilisation followed by abundant irrigation.

Cyanide can quickly produce anoxia of the central nervous

However under favourable condition these plants do not produce HCN toxicity.

Excess cyanide ion can quickly produce anoxia of the central nervous system through inactivating the cytochrome oxidase system, and death can result within a few seconds. 

Based on the intensity, animals show nervousness, abnormal breathing, trembling or jerking muscles, blue colouration of the lining of the mouth, spasms or convulsions and respiratory failure.

Treatment includes intravenous injection of sodium nitrate and sodium thiosulphate.

Ruminants are more susceptible to HCN poisoning than are horses and pigs, because the gastric HCl in monogastric animals destroys the enzyme concerned in the release of HCN.

system and death can result within a few seconds.

Ruminants are more susceptible to HCN poisoning than are horses and pigs.

NITRATES AND NITRITES

Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous fraction (NPN) present in forages.

Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals. The toxic effect on ruminants is

caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen.

Recently fertilized plants have higher nitrate levels.

Grazing herbage containing more than 700 ppm of nitrate nitrogen / kg dry matter is considered to produce toxic effect by converting to nitrite.

Forages and drinking water when contaminated with inorganic nitrates and nitrites cause an acute toxicosis in cattle resulting from

Nitrate reduced to Nitrite in rumen to become toxic.

Nitrite combines with hemoglobin to form methemoglobin.

Methemoglobin can’t transport oxygen.

Enhanced heart rate & respiration.

Suffocates; die.

formation of methemoglobin. Nitrite is absorbed into red blood

cells and combines with hemoglobin (oxygen carrying molecule) to form brown pigment called methemoglobin.

Methemoglobin cannot transport oxygen and hence the animal's heart rate and respiration increases, the blood and tissues of the animal take on a blue to chocolate brown tinge, muscle tremors can develop, staggering occurs, and the animal eventually suffocates and die.

A high dose of concentrates in the daily ration and adequate feeding or Vitamin A have a protective effect.

MOULDS AND MYCOTOXINS IN ANIMAL FEEDSTUFFS

A mycotoxin is a fungal metabolite causing pathological or physiological changes in man or animal.

In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.

Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage from growing crop to the formulated feed or stored raw material.

Drought may leads to cracked seeds, which favours the insect infestation.

Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus on food and feed materials.

Aflatoxins, metabolite of Aspergillus flavus is most potent toxic.

Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.

Among B1, G1, B2, G2 Aflatoxins, B1 is most toxic.

Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.

High moisture in the crop, which harvested around wet period and also inadequately dried products, favours the fungal growth and toxin production.

There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2 out of which B1 is most toxic.

The susceptibility to these toxins differs among the species, turkey poults and ducklings are highly susceptible, calves and pigs are susceptible whereas mice and sheep are resistant.

In the same species, young animals are more susceptible than adults.

The most common symptoms in the affected animals are liver damage with marked bile duct proliferation, liver necrosis and hepatic tumors while the other symptoms include gastritis and kidney dysfunction.

The occurrence of these toxins in food and feed materials and their consumption has caused not only health hazards in animals and humans, but also resulted in economic losses, especially to the exporting countries.

Other fungal toxins include T2 toxin, Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone.

Turkey poults and ducklings are highly susceptible.

MODULE-34: COMMON ADULTERANTS OF FEEDS AND FODDERS

Learning objectives

This module deals with

o one of the most important aspect in manufacturing feed. Adulterants destroy the very purpose of feed formulation. Knowledge on adulterant is as important as that of understanding the quality of feed ingredients.

o the common adulterants used by unscrupulous traders to make illegal profit and also provides information on the common adulterants used in feed.

Readers are also informed that the list of adulterants in this chapter is only partial list since it is ever-growing and therefore updating information on this aspect is key to your success in feed manufacturing.

Readers are advised to view power point presentation for easy understanding. This chapter will enable you to succeed in feed manufacturing against the evil activities of unscrupulous traders.

