Chapter 13 – Eastern Europe and Western Russia

LESSON 1 – Physical Geography

Both the rugged mountains and the gentle plains of Eastern Europe and Western Russia have shaped the cultures of the people living there.

Landforms and Waterways – In what way have the landforms in the Balkan Peninsula shaped the cultures of that region?

You can locate Eastern Europe and Western Russia on a map or a globe by identifying physical characteristics that border the regions. To the north are the Baltic and Barents Seas. The southern border is defined by the Caucasus Mountains and the Adriatic, Black, and Caspian Seas. The regions extend eastward to the Ural Mountains. Eastern Europe includes 10 countries in the north and 11 on the Balkan Peninsula. Russia is a huge country, extending through Europe and Asia and covering 11 time zones. Western Russia is the part of Russia that lies within Europe. Western Russia and Eastern Europe share characteristics of physical and human geography that unite them into a single region.

Vast Plains

Eastern Europe and Western Russia rest mostly on a group of plains. The largest plain is the Russian Plain, which begins in Belarus and Ukraine and stretches east about 1,000 miles (1,609 km) from Russia’s western borders. In central European Russia, the Russian Plain rises to form the central Russian upland. An upland is an area of high elevation. To the east are the Ural Mountains, and beyond that, the west Siberian Plain.

The Northern European Plain includes Poland in Eastern Europe, but it also extends into parts of Western Europe. South and southeast of the Northern European Plain is the Hungarian Plain, which includes parts of many different countries. Within Romania is the Transylvanian basin. A basin is an area of land that slopes gently downward from the surrounding land. Much of Ukraine is steppe, or vast, level areas of land that support only low-growing, vegetation-like grasses.

Bordering Mountains

To the south of the Russian Plain are two chains of mountains that make up the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains. They extend from the northwest to the southeast with a valley between.East of the Russian Plain, the Ural Mountains form a boundary between Europe and Asia. The Urals are up to 250 million years old. The northern mountains are covered in forests and some glaciers. Grasslands cover the southern Urals.The Carpathian Mountains are much younger. On a map, the Carpathians appear almost as an eastward extension of the Alps. The Vienna basin in Austria separates the two mountain ranges.The Balkan Peninsula is a mountainous region. In fact, balkan is a Turkish word for mountain. The Carpathian Mountains run through the peninsula’s north and are linked to the Balkan Mountains. The region is so mountainous that human settlements are isolated from one another. This isolation results in cultural diversity among the people, but it is also the source of conflict among ethnic groups. Conflict among ethnic groups within a state, a country, or a region is known as balkanization.

Surrounding Seas

The Baltic Sea lies northwest of Russia and Eastern Europe. The Baltic is shallow and brackish, or somewhat salty, because it is seawater mixed with river water. In the southwest, the Adriatic, Ionian, and Black seas surround the Balkan Peninsula on three sides. The Black Sea borders the southern coast of Ukraine and southwestern Russia. The sea also separates Turkey from Ukraine and the Balkan Peninsula. At Europe’s most southeastern point is the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea is the world’s largest inland body of water, covering an area larger than Japan.

Rivers and Lakes

A vast number of rivers, canals, lakes, and reservoirs are found in Eastern Europe and Western Russia. The Volga River is the longest river in Europe and Russia’s most important waterway. Originating northwest of Moscow, the Volga and its many tributaries carry more freight and passenger traffic than any other river in Russia. It provides hydroelectric power and water to many parts of Russia.The Dnieper River also originates in Russia. It flows through Belarus and Ukraine before emptying into the Black Sea. Dams and reservoirs southeast of Kiev provide hydroelectric power. They also irrigate farmlands and help relieve water shortages in parts of Ukraine. Originating in the Carpathian Mountains and emptying into the Black Sea, the Dniester River is the second-longest river in Ukraine. The Dniester carries freight and passenger ships, and it serves as an important route to the Black Sea.From its origins in southwestern Germany, the Danube flows toward the east through several countries before emptying into the Black Sea. The Danube provides transportation, hydroelectric power, fishing, and water for irrigation. Historically, the river transported traders as well as invading armies. Today, many cities are located along its banks, including three capital cities: Vienna, Austria; Budapest, Hungary; and Belgrade, Serbia. The Main River became connected to the Danube via the Main-Danube Canal, which linked the North Sea with the Black Sea.

Climates – How does climate affect plants that are grown and harvested in Eastern Europe and Western Russia?

Several different types of climate are found in Eastern Europe and Western Russia, from the hot summers and rainy winters in Albania to the cold, polar reaches of northern Russia.

Humid Continental Climates

Much of Eastern Europe and Western Russia have a humid continental climate. These areas experience mild or warm summers and long, cold winters. Farther south, in places such as Croatia, Serbia, and Bulgaria, summers are hotter, and winter weather is similar to that of areas farther north.

Albania and Macedonia experience a more Mediterranean climate, especially in the western areas. Summers tend to be hot and dry, and winters are mild to cool and rainy.

