Lab 1AIM: To understand types of cables used in networkingThe following are the types of cables used in networking.

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP & STP) Cable2. Fibre Optic Cable3. Coaxial Cable

Twisted-Pair CableA twisted pair cable consists of two copper conductors, each one with its own plastic insulation and twisted together. One wire carries the signal and other is used as ground reference. The advantage of twisting is that both wires are equally affected by external influences. So the unwanted signals are canceled out as the receiver calculates the difference between signals in two wires.This cable is of two types such as.

1. UTP (unshielded twisted pair)2. STP (shielded twisted pair)

STP cable has one extra metal shield covering the insulated twisted pair conductors. But this is absent in UTP cables. The most common UTP connector is RJ45.The unshielded twisted pair cable is classified into seven categories based on cable quality. Category 1 of cables is used in telephone lines with data rate around 0.1 Mbps. Whereas Category 5 used in LANs having 100 Mbps data rate.Performance of twisted-pair cable is measured by comparing attenuation versus frequency.Attenuation increases with frequency above 100 kHz.These cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. DSL lines and Local area networks also use twisted pair cables.

Fig 1 Twisted Pair Cable

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Coaxial CableCoaxial cable (coax) carries high frequency signals than twisted-pair cables. Coax has a central core conductor of solid wire enclosed in an insulator, which is covered by an outer conductor of metal foil. This outer conductor completes the circuit. Outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulator, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.These cables are categorized by RG (radio government) ratings. RG-59 used for Cable TV, RG-58 for thin Ethernet and RG-11 for thick Ethernet. The connector used in these cables is called BNC connector; it is used to connect the end of the cable to a device.Though the coaxial cable has higher bandwidth, but its attenuation is much higher compare to twisted-pair cables. It is widely used in digital telephone networks where a single cable can carry data up to 600 Mbps. Cable TV networks use RG-59 coaxial cable. Traditional Ethernet LANs also use this cable.

Fig 2 Coaxial Cable

Fiber-Optic CableA fiber optic cable transmits signals in the form of light. Optical fiber use reflection to guide light through a channel. It consists of two main parts: core and cladding. Core is denser compare to cladding and is made up of plastic or glass. Cladding acts as a protective cover to core. The difference in density of core and cladding is such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding, instead of being refracted into it.Two modes of propagation of light are possible in optical fiber such as: multimode and single mode. Multimode fiber allows multiple beams from a light source move through the core. In multimode step-index fiber, the core density remains constant from the center to the edges. But in multimode graded-index fiber, core density gradually decreases from the center of the core to its edge. Graded-index fiber creates less distortion in the signal compare to step-index.There are two types of connectors for fiber optic cables. The SC connector is used for cable TV, and ST connector used for connecting cable to networking devices. Attenuation in fiber optic cable is very low compare to other two types of cable. It provides very high bandwidth and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Light weight and greater immunity to tapping makes it more preferable cable.Fiber optic cable is often used in backbone networks because of its wide bandwidth and cost

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effectiveness. Local area networks such as 100Base-FX network and 100Base-X use this cable. Also it is used by cable TV companies.

Fig 3 Optical Fibre

References:https://www.lifewire.com/introduction-to-network-cables-817868https://fcit.usf.edu/network/chap4/chap4.htmhttps://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/networking-tutorials/network-cable-types-and-specifications.htmlhttps://pcdreams.com.sg/types-of-data-transmission-cables-2/

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Lab 2AIM: To show a basic point to point network between to PCs using Cisco Packet Tracer

Procedure:1.Pick two Generic PCs from end devices tab.2.From connections tab pick cross-over wire and connect the two PCs.3.Set IP addresses of two PCs.4.Send a packet from PC1 to PC2 and run the simulation.

Packet Transfer:Packet is transferred from PC1 to PC2

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Lab 3AIM: Create and test a CAT-6 LAN cable.Diagram:

Procedure:1: Strip the cable jacket about 1.5 inch down from the end.2: Spread the four pairs of twisted wire apart. For Cat 5e, you can use the pull string to strip the jacket farther down if you need to, then cut the pull string. Cat 6 cables have a spine that will also need to be cut.3: Untwist the wire pairs and neatly align them. Be sure not to untwist them any farther down the cable than where the jacket begins; we want to leave as much of the cable twisted as possible.4: Cut the wires as straight as possible, about 0.5 inch above the end of the jacket.5: Carefully insert the wires all the way into the modular connector, making sure that each wire passes through the appropriate guides inside the connector.6: Push the connector inside the crimping tool and squeeze the crimper all the way down.7: Repeat steps 1-8 for the other end of the cable.8: To make sure you've successfully terminated each end of the cable, use a cable tester to test each pin.