DEFINITION

Adulteration is defined as the admixture of pure substance with some cheaper low quality substance.

o It is done intentionally usually to make money although unintentionally it can happen.

o Adulteration is done by spraying urea to raise their protein content to costly feed ingredients like oil cake and feeds of animal origin like fish meal.

o Besides urea, oil cakes are adulterated with hulls and non edible oil cakes.

COMMON ADULTERANTS

The common adulterants in feed ingredients are a follows:

Feed ingredients AdulterantsGroundnut cake Groundnut husk, urea, non edible oil cakes

Mustard cake Argimona maxicana seeds, fibrous feed ingredients, Urea

Soybean meal Urea, non edible oil cakes, Hulls, Sand

Deoiled rice bran, Wheat bran

Ground rice Husk, Saw dust, Sand

Fish meal Common salt, sand, urea, NPN, other marine

Molasses Water

Maize Cobs, Cob dust

Broken rice Marble grit

Mineral mixture Common salt, sand, limestone, marble powder

RECENT ADULTERANT: MELAMINE

Melamine is a metabolite of cyromazine, a pesticide. Melamine is mainly used in the chemical industry. Usually used to make fertilizer and plastics, melamine has no nutritional

value but is rich in nitrogen (66%). It raises the nitrogen level of feed to appear to be higher in protein, and can

lead to higher prices for feed. Routine chemical analysis cannot deduct melamine, but special techniques

are available.

FIELD TESTING METHODS

Certain field testing methods mainly based on organoleptic evaluation plays important role in identifying adulterants.

The organoleptic evaluation includes Sense of touch, Taste, Vision, Smell, Feed microscopy.

Besides, simple field tests (Spot tests) are also carried out.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - TOUCH

Touch (Evaluation by touching)

Insert hand deep into a bag of grains, if you didn’t find any temperature difference between inside and outside the bag it means that grains are properly dried.

Take a pinch of rice polishing, rice bran or deoiled rice bran and rub between fingers. If it is too coarse & rough, it indicates adulteration with paddy husk.

Fish meal with more moisture level will be dark in colour, hot and will not break easily.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - TASTE

Taste (Evaluation by taste)

Fresh feedstuff will have a desirable taste while old feeds will have undesirable musty taste.

Biting and tasting oilcakes will give idea about its freshness, rancidity, mould and moistures and also some adulteration.

Licking a fish or tasting small piece of it can help in identifying the level of salt.

Rice bran and rice polish adulterated with paddy husk will have a bland or throat burning taste with feeling to spit the fibrous portion.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - VISION

Vision (Visual evaluation)

Examine the feedstuffs for the natural colours, consistency, presence of foreign materials, mould growth, cake and clump formation and any other abnormalities.

Mouldy grains will have greenish, grayish or blackish discolouration especially at the germinal tip.

Adulteration of groundnut oil cake with rice bran or any other cheaper oil cakes & fish with prawn heads, crabs, squilla, sheels, etc. can be detected by careful visual examination.

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION - SMELL

Smell

Musty odour indicate fungal contamination or boring insects. Odour of petroleum product is suggestive of pesticides/fungicides. Leathery smell of meat meal is indicative of adulteration with leather meal.

FEED MICROSCOPY

Feed and feedstuffs are examined under a wide field microscope. Mainly used to detect adulterants, foreign bodies and impurities in ground

feeds and feedstuffs. Adulterants like hulls, stones, foreign bodies substitution with cheaper

material can be detected by microscopical examination. Presence of hair/leather meal in fish/meat meal, caster / kapok seed meal in

seasame / sunflower meal & similar cheaper substitutes can be detected . Microscopic observation of fish meal: The feed microscopic details of

fish meal as well as the possible adulterants in them are furnished below. The adulterants can be easily identified by trained eye.