Russia’s Far North

North of 60°N latitude, Western Russia has a subarctic climate. Winters are very cold, with temperatures as low as −40°F (−40°C). The summers are short and cool, though temperatures can range from 50°F (10°C) to 86°F (30°C).

Farther north is Novaya Zemlya, an archipelago consisting of two large islands and several small islands. The climate here is polar, and a large part of Novaya Zemlya is covered in ice year-round. Only the southern island is inhabited by a small number of the indigenous Nenets, who are herders and fishers.

Natural Resources – What are three important challenges to the development of resources in Eastern Europe and Western Russia?

Eastern Europe and Western Russia have abundant mineral resources, as well as dense forests, fertile farmlands, and rich fishing grounds. These resources play a vital role in people’s lives and in the economy of the countries in which they live.

Forests and Agriculture

Russia is a vast country—by far the largest in the world. However, only about one-sixth of Russia’s land is suitable for agriculture. Farmers grow a number of crops, including grains such as wheat, oats, and barley. Most agricultural land is in an area that extends from the western shores of the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, forming a roughly triangular shape. This area is known as the fertile triangle.

More than one-fifth of the world’s forests are in Russia. They cover an area almost the size of the continental United States. Lumber, paper, and cardboard are important products of the forestry industry. The long, cold winters of Western Russia’s continental climate, however, cause forests to grow slowly. The intense harvesting of forests and the slow rates of growth threaten the forests and the forestry industry.

In 2010 Russia experienced the hottest summer in 130 years, with drought conditions and temperatures reaching 104°F (40°C). That summer, wildfires destroyed 37 million acres (about 15 million ha) of forests, agricultural crops, and other vegetation. The impact of these fires was tremendous, taking lives, destroying homes, and damaging Russia’s forestry and agricultural industries.

Energy and Minerals

Most of Russia’s vast coal, oil, and natural gas reserves are in Siberia. Reserves are the estimated total amount of a resource in a certain area. Russia’s coal and rich deposits of iron ore fuel the country’s steel industry. Machines made from steel are used to build Russia’s automobiles, railroads, ships, and many consumer products.

Poland’s important mineral resources include aluminum, coal, copper, lead, and zinc. Poland is one of the world’s major sources of sulfur. Romania has rich deposits of coal, and it extracts oil from the Black Sea. Hydroelectric and thermal power plants also support Romania’s energy needs. Other important mineral resources include copper and bauxite, the raw material for aluminum.

Fishing Industry

Russia’s fishing industry is an important part of the country’s economy. Salmon, cod, herring, and pollack are among the most important commercial fish in Russia. Many of Russia’s lakes and rivers are also used for freshwater fishing.

Romania’s fishing industry is concentrated in the southeastern area of that country. The Danube River and lakes and rivers near the Black Sea provide much of the fish. The European Union’s restrictions on overfishing has hurt Romania somewhat, but fishing remains important to the country’s economy.

LESSON 2 – History of the Regions

For most of the late 1900s, the USSR was one of the two most powerful countries in the world. The Soviets ruled Russia, nearly all of Eastern Europe, and much of Central Asia.

Early History – How did Peter I and Catherine II change Russia?

For the last 1,000 years, the people of Eastern Europe and Western Russia have been part of great empires that struggled against each other—and sometimes against their own people.

Early Slavic States

Many different ethnic groups settled in the regions of Eastern Europe and Western Russia long before modern national borders were set. Most of the people in the region are Slavs. Slavs are an ethnic group that includes Poles, Serbs, Ukrainians, and other Eastern Europeans.

Early Slavs migrated from Asia and settled in the area that now includes Ukraine and Poland. In the A.D. 400s and A.D. 500s, Slavs moved westward and southward, coming into contact with migrating Celtic and Germanic groups.

In the A.D. 800s, Slavic groups in the present-day Czech Republic formed Great Moravia, an empire covering much of central Europe. Other Slav people settled in the Balkans, eventually coming under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Another early Slav group settled in the forest and plains of present-day Ukraine and Belarus. The people of a settlement called Kiev organized the Slav communities into a union of city-states known as Kievan Rus. The leaders controlled the area’s trade, using Russia’s western rivers as a link between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea. Kievan Rus prospered from trade with the Mediterranean world and Western Europe. Later, non-Slavic people also settled in the region. Besides ethnic Russians who make up the majority of the population today, there are Hungary’s Magyars, Romanians, Slavs, Ukrainians, and many others.

Throughout Russia’s history, the Russian Slavs have dominated the country’s politics and culture. Most Slavs practice Eastern Orthodoxy, a form of Christianity brought to Russia from the eastern Mediterranean area. By the A.D. 1000s, the ruler and people of Kievan Rus had accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity. It remains Russia’s largest religion today.

Imperial Russia

During the later 1200s, the warrior armies of the Mongols of Central Asia invaded Russia. For the next 250 years, they controlled most of Russia. Near the end of the Mongol reign, the princes of Muscovy (now the city of Moscow) rose to power.

