SETTLEMENT

Candidates should be able to:• Describe the patterns of rural settlements – dispersed, linear, nucleated.• Explain how physical factors (relief - Relief is the difference in elevation (or height) between parts of the Earth's surface. The height of the land, in conjunction with information about the slope and shape -, soil, water supply) and other factors such as accessibility, agricultural land-use, influence the sites and patterns of rural settlements.• Describe and explain the factors which may influence the size, growth and functions of rural and urban settlements.• Describe and suggest reasons for the hierarchy of settlements and services.• Describe and explain the land-use zones of towns and cities to include the Central Business District (CBD), residential areas, industrial areas, the provision of open spaces and transport routes. Differences in the patterns of urban structures in cities of LEDCs and MEDCs should be identified.• Describe problems associated with the growth of urban areas such as congestion in the CBD, housing shortages, traffic congestion, squatter settlements. Suggested solutions to overcome these problems should be illustrated by reference to selected examples.• Describe the effects of urbanisation on the environment – pollution (air, water, visual and noise), the results of urban sprawl on surrounding areas, the growth of out-of-town urban activities – shopping areas, sports facilities, etc.

• Settlement: A place where people live. A settlement can range from one an isolated building to a capital city of over 20 million people (e.g. Mexico City).

Site: The actual location or place that a settlement is built. The Site of a settlement describes the physical nature of where it is located.

• Factors such as water supply, building materials, quality of soil, climate, shelter and defence were all considered when settlements were first established.

Situation: The area surrounding the site of a settlement. For example you might talk about if the settlement is near a river, or near the coast or in a valley surrounded by mountains.

For site and situation further details see ppt 1-38

Choosing the Location of a Settlement

Ppt 1-38

The location and growth of a settlement depended upon its site and situation. The site was the actual place where people decided to locate their settlement. The growth of that settlement then depended upon its situation in relation to accessibility and availability of natural resources.

Site Factors

reliable water supply away from flood risks defence building materials (stone or wood) fertile land sheltered from winds fuel supply (wood) south-facing slope (aspect) flat land, easy to build on natural harbour

Situation Factors

route centre gap town lowest bridging point on a river port

minerals for export

When the sites of settlement were first chosen, settlers would mainly have looked for natural advantages. These may have included:

Water supply: Water is essential when building a settlement. You need water to drink, to wash, to water crops and to cook. Water also contains fish that can be eaten and it can be used as a transport route.Fertile land: All settlements need food so it is important to build need fertile soil, where it is possible to grow crops. If a settlement grows a surplus of food then they might be able to trade with neighbouring settlements.Flat land (relief): It is a lot easier to build a settlement on flat land than in mountains.Defensive position: When sites for settlements were first chosen (hundreds or thousands of years ago), battles between settlements would have been common, therefore a good defensive location (on a small hill or surrounded by water) would have been very important.Building materials: Most houses would have traditionally been made out of woods, reeds, etc. Therefore it would have been very important to have been located near a source of building materials.Transport links: There wouldn't have been roads and railways when the sites of settlements were initially selected. However, access to rivers, the sea or valleys would have been very important. If the settlement was built next to a river, a site that allowed easy access across the river would have been chosen.Fuel: Settlements would not have had electricity or gas so a location next to a reliable source of fuel would be essential. The fuel source would normally be wood, or possibly peat.Weather: Sites with fairly stable weather will have been selected. You do not want some where too hot or too cold, too wet, too dry or too windy. To grow crops sun and rain would have been very important.Trading Location: Settlements may have also been built for their access to trading routes. It would be very hard for one settlement to be totally self-sufficient so trade was essential. Coastal areas often make good locations to trade from.Resources: It is useful being near resources like wood, coal, gold because you can use them to build things or trade with nearby settlements.When discussing settlements, we will often divide them into rural and urban settlements.Urban: The built up area, any city with a population of 10,000 people or more.Rural: Basically the countryside (everywhere outside urban areas). Rural areas maybe farmland, forest, desert or savanna depending on where you are in the world. Rural areas do contain small settlements of less than 10,000 people e.g. hamlets and villages.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

In rural areas the settlements tend to follow some simple patterns. The most basic is the isolated settlement. Dispersed or isolated settlements are those in which the farmhouses are situated away from each other.

The different shapes of settlements are called PATTERNS. There are many reasons why a settlement follows a

particular shape. There are three main settlement patterns which are i) Dispersed ii) Nucleated and iii) Linear.