Muscle fibre: Fibre bundles which separate, under pressure, yellowish to brown in colour & greasy

Scales: Transparent, round with concentric rings, flat or curled Sand: (possible adulterant) Granular, crystalline or bead like, Light

brown to translucent, do not break under pressure. Urea: (possible adulterant)

SPOT TESTS

Some feed supplements can be identified by using simple chemical reagents 

Reagents Reaction Compounds identified

2.5% Ammonium molybdate solution

Effervescence and no precipitate

Carbonates, viz., calcium carbonate sodium bicarbonate

2.5% Ammonium molybdate solution

Yellow precipitate and no effervescence

Phosphates, viz. disodium phosphate, monosodium phosphate, bone meal

2.5% Ammonium molybdate solution

Effervescence & Yellow precipitate

Dicalcium phosphate

CHEMICAL TESTS TO DEDUCT ADULTERANTS

In addition to the above tests, specific tests to identify the adulterants have been described by BIS. These tests are only listed here and reader is advised to consult those procedures as when required.

o Deduction of castor cake in feedstuffso Deduction of neem seed cake in feedstuffso Deduction of linseed meal in feedstuffso Deduction of common salt in feed stuffso Deduction of urea in feedstuffso Deduction of hoof or horn in feedstuffso Deduction of leather meal in feedstuffso Deduction of hydrolysed feather meal in feedstuffs

TESTS THAT NEED TO BE CARRIED OUT IN DIFFERENT FEED INGREDIENTS

Tests that need to be carried out in different feed ingredients

MODULE-35: FEED ADDITIVES

Learning objectives  

After studying this module the learner will be able to know abouto Feed additives classificationo Chelates as feed additiveo Additives that promotes growth and productiono Additives that alter metabolismo Additives that affect the health status of livestock

FEED ADDITIVES

What is an Additive?

An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed, usually in small quantities, for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other than as a direct source of nutrient.

In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects utilisation of the feed or productive performance of the animal. Feed additives and implants can be classed according to their mode of action.

Classification

Types of Feed additiveso Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing and

properties of feeds Antifungals Antioxidants Pellet binders

o Additives that modify animal growth, feed efficiency, metabolism and performance

Feed flavours Digestion modifiers

Enzymes  Prebiotics Buffers                Acidifiers Ionophores         Antibloat compound  Isoacids Salivation inducers Probiotics  Defaunating agents

Metabolism modifiers Hormones  Beta-adrenergic agents (repartitioning agents)

Growth promotants Antibiotics Chemotherapeutic agents

o Additives that modify animal health Drugs Immunomodulators

o Additives that modify consumer acceptance Xanthophylls

ADDITIVES THAT ENHANCE FEED INTAKE 

Antioxidants

Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated fats. Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins A, D and E and several of the B complex vitamins.

Breakdown products of rancidity may react with lysine and thus affects the protein value of the ration. Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as antioxidant in feed.

Flavouring Agent

Flavouring agents are feed additives that are supposed to increase palatability and feed intake.

There is need for flavouring agents that will help to keep up feed intakeo When highly unpalatable medicants are being mixedo During attacks of diseaseso When animals are under stress, ando When a less palatable feedstuffs is being fed either as such or being

incorporated in the ration. Ruminants prefer sweet compounds. Additionally cattle and goats respond

positively to salts of volatile fatty acids. Horses will often refuse musty feed when there is so little mould that the

owner fails to detect it.

ADDITIVES THAT ENHANCE THE COLOUR

Additives that enhance the colour or quality of the marketed product

Poultry man will often enhance the yellow colour by incorporating xanthophylls into broiler feed.

Among various additives, arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate and roxarsone are added for the purpose.

ADDITIVES THAT FACILITATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

 Grit

Poultry do not have teeth to grind any hard grain, most grinding takes place in the thick musculated gizzard.

The more thoroughly feed is ground, the more surface area is created for digestion and subsequent absorption. Hence, when hard, coarse or fibrous feeds are fed to poultry, grit is sometimes added to supply additional surface for grinding within gizzard.