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Lab 4

AIM: To show data transfer in different network topologies using Cisco Packet TracerTheory:

The arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is referred as network topology. The various network topologies are :

a) Mesh Topology : In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via particular channel.

Fig 1 Mesh Topology

b) Star Topology : In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e. not intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as active hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

Fig 2 Star Topology

c) Bus Topology :Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology.

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Fig 3 Bus Topology

d) Ring Topology :In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two neighbouring devices.

Fig 4 Ring Topology

e) Hybrid Topology : This topology is a collection of two or more topologies which are described above. This is a scalable topology which can be expanded easily. It is reliable one but at the same it is a costly topology.

Fig 5 Hybrid Topology

Procedure:1.Pick number of end devices required.2.To connect one device with multiple devices using hubs or switches.3.Connect them with appropriate cables.4.Set IP addresses.4.Repeat the steps for other topologies.

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Lab 5Aim:To set up a router using Cisco Packet Tracer.

Procedure1. Place cisco router , switches and generic PCs.2. Connect them with cable.3. To configure router click on router and open command line.4. Type “enable” and type “config t”.5. Type interface name example “interface fa0/0”.6. Type Ip address and mac address example “ip address 192.168.10.10 255.255.255.0”.7. To turn on a port type “no shut”8. Type “exit”.9. Enter the Ip address of interfaces in the default gateway of network PCs.

Packet Transfer:Packet is transferred from PC1 to PC2. Since there are only two networks directly connected to the router, there is no need for routing tables.

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Lab 6AIM:Implement Static routing to connect different networks and share data between different network devices using cisco packet tracer.

THEORY:Static routing is a type of network routing technique. Static routing is not a routing protocol; instead, it is the manual configuration and selection of a network route, usually managed by the network administrator. It is employed in scenarios where the network parameters and environment are expected to remain constant. 

Static routing is only optimal in a few situations. Network degradation, latency and congestion are inevitable consequences of the non-flexible nature of static routing because there is no adjustment when the primary route is unavailable.

PROCEDURE:1. Set IP addresses of all devices and appropriate interfaces of the router.2. For static routing click on the router.3. Under CONFIG , in routing setting click Static.4. Add network IP , Subnet Mask and IP address of the next hop(interface of next

router)where you want the router of the network to send the packet.

Packet Transfer:The packet is transferred from PC0(IP 192.168.1.1) to PC2(IP 192.168.6.2).When packet reaches router0 it looks on its routing table and transfers packet to next hop ie 192.168.3.2. From there router2 transfers packet to 192.168.5.2 .Since network 192.168.6.0 is directly connected with router1 is sends the packet to it’s destination.

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Lab 7AIM: Implement Dynamic Routing to connect multiple different networks and share data between different networks devices using Cisco Packet Tracer.

THEORY:Dynamic routing is a networking technique that provides optimal data routing. Unlike static routing, dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time logical network layout changes. In dynamic routing, the routing protocol operating on the router is responsible for the creation, maintenance and updating of the dynamic routing table. In static routing, all these jobs are manually done by the system administrator.

Dynamic routing uses multiple algorithms and protocols. The most popular are Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Procedure:1. Set up IP Addresses of all end devices and interfaces of all routers.2. For Dynamic Routing click on router and in routing settings click RIP.3. Add IP Addresses of networks directly connected to the router.4. Repeat the above step for all routers.5. Transfer packet from one end device to another or use ping command to check the

network.

Packet Transfer:The packet is sent from PC0 to PC2.

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Lab 8AIM: Use and Observe various troubleshooting commands in routing.Theory:

1. Show IP route: Use the show ip route command to find detailed information regarding the routes configured on the router.

2. Show IP interface: The show ip interface command will provide details regarding layer 3 configuration on the interfaces. Using this command you can see the IP address and mask configured on a given interface, whether an access list is applied on the interface as well as basic

3. Trace route: The TRACEROUTE command traces the end-to-end path a packet takes though an internetwork. Similarly with PING, it uses the ICMP protocol with TTL timeouts to perform its operation

Procedure:

1.Set up a network as shown in Fig.

2.Type show ip route in any router.

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3.Type show ip interface.

Precautions:Before typing commands check that router is in global configuration mode.

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