Dispersed: Dispersed settlements have buildings which are spread out, e.g. farmhouse in the middle of fields or a few

houses in a mountainous area. They are dispersed because farmers need a lot of land for grazing and growing crops.

Nucleated: Nucleated settlements have buildings which are close together. They often grew around a road junction or a

river crossing.

Linear: Linear settlements have a long and narrow shape. They often follow roadways, riverbanks, canals or narrow

valleys where there is little room to grow outwards.

Rural settlements can develop in many different ways giving them a unique shape (morphology). The five main settlement patterns that you need to be able to recognise.

Isolated: Singly buildings on their own. These will normally be found in mountainous areas and will normally be the farmhouse of a large farm.

Dispersed: When individual buildings are separated by several hundred meetings. They are individual isolated buildings and do not form a single settlement.

Loose knit: When houses are built near each other and are obviously in the same settlement, but there is spaces between them.

Linear or Ribbon: This is a settlement that has grown in a line. The line doesn't have to be straight, but will normally follow a road, a river, the coast or the valley floor.

Nucleated: When all the houses in a settlement are built very close together, often around a central village green or church.

Linear

Dispersed

Nucleated

Describing site is not difficult! Here is what you need to know.

Describing site checklist

To describe a site, you should mention its:

Relief:

height - below 100m = low; above 100m = high slope - flat or gentle/moderate/steep slope land forms - e.g. plain, valley, hill-foot, hill-top, gap, dry-point site, coast.

There are many different types of settlement, but these can roughly be divided into rural and urban settlements.

Rural Settlements: Settlements that are found in the countryside (rural areas) and contain less than 10,000 residents.

Urban Settlements: Settlements that contain more than 10,000 residents.

Isolated Building or dwelling (abitazione): A single building. An isolated building is normally a farm.Hamlet: A small group of houses, normally about 5 to 10. There is often no services in a hamlet.Village: A settlement of up to 10,000 people. Villages will have some services in them like small shops, a primary school, a doctors surgery, bus routes. This is larger than a hamlet and contains more functions, eg a few shops, a post office, a village hall and possibly a primary school and a doctor's practice. Villages can vary in size from a few hundred people to several thousand. (small village- large village)

Town: A settlement of over 10,000 people that has not be designated a city. This may contain tens of thousands of people. Towns have a range of functions such as shopping centres, secondary schools, railway stations and hospitals.City: A large town, in the UK a town becomes a city when it has a cathedral in it. A city is an area with large numbers of people. Cities provide a very wide range of functions including more specialised functions such as universities, large hospitals and sports stadiums. In the past cities were identified as places containing cathedrals but today cities are based on a number of different factors including the size of the population.Capital City: The main administrative centre within a country and the home of the national government.Primate City: The largest and most important city within a country. The primate city will often have double the population of the next most important city. Most of the time the primate city is also the capital city, but there are some famous exceptions e.g. New York, Sydney and Sao Paolo.Conurbation: Two or more towns or cities that have joined to together e.g. Birmingham, Walsall, Dudley and Wolverhampton in England.Megaopolis: A conurbation or a clustering of cities with a population of over 10 million people e.g. Tokyo.

CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT DISPERSION CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT NUCLEATION Mountainous areas that are hard to build on and hard to build

good transport links to. Severe weather conditions e.g. extremely hot or cold or wet. Mainly farm land Floodplain or coastal area that is vulnerable to flooding Only limited natural resources No job prospects No nearby schools and hospitals No electricity supply No entertainment

Good transport links (road, rail, river) Good fertile land nearby to grow food. Flat land, that is easy to build on Stable weather that is good for growing. Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel Good job prospects Good schools and hospitals Good and reliable supply of electricity,

gas and water. Varied entertainment

Note that the reasons above are a mixture of human and physical factors.

FUNCTION ppt 71-75

The job, purpose or use of a settlement. Large settlements will have more than one function and these functions may change over time. Functions may include:

Shopping (Retail) Business (Commercial) Farming (Agricultural) Housing (Residential)

Educational Healthcare Administration (local or national government) Fishing Tourism Entertainment Sporting

Rural Areas: Rural areas tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally agriculture (farming) and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas have less people, poorer transport, poorer communication, less technology and the land is better used for other purposes i.e. agriculture.

Urban Areas: Urban areas tend to have a lot more functions ranging from shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport functions, to administrative functions and residential functions. The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally has.