When mash or finely ground feeds are fed, the value of grit become less. Oyster shells, coquina shells and limestone are used as grit.

Buffers and Neutralisers

During maximum production stage ruminants are given high doses of concentrate feeds for meeting demands for extra energy and protein requirement of the animal.

The condition on the other hand lowers the pH of the rumen. Since many of the rumen microbes cannot tolerate low pH environment, the normally heterogeneous balanced population of microbes become skewed, favouring the acidophilic (acid-loving) bacteria.

The condition often leads to acidosis and thereby upsets normal digestion. The addition of feed buffers and neutralisers, such as carbonates,

bicarbonates, hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA, phosphate salts, ammonium chloride and sodium sulphate have been shown to have beneficial effects.

Recently the use of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to increase average daily gain by about 10 per cent, feed efficiency by 5 to 10 per cent, and milk production by about 0.5 liter per head per day.

Chelates

The word “Chelates” is derived from the Greek word “Chele” meaning “claw” which is a good descriptive term for the manner in which polyvalent cations are held by the metal binding agents. Prior to union with the metal these organic substances are termed as “ligands”.

Ligand + mineral = chelate element. Organic chelates of mineral elements, which are cyclic compounds, are the

most important factors controlling absorption of a number of mineral elements.

A particular element in chelated form may be released in ionic form at the intestinal wall or might be readily absorbed as the intact chelate.

Chelates may be of naturally occurring substances such as chlorophyll, cytochromes, haemoglobin, vitamin B12, some amino acids, etc., or may be of synthetic substances like ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA.)

ENZYMES

Enzymes are protein which have the property of catalysing specific biochemical reactions. They are found in all plants and animals and are responsible for growth and the maintenance of health.

Microorganism also produce enzymes and in recent years it has been possible to produce enzymes using microorganism on an industrial scale, extract and use these enzymes in a wide range of processes for the production of feed and natural products.

Poultry feeds are largely composed or plant and vegetables materials and there are enzymes developed to degrade, modify or extract the plant polymers found in some of the cereals and their byproducts. The enzymes can be used to improve the feeding of poultry in the following way:

o By improving the efficiency of the utilisation of the feed

o By upgrading cereals byproducts or feed components that are poorly digested

o By providing additional digestive enzymes to help poultry to withstand stress conditions eg. Hot climates

Some of the cereals are compounds of polymers either of glucose (beta glucan) or arabinose and xylose (pentosan or hemicellulose). These polymers are not well digested by poultry and this can be result in loss of energy in two ways:

o Energy may be lost become these polymers hinder the digestion of starch by coating starch granules and preventing the action of starch digesting enzymes in the intestine.

o Energy may be lost because the animals own enzymes are not capable of degrading the polymers and therefore they pass through the digestive system untouched.

By adding microbial enzymes to the feed these polymers can be degraded and their energy value made available to the bird.

The dual role of enzymes has been demonstrated in trials with barley based feed supplemented with beta-glucanase, where the apparent increase in available energy was far in excess of that available in the beta-glucan of the barley.

In this case not only was the problem of sticky dropping completely eliminated but the chicken’s rate of growth was equivalent to that observed normally with feeds containing a higher energy density (eg. Wheat based).

Choice of enzyme

Because feed is normally composed of a single raw material of constant quality, it is important that the correct choice of enzyme product be made.

Even in the case of a relatively well defined problem such as that in barley, the use of multi enzyme activity products has an advantage.

The enzymes should fulfil the following criteria for practical application:o The enzymes must be active at the pH of the animals digestive system

and capable of surviving transit through the stomacho They must be in a physical form in which they can be safely and easily

mixed into all forms of animal feedo The products should be of a high standarised activity that will remain

stable both before and after incorporation into the feed or pre-mixo The enzymes must be capable of surviving normal pelleting conditions

CHELATES AS FEED ADDITIVE Type I: Chelates that Aid in transport and to store metal ions

o Chelates of this group behave as a carrier for proper absorption, transportation in the circulatory system and passing across cell membranes to deposit the metal ion at the site where needed.