Anomaly AA Tourist town: Towns, such as Brighton, Blackpool and Eastbourne, that have grown due to the tourist industry, often have more services than their population suggests they should have. This is because many of their services are catering for the huge numbers of tourists who flood into the towns during the summer months. Hotels, guesthouses, restaurants, beach shops and ice cream stalls all are aimed to provide services for the tourists.The extra tourist numbers swell the total population during the summer to a level that is more appropriate for the number of services provided.Anomaly BA Commuter Settlement: Many rural villages are becoming commuter centres, where people live, but work elsewhere. Have a large resident population, but as very few of them actually work in the village, there is nobody to support any services. The commuters will do their shopping and banking in the city where they work. This means that these settlements will have fewer services than their population suggests they should have. Some commuter settlements are changing their services to cater for the different residents, with restaurants and cafes replacing the traditional village services.Many villages and towns around the London area fulfil (svolgere, completare) this function.

Changing Functions

Change in rural settlements

Villages have changed over time. In the past, most functions were connected with farming and countryside services. People lived and worked in the countryside.

Today, some villages are close enough to urban areas for people to commute to work in the city, while still living in the countryside. This has changed the function of some villages.

Villages in the past Villages todayPeople lived and worked locally Most people travel to work by carFarm buildings, eg barns (fienile, granaio) Barns converted to expensive homesFarm workers’ cottages New housing estatesSchool Tea roomsLocal pub Restaurant pub with car park for day trippersChurch or chapel Chapel converted to homeVillage shop and post office Local shops closed as people drive to supermarkets on the edge of

Villages in the past Villages todaytowns

Village green and duck pond (laghetto) Infilling with new developments removes communal spaces

There are conflicts within rural areas.

If the area attracts people who are moving from large urban areas then there are sometimes conflicts between the established residents and the new residents.

People may buy second homes in rural areas. This pushes house prices up, making it less affordable to locals. Income from farming and other rural activities may fall causing people to move out (rural depopulation). Other

people may try to diversify or start up new businesses (eg running a bed and breakfast from a farm). Local services may decline (eg, village shops, post offices or transport), making it harder for less mobile

members of the rural population to access what they need

Settlements will grow if their functions are being successful and in demand. Alternatively if a settlements functions fall out of demand or if the resource their function relies on runs out, then the settlement may see economic and population decline.

With the birth of package holidays to the Mediterranean many British holiday resorts saw a rapid decline in the demand for their tourist functions (hotels, piers, etc.). Also many mining settlements in the UK saw a rapid decline when coal ran out or overseas coal became cheaper. However, other settlements like Dubai in the UAE saw rapid growth as it promoted itself as an all year holiday destination. Some settlements try and change their functions if one function declines. For example as Liverpool in the UK has seen a decline in its industry and port it has tried to promote its cultural, sporting, leisure and shopping functions.

Settlements can grow because of their function. • Most settlements now are multi-functional, which means that they perform a range of different functions,

however some may be more important than others to a particular settlement. • For instance a tourist town will perform all sorts of functions, but its main ones are concentrated towards the

tourists.

Settlement Hierarchy and Services

For further details see ppt 39-68

Hierarchy

The hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on three variables:

1. The size of population2. The range and number of services3. The sphere of influence

Obviously these three variables are very much interconnected. For services to be offered there has to be a minimum threshold population. When services are then offered more people are attracted. As more people are attracted more services are offered and the sphere of influence increases.

As you move down the settlement hierarchy the number of settlements increase. For example you only get one capital city (near the top of the hierarchy) in each country, but you get thousands of isolated buildings (farms - near the bottom of the hierarchy) in every country.

Hierarchy: Placing things in an order of importance.

Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to access a service. The sphere of influence of a settlement describes the area that is served by a settlement, for a particular function.

• Its sphere of influence for different functions may cover vastly different areas.• For instance a supermarket may attract people from a 20-mile radius, whilst a leisure (tempo libero) activity,

such as going to the theatre may attract them from far further away.

Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket, cinema, school or train station. Services have a threshold population, which helps explain why bigger settlements have more services.

• Services are things such as retailers (commercianti al minuto, shops), professionals (doctors, lawyers etc), entertainment (tempo libero), government functions and leisure (svago).

• The theory goes that the larger a settlement is, and therefore the higher it is on the urban hierarchy, the more services and functions it will have.

Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g. a school, a post office, etc.The range of a good or service describes the maximum distance that someone would be willing to travel to obtain that good or service.• A newspaper shop has a small range because people will not travel far to use them.• A cinema has a much wider range as people are prepared to travel much further to go to it.

Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required for a service to be offered and remain open.• A newsagent will have a small threshold, where as a supermarket like Tesco's needs a much larger population

before it can consider opening a store

High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a TV, car or holiday.

A larger town would have a wider sphere of influence because it would have shops and services that are more specialist, and so people would be willing to travel further to use them.

• An example might be a furniture shop.• This sells comparison goods, in other words products that you might shop around for before going ahead and

buying something.•

Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk. A small village may only have a village store selling the daily newspaper and food such as bread and milk

• People will only travel the shortest distance they need to buy these products.• They are described as being convenience goods.• In other words, something that you can buy easily and for the same price all over the place.

blu Cytyred townpink villages

Main Land Uses

Commercial: This is businesses, mainly offices. The main commercial area will normally be in the CBD.

Residential: This is housing and is where people live. Apartment type housing is found near the CBD and bigger houses towards the suburbs.

Industrial: This is factories, traditionally found in the transition zone, they are now more likely to be found in the rural-urban fringe.

Agricultural: This farming and is obviously normally found in rural areas although some cities may have some small urban farms.

Recreational: Any activity that people do in their spare time. This land use may include golf courses, football pitches, museums, sports centres and tennis courts.

Retail: This is shops. Traditionally the main shopping areas have been in the CBD but increasingly shops have been relocating to shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe.

Education: Any building connected to education e.g. libraries, schools and universities. This land use may be found anywhere in urban areas.

CBD: The Central Business District. This the area in the middle of urban areas where there tends to be a concentration of retail and commercial land uses.

Transition zone: The area between the CBD and the largely residential suburbs. Traditionally this used to be an area of industry, but as industry has relocated these areas are being regenerated into mixed land use areas including houses, shops and entertainment.

Suburbs: The ares near the edge of the urban area that has a concentration of residential land use. There will also be some recreational land use within the suburbs and possibly some retail and educational.

Rural-urban fringe: This is the boundary between the urban area and the rural area (countryside). This area is demand by multiple land users e.g. agriculture, recreational, residential, retail, industrial. The large demand can often lead to conflict.

Commuter belt or Commuter villages (dormitory villages): Areas of residential land use where people travel from to their work place. People might access services near their place of work so commuter villages are often devoid of any other land uses or services.

Greenfield Site: Land that has never been built on before, greenfield sites will often be used for agriculture. Many countries are trying to restrict the amount of building on greenfield sites and encouraging building on brownfield sites.

Brownfield Site: This is land that has been built on previously but has been left abandoned and often become derelict. Most commonly brownfield sites are former factories found in the transition zone.

Derelict: Land that has been abandoned (no longer used) and often become run down or vandalised. Derelict sites is a sign of disinvestment (companies and people leaving an area).

Greenbelt: Greenbelts are protected areas of land around large urban areas. They have been used by the UK

government to try and protect greenfield sites and promote building on brownfield sites.

Housing Density: The number of houses per km2.

Land Use Models For further details see ppt 77- 99

Often in geography models are used to try to explain something that we can see in the physical environment. During the 20th century a number of models were developed to try to explain how urban areas grew. Although models show a very general idea of the shape of the city, all of the ones described here have aspects that can be seen in most cities in the developed and developing world

Burgess Model (concentric circle model)

The Burgess Model was developed in 1925 by the sociologist Ernest Burgess. He based it solely on the US city of Chicago. He noticed a distinctive commercial area in the centre of the city and called this the CBD. He then noticed an area of factories which he called the transition zone followed by steadily improving housing as you moved away from the transition zone.

The model is very simplistic, only based on one city and now largely out of date as periods of deindustrialisation and regeneration have changed many urban land use.

Hoyt Model

The Hoyt Model was developed in 1939 by the economist Homer Hoyt. Hoyt based his model on 142 North American cities. Like Burgess he noticed a largely commercial area in the centre of the urban areas (the CBD). However, unlike Burgess' circles he noticed the development of wedges. He noticed that industry often developed along major transport routes e.g. railways, canals and roads.

He then noticed that the poorer residential areas were focused near the industry while richer residential areas tended to grow further away from polluting industrial areas.

Again there are some limitations because Hoyt only looked at North American cities in a period before mass car ownership. Also like with Burgess' model many changes have since taken place in MEDC cities.

Burgess based his model on the city of Chicago.• At its core is the CBD, or Central Business District. • This is the area with the highest land price, which could only be afforded by businesses.

• Around this is the zone of transition, which is where industry located.• However in most cases the industry has moved out, leaving the zone empty and in need of renewal.

• Beyond the zone of transition are the rings of residential housing. • As people became more wealthy they could afford to live further out of town, in bigger houses, with larger

gardens.• The houses closest to the centre originally would have housed the workers for the inner city industries.

Burgess suggested that towns grew outward from the centre in a concentric pattern. This means that buildings become more recent closer to the edge (margine) of a city. It is possible that up to 5 rings may develop:

A - Central Business District (CBD):- most accessible to the largest number of people- contains services such as shops, offices, banks, etc.- multi-storey buildings as land is very expensive (build upwards to save cost)

B - ‘ Twilight Zone (zona di transizione) ’ - has 2 sections:1 – wholesale (all’ingrosso) light manufacturing industria (transitional) (A light industrial business where all processing, fabricating, assembly, or disassembly of items takes places wholly within an enclosed building. Typically, light manufacturers wholesale their products to retailers). 2 - low class residential (old inner city areas):- 19 Century terraced buildings- no gardens- cheap, dirty slum areas- GRID IRON street pattern- high rise blocks were built after slums were pulled down - attract crime- old industries found here

C - Council Estates: (case popolari) Semi-detached housing with gardens in large estates. Less expensive private estates also here. Not top quality (medium class residential).

D - Commuter Zone: High class residential area. Private, top quality housing. Detached and semi-detached on cheap land. People can live here as are prepared to pay to get to work.

E - Countryside Areas (suburb / exurbs): Countryside surrounding the urban area. Can also contain villages / hamlets in which town / city workers live.

The sector model has a similar idea of a CBD to Burgess. This is still the area with the highest land price.Hoyt then used transport routes to determine where his other sectors would be located. He still had a zone of transition around the CBD, but he also had industry fanning out from the centre along major transport routes. He assumed that "Like would attract like", which is why he decided that land-uses would concentrate to form sectors, rather being in rings, like Burgess thought.

The lowest class housing would be closest to the industry, and probably be located where the prevailing winds would blow the pollution towards them (and away from the higher class housing).The high class housing also is in a sector of its own, running all the way from the CBD, where many of the residents would work, to the outer suburbs.

Urban LineTransect ppt 119-125

Urbanisation in LEDCs

Informal Settlements: Houses and settlements that have been built by the residents themselves out of any temporary building materials they can find. Informal settlements can also be called squatter settlements, slum settlements or shanty towns.

Marginal Land: Land that no ones wants to build on. Marginal land might be on steep slopes, next to main roads or on floodplains Newly arrived migrants are often forced to build temporary settlements on marginal land.

Favela (shanty towns): An area of informal housing in Brazil.

Urban growth/sprawl: The increase in size of urban areas. Urban areas normally grow out into the rural-urban fringe or onto marginal land.

LEDC Land Use Model

The LEDC land use model has some similarities to Burgess and or Hoyt. The CBD is found in the centre of the urban area, just like Burgess and Hoyt. Factories are also built along major transport routes like Hoyt.

However, when it comes to housing, there are significant differences. The high quality housing tends to be located near the CBD and will be either apartments or old colonial houses. The richer people want to live near the centre because that is normally where the best entertainment is and the best jobs are. As well as the high quality apartments near the centre, richer neighbourhoods will also develop that have good quality housing and good entertainment. In El Salvador this might include areas like Escalon, Zona Rosa and Santa Elena.Slightly further out you get poor, but permanent housing. On the edge though where in Burgess and also Hoyt you found a lot of nice housing you find poor informal settlements built on marginal land. The informal housing has been built by migrants moving from rural areas to urban areas.

Industry tends to be focused on the main transport routes (roads and railways). There will not be much high quality housing near industry because richer residents don't want to live near polluting factories. However, there will be more poorer housing and informal settlements because the people can't afford to live anywhere else and often work in the nearby factories.

Types of Residential HousingPpt 84-88

Council Housing (case popolari): This is government housing which is usually given to people that are unemployed and have a low income. The rent on council houses are lower than the rent on private property. Public housing Public housing is a form of housing tenure in which the property is owned by a government authority, which may be central or local. Social housing is an umbrella term referring to rental housing which may be owned and managed by the state, by non-profit organizations, or by a combination of the two, usually with the aim of providing affordable housing. Social housing can also be seen as a potential remedy to housing inequality.Although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, definitions of poverty and other criteria for allocation vary within different contexts.Detached Housing (villette singole): A single house that is not attached to any other house. A detached house will normally have a garden and a drive. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.Semi-Detached Housing (ville bifamiliari): Two houses that are joined together. They will probably have individual gardens and drives. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.