Among amino acids, cysteine and histidine are particularly effective metal binding agents and may be of primary importance in the transport and storage of

mineral elements throughout the animal body. Ethylene diamine tetracetic acid (EDTA) and other similar

synthetic ligands also may improve the availability of zinc and other minerals.

Type II: Chelates essential in metabolismo Many chelates of animal body are holding metal ions in such a

cyclic fashion which are absolutely necessary to be in that form to perform metabolic function. Vitamin B12, cytochrome enzymes and haemoglobin are some of the examples of this type.

o Haemoglobin molecule without its content of ferrous form of iron will be of no use in transporting oxygen.

Type III: Chelates which interfere with utilisation of essential cationso There are some chelates found in the body which might have

accidentally formed and are of no use to the subject.o Rather, those chelates may be detrimental for the proper

utilisation of the element. Phytic acid-Zn chelate or oxalic acid calcium chelate are examples of this type.

Last modified: Monday, 29 August 2011, 05:13 PM

ADDITIVES THAT PROMOTES GROWTH AND PRODUCTION

Antibiotics

These are substances which are produced by living organisms (mould, bacteria or green plants) and which in small concentration have bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties.

They were originally developed for medical and veterinary purposes to control specific pathogenic organisms.

Later it was discovered that certain antibiotics could increase the rate of growth of young pigs and chicks when included in their diet in small amounts.

Soon after this report a wide range of antibiotics have been tested and the following have been shown to have growth promoting properties: penicillin, oxytetracycline (Terramycin), chlortetracycline, bacitracin, streptomycin, tyrothricin, gramicidin, neomycin, erythromycin and flavomycin.

Increased weight gain is most evident during the period of rapid growth and then decreases.

Differences between control and treated animals are greater when the diet is slightly deficient or marginal in protein, B-vitamins or certain mineral elements.

Mode of action of antibiotics

Antibiotics “spare” protein, amino acids and vitamin on diets containing 1 to 3 per cent less protein, but balance experiments have often failed to show

increased nitrogen retention. Growth stimulation has been greatest when the antibiotic penicillin supplement has been added to a ration containing no protein supplements of animal origin or to a ration low in vitamin B12. Under hygienic conditions growth increases are small.

Intestinal wall of animals fed antibiotics is thinner than that of untreated animals which might explain the enhanced absorption of calcium shown for chicks.

Reduce or eliminate the activity of pathogens causing “subclinical infection.” Reduce the growth of micro-organisms that compete with the host for

supplies of nutrients. Antibiotics alter intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and thus

less ammonia is formed. Ammonia is highly toxic and suppresses growth in non-ruminants.

Stimulate the growth of micro-organisms that synthesise known or unidentified nutrients.

Following points should be kept in mind while using antibiotics for animal feeding:

Antibiotics should be used only foro growing and fattening pigs for slaughter as pork or bacon;o growing chicks and turkey poults for killing as table poultry.

Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep and goats), breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry stock.

While adding antibiotics at the recommended level, care should be taken that they are thoroughly and evenly mixed with the feed.

For best results, antibiotics should be used with properly balanced feeds. Also, the feeds containing antibiotics should be fed only to the type of stock for which they are intended.

Antibiotics are not a substitute for good management and healthy living conditions, or for properly balanced rations.

Probiotics

It is defined as a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host animals by improving its intestional microbial balance. The probiotic preparation are generally composed of organisms of lactobacilli and/or streptococci species, few many contain yeast caltones.

They benefit the host by:o Having a direct antagonistic effect against specific group of

undesirable or harmful organism through production of antibacterial compounds, elementary or minimising their competition of nutrients.

o Altering the pattern of microbial metabolism in the gastro intentional tract.

o Stimulation of immunity.o Neutralisation of enterotoxins formed by pathegenic organism.