Terraced Housing (case a schiera): A long line of attached houses. These are typical in old industrial cities of the UK. They are normally found in the transition zone area and they would have been housing for people working in the factories. They were very basic houses, often with no electricity and an outside toilet. Many have now been knocked down or improved.Bungalow: This is a house with only one floor. They are very popular amongst old people who find it hard to use stairs. Bungalows can be detached or semi-detached. They are normally found in the suburbs.Flats or Apartments: These are buildings with multiple levels. Normally a flat or apartment will only be on one floor within the block of flats or the apartment building.Tenure: This means who owns the house. Houses can be owner occupied, which means the people living their own it, council houses which means the government own its, privately rented, which means a private landlord (owner) owns it, or owned by a private organisation (housing association) and rented privately.Even though the in MEDS population is fairly stable the demand for houses has increased. The reasons for this include:

Family sizes are now smaller, so the average number of people per house is lower There are more divorces and single people so more houses are needed People tend to leave home younger so need their own houses Many migrants are single and need there own house People are getting married later, so need there own house for longer. A lot of old houses are considered to be uninhabitable (no bathroom, etc.) Old people are choosing to live on their own instead of moving to their family or moving into a care home.

Changing Location of Retail Land Use

Traditionally most main shopping areas have been concentrated in the CBD. However, in recent decades there has been a trend of shopping areas moving to the rural-urban fringe.

Rural-urban fringe: The boundary between the urban area (towns and cities) and the rural area (countryside).• The rural-urban fringe is where most of the post war housing has been built. • Usually in estates of mainly detached and semi-detached houses, the emphasis has often been on making the

houses as spacious as possible. • Again these housing developments were only possible thanks to the fact that most families now own at least

one car.

Because so many people want to work and live in the rural-urban fringe, different groups frequently come into conflict over how to use it. Groups that may come into conflict include:

House developers House buyers Farmers Hikers and cyclists Road builders Factories Supermarkets Business or science parks

For example farmers and industry will probably disagree over many things. Industry might want to build on farmers land, farmers maybe worried about pollution disturbing crops and animals and both might be worried about each others transport.

Below are some of the reasons why they have moved

Urban Problems ppt 126 -132

Urban Sprawl or Urban Growth: The spread or growth of an urban area into the rural-urban fringe.

CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD) RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

ADVANTAGES

Most public transport links (trains, subways and buses) tend to head towards CBDs

There are many nice buildings in the CBD, giving the area much more character.

There are often other associated services that you can visit at the same time e.g. banks, restaurants, post offices or even libraries.

There is plenty of land in the rural-urban fringe so shopping centres are able to expand

Because of the availability of land (often flat and easy to build on) rents are normally cheaper.

The extra land allows shopping centres to build more car parking spaces.

There are often main roads near the rural-urban fringe so it is easy to access the shopping centres in cars.

It is possible to make the shopping centres very large and put them all under one roof, eliminating any issues of bad weather

It is easier for the shopping centres to receive deliveries.

DISADVANTAGES

There is often a shortage of space, so shops and shopping centres are unable to expand.

Because of the shortage of space, land is very expensive, making shop rents very high.

Roads leading to the CBD are often small and not designed for cars.

There is limited parking in the CBD. Some CBDs have a lot of derelict

buildings and high crime rates which scares potential customers visiting the area.

Because of the small roads, deliveries may be hard and delayed

Customers without cars may find it hard to access shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe. However, some will develop public transport links (buses and even trains).

It can cause environmental damage as greenfield sites are destroyed in the rural-urban fringe.

Although the new shopping centre may create new jobs, other jobs may be lost in the CBD as other shopping areas are forced to go out of business.

It encourages greater use of the car, furthering congestion and pollution

ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

DISADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

New public transport links may be developed There will be new facilities that local

residents can access and use Local residents may get jobs in the new

shopping centre. The shopping centre may pull more people

into the area and may benefit existing services, possibly owned by local residents (positive multiplier effect).

There will be an increase in congestion as more people travel to shopping centre by car.

The shopping centres may create noise, air and visual pollution all affecting local residents (negative externality)

Shopping centres may destroy greenfield sites that have previously been used and enjoyed by local residents.

Urbanisation: The increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas. Although this can be caused by natural increase (higher birth rates in urban areas than rural areas), it is more likely to happen because of rural-urban migration.see urbanisation in Cairo ppt 100-108Urban growth or Sprawl: A growth in the size of the urban area. This normally happens because of building in the rural-urban fringe, although it may also include things like land reclamation.

Rapid urbanisation and urban growth can cause many problems in urban areas including:

Congestion (an increase in the amount of traffic leading to traffic jams) Destruction of greenfield sites Pollutions (air, water, noise, visual) Electricity blackouts Water shortages Unemployment Homelessness Growth of informal settlements Crime

Rural-Urban Migration ppt 44-45

Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside towards the cities. Rural-urban migration is the many cause of urbanisation. It is caused by a combination of push and pull factors. Some of the main push and pull factors are listed below.

PUSH FACTORS FROM COUNTRYSIDE (RURAL AREAS) PULL FACTORS TO CITIES (URBAN AREAS)

No jobs or poorly paid jobs Mechanisation. Machines taking the jobs of people Low prices for agricultural products Poor schools and hospitals Shortage of entertainment Poor quality of housing Drought and famine Shortages of water, electricity and gas Poor transport and communications

More jobs Better education and medical care Better transport and communications More reliable supply of water, electricity and

gas. Better entertainment More houses and better quality houses

In reality most people don't experience all the push factors they expect and most actually end up living in poverty in informal settlements on marginal land on the edge of the city. Rio de Janeiro has suffered many urban problems because of rural-urban migration and it is now trying to solve some of the before the Football World Cup in 2014 and the Olympics in 2016.

Congestion

Probably one of the most common problems is congestion. The problem of congestion is caused by multiple factors, including:

Increase in car ownership Limited amount of public transport or expensive public transport or overcrowded public transport Roads not designed for cars, but rather horses and people. Population growth and rural-urban migration The movement of freight (containers) onto lorries

The Problems Caused By Congestion Can Be Divided Into Social, Environmental And Economic Problems.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION

As car ownership increases so does the amount of pollutants released by cars. This can lead increased chest problems e.g. asthma.

People travelling to work have to leave home earlier and arrive back later, therefore spending longer away from their families.

More cars on the roads increases the frequency of accidents

More traffic jams can increase the frequency of road rage.

More vehicles on the roads increase the amount of air pollution, but also noise pollution.

Increased car ownership has increased road building which often leads to the destruction of greenfield sites.

The air pollution can contribute to acid rain and the greenhouse effect

Building new roads is very expensive, especially when private property is purchased, thus cost the government money.

Late deliveries caused by traffic jams costs companies and the economy money.

Workers also arrive late to work because they are stuck in traffic.

It creates a reliance on oil and more oil is used at slow speed than normal travelling speeds

Urban problems solutions

London in the UK has tried a number of different things to reduce the problems of congestion. They include:

Congestion charge: Drivers are now charged to drive into the centre of London. The charge is about $15 a day. The idea is to encourage people from cars and onto public transport.

Barclays bike hire and bike lanes and work showers: The is now a bike hire scheme in London sponsored by the bank Barclays. People can now borrow bikes for a short period at minimal cost. Bike lanes are being create to make using a bike cheaper and workplaces have been encouraged to install showers, so people can cycle to work and wash when they get there.

Reintroduction of trams: Trams which are like buses that run on train tracks in the road have been reintroduced to South London. Trams were an early form of public transport common in most British cities. Unfortunately most were removed as car ownership increased. They are environmentally good because they run on electricity and don't release greenhouse gases.

Extension of the underground: New lines have been recently built or upgraded. The Jubilee Line was the latest big extension which goes from Central London out to East London (near the site of the 2012 Olympic Games).

Pedestrianisation: Some areas of London including the north side of Trafalgar Square, Leicester Square and much of Covent Garden have been pedestrianised to make it safer for people walking and to discourage car use. Pedestrianisation means removing cars from the roads and making them walking only areas.

Improved rail links (Crossrail and East London Overground and Docklands Light Railway): London is currently undertaking one of the biggest engineering projects in Europe by building a railway from east to west London under the city. This railway will decrease travel times and is called Crossrail. London is also improving or extending railways in the East of London near the site of the Olympics.