Thus resulting in increased growth rate, improved feed efficiency

ADDITIVES THAT ALTER METABOLISM

Hormones

These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and are transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a physiological response.

Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens, progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern, however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or milk for the consumers.

The whole question whether hormones should be used as growth promoters is still debatable but it seems logical that with any feeding system the economic advantages, however great should never take precedence over any potential risk to human health. These substances may induce cancer in human beings if taken over a prolonged period through products of the treated animals. The use of such substances in poultry rearing has been prohibited by law in U.S.A.

Implants

Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to release slowly, but constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the bloodstream. These are implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol (DES).

ADDITIVES THAT ALTER METABOLISM

Hormones

These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and are transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a physiological response.

Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens, progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern, however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or milk for the consumers.

The whole question whether hormones should be used as growth promoters is still debatable but it seems logical that with any feeding system the economic advantages, however great should never take precedence over any potential risk to human health. These substances may induce cancer in human beings if taken over a prolonged period through products of the treated animals. The use of such substances in poultry rearing has been prohibited by law in U.S.A.

Implants

Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to release slowly, but constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the bloodstream. These are implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol (DES).

ADDITIVES THAT AFFECT THE HEALTH STATUS OF LIVESTOCK

Antibloat compounds:o Surfactants such as poloxalene is used as a preventive for pasture

bloat,several other products have been shown to be highly effective to prevent bloat are also available in the market.

Antifungal additives:o Mould inhibitors are added to feed liable to be contaminated with

various types of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium cyclopium etc.

o Before adding commercial inhibitors all feedstuff should be dried below 10 percent moisture. Propionic, acetic acid and sodium propionate are added in high moisture grain to inhibit mould growth.

o Antifungals such as Nystatin and copper sulphate preparations are also in use to concentrate feeds to prevent moulds.

Anticoccidials:o Various brands of anticocidials are now available in the country to

prevent the growth of coccidia which are protozoa and live inside the cells of the intestinal lining of livestock.

Antihelmintics:o Under some practical feeding conditions anthelmintics have also

been used. The compounds act by reducing parasitic infections.

Anticaking agents

Anticaking agents are anhydrous substance that can pick up moisture without themselves becoming wet. They are added to dry mixes to prevent the particles clumping together and so keep the product free flowing.

They are either anhydrous salts or substance that hold water by surface adhesion yet themselves remain free flowing:

o Salt or long chain fatty acids.o Calcium phosphateo Potassium and sodium ferryocyanideo Magnesium oxideo Salts silicic acid – Al, Mg, Ca, Salt.

Sodium aluminium silicate Sodium calcium aluminium silicate Calcium aluminium silicate

Humectants

These are substance which are required to keep the product moist, as for example, bread and cakes.

Anticaking agents immobilise moisture that was picked up. Humectants are not of much use in poultry feed.

Firming and crisping agents

These are substances that preserve the texture or vegetable tissues and by maintaining the water pressure inside them, keep them turgid.

It prevents a loss of water from the tissues.

Sequestrants

Certain metals – copper, iron can act as pro-oxidant catalytic and there fore need to the immobilised. Sequestrants are compounds added to do this.

These compounds should have affinity to metal ions and should prevent the metal in becoming engaged in oxidative action. Most effective sequestrants Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA).

Calcium salt of EDTA works satisfactorily as a sequestrant without interferring with trace mineral metabolism.

Sweeteners

It is common constitution of food but yet used as additive. Eg. Sugar Some are poorly digestible, may cause digestive upsets. Saccharin – extensively used during World War I. It is a compound

without any calorific value. Additives such as humectants, firming and crisping agents, sweeteners,

emulsifiers, stabilisers, acid, buffers are not commonly used in poultry feeds.