Bus lanes and priority traffic lights: The amount of buses have been increased and old ones renewed. Also some bus lanes have been created to avoid the traffic lights and also bus lanes are given priority at lights. This should hopefully make buses quicker than cars and encourage more people to use public transport.

Car sharing (pooling) and car sharing lanes: Websites have been created to encourage people to share cars who travel on similar routes. Also road lanes have also been dedicated to people with more than one person in them.

Working from home and Flextime: Improved technology has allowed more people to work from home and also flexitime has meant people can travel at different times reducing the traffic peaks. Flexitime is people have to work a set number of hours a week, but aren't given specific start and finish times. This allows people to start early or finish late, or do both and then earn days off.

Reurbanisation: This means the movement of people back in the centre of urban areas (near the CBD). By encouraging people back into the centre then commuter times and traffic jams should decrease.

Increased car tax and petrol duty. Possible carbon tax and car park tax: Already the government has increased petrol tax and increased car tax on big cars to encourage people to drive smaller cars. In the future it has been proposed to introduce further carbon taxes and possibly a tax on car parking spaces.

Park and ride: This is used a lot during the Olympics. Car parks will be built on the edge of London next to train stations and bus routes. People will then park their cars on the edge and transfer to public transport to reduce traffic.

Urban change and Regeneration

As towns and cities have grown, some areas have become run down. This is particularly true of some old inner-city areas. Governments have tried to improve conditions in these areas.

Problems of old inner-city areas and the city centre include:

overcrowding poor-quality housing traffic congestion lack of open space

old industrial areas (brownfield sites) competition from out-of-town shopping centres expensive land

This has encouraged some people and industries to move out of central areas and has contributed to urban sprawl. This can put pressure on greenfield sites on the edge of the city. Some people are concerned about losing green open spaces. Green belts are protected areas that have been set up around some cities to help prevent urban sprawl.

Not everyone is moving out

Central areas of cities still remain very popular places to live for many reasons:

close to amenities good transport links, eg buses and train services close to shops good choice of cafes, pubs and restaurants a variety of entertainment, eg cinema, parks and theatres close-knit communities more job opportunities local schools colleges and universities

There has been an increase in the number of people living in central parts of cities in recent years. This is called reurbanisation.

Urban areas are constantly changing. There has been a move from large-scale demolition known as redevelopment to renovating existing buildings

known as renewal. For local people, urban renewal is successful only if it provides them with what they need. Their needs include

suitable housing, amenities and jobs.

Deindustrialisation: The process of factories closing down. This has happened in many MEDCs over the last 50 years and was largely caused by offshoring (industries moving overseas to cheaper locations).

Disinvestment: Companies and or people leaving an area and taking their investments with them.

Unemployment: When people don't have a job.

Counterurbanisation and Suburbanisation: The movement of people away from the CBD towards rural areas or towards the suburbs (the edge).

Reurbanisation: The movement of people back towards the centre of urban areas.

Decentralisation: The movement out of businesses and people away from the CBD and out to more peripheral locations (possibly in the suburbs or smaller cities in other parts of the country).

Regeneration: The improvement of areas through investment, rebranding (improving its image and possible its functions), advertising, etc. Regeneration may involve knocking down derelict buildings and building new ones.

Gentrification: When people move into an area and starting making improvements which slowly improves and regenerates an area.

Controlling Growth in the Rural-Urban Fringe

Because of urban sprawl and because the loss of greenfield sites is such a big problem, many suggestions have been given to solve the problem, including:

Greenbelts: A greenbelt is an area of land around urban areas that is protected from development. Greenbelts were first started in the UK in the 1930's and now there are 14 greenbelts around all major urban areas. The idea is to stop greenfield sites being built on and alternative like brownfield sites being used.

Urban Wedges: Some planners have suggested that urban growth should be allowed to take place in wedges (a bit like the wedges in the Hoyt Model). By building in wedges from the CBD it will ensure that some greens areas are protected near the CBD and throughout the city. This time of planning has been used in several Danish cities.

Brownfield Sites: The UK government has set targets for the use of brownfield sites. They want over 60% of new houses to be built on them, therefore protecting rural areas. However, many brownfield sites are heavily polluted, increasing the cost of construction and there are shortages of brownfield sites in areas where demand for houses is greatest. For example the south east of the UK where demand is high there is a shortage of brownfield sites.

Housing Density: Another proposition is to increase the housing density of all future housing developments. The UK government encourages all developments to have between 30 and 50 houses per hectare (10000m2). By doing this less land will be destroyed.