The most powerful of these princes, Ivan IV, defeated the Mongols and declared himself the czar of Russia. Czar is Russian for Caesar, or powerful ruler. The Russian nobility, dissatisfied with the czars who ruled after Ivan, looked for a young noble to lead the country. In 1613 they elected 16-year-old Michael Romanov as czar. The Romanovs ruled for the next 300 years.

Powerful Czars

Later, a czar now known as Peter the Great attempted to turn Russia into a major power. After Peter’s death in 1725, Russia endured a string of weak czars. During the late 1700s, Empress Catherine the Great came to power. Catherine encouraged the development of Russian education, journalism, architecture, and theater. During her reign, Russia expanded its empire and took possession of the entire northern coast of the Black Sea.

Plight of the Serfs

The czars and nobles enjoyed rich, comfortable lives. At the bottom of society, however, were the great masses of people. Most were serfs, or farm laborers who could be bought and sold along with the land.

These people lived hard lives. In 1861 Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom. The new law, however, did little to help the serfs. They had no education and few ways to earn a living. Industrialization drew some serfs to cities, where they worked long hours for low wages.

Conflict and Communism – How did the Russian Communist Party plan to transform Russia into an industrial giant?

In the early 1900s, discontent with the rule of the czars spilled into the streets. Strikes and demonstrations in 1905 nearly ended the reign of Czar Nicholas II. One event, called Bloody Sunday, began with workers marching toward the czar’s palace in St. Petersburg to demand better working conditions. The march ended when soldiers fired into the marchers, killing nearly 1,000 people. Another much larger conflict was brewing—one that would involve millions of people, military and civilian.

Wars and Revolution

The threat of war in Europe had been brewing for many years. The major powers had already formed alliances. Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire made up the Central Powers. Great Britain, France, and Russia were called the Allies. An assassination triggered World War I. A Bosnian terrorist named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914, in Bosnia. By August, nearly all of Europe was at war.At first, the Russian people supported the war effort, but as military failures, high casualties, and food shortages began mounting, public opinion turned against the war and against the czar. Russia encouraged Armenians in Turkish-controlled lands to fight alongside them. The Turks responded by deporting 1.75 million Armenians to Syria and Mesopotamia. During this mass deportation, about 600,000 Armenians starved or were murdered by Turkish soldiers and police. The mass murder of vast numbers of an ethnic or cultural group is called genocide.In 1917 food shortages in Russia triggered riots in the capital. Soldiers began deserting, joining civilians in their protests against the war. Even though the Allies won the war, Russia emerged as a weakened nation.Czar Nicholas was forced to step down. A new government was installed, but it could not maintain power. By the end of 1917, a group of revolutionaries known as the Bolsheviks had seized control of the government.

Rise of Communism

The Bolsheviks had strong support all over Russia. Inspired by the writings of Karl Marx, they remade Russia into a communist state. Communism is an economic system built on the idea that all property should belong to the community or the state, not to private individuals. The Bolsheviks, who had become the Russian Communist Party, took control of all land and industry. Their leader, Vladimir Lenin, became the first premier of the new Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also known as the Soviet Union).When Lenin died in 1924, the secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Joseph Stalin, became leader of the Soviet Union. Stalin used terror and brute force to fashion the Soviet Union into a communist dictatorship. He forced the collectivization of all agriculture, so that all farmland was owned and controlled by the government. Peasants and landowners protested, especially in Ukraine. The clash between agricultural workers and the government resulted in a famine that killed millions.By the early 1930s, the Soviet Union was on its way to becoming one of the world’s industrial giants. Stalin wanted something more, however. His vision was to spread a Soviet-style communist government throughout the world.

The USSR and Its Satellites

In 1941 Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, drawing the country into World War II. During the conflict, the Soviets joined with Great Britain and the United States to defeat the Germans. At the end of

World War II, the fate of Europe was left to the victors— the United States, Great Britain, and the USSR. The Soviet army already occupied Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Stalin agreed to allow elections in those countries but soon installed communist governments. Germany was split in two. The United States, Great Britain, and their allies set up West Germany as a democracy under their guidance, and East Germany became a communist state. Countries under Soviet rule came to be known as satellite countries, meaning they were under the economic and political domination of a more powerful country.

The Regions in the Modern Era – How is a “cold war” different from other kinds of war?

After World War II, the Soviet Union shared superpower status with the United States. Both superpowers possessed weapons of unimaginable destructive force. Would they dare to use those weapons against each other?

The Cold War

The Cold War was the rivalry and conflict between the USSR and the United States and their allies. During the next four decades, the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a struggle for world influence and power.Although both superpowers built destructive weapons, they also used other strategies, such as the threat of force and providing military and financial aid to their allies. At times, however, an outcome of nuclear warfare seemed inevitable.The United States and its allies created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. Any attack on a member country would be considered an attack on all of them, and NATO countries agreed to respond as a group. The original NATO countries included many of the non-Eastern European nations. When NATO admitted West Germany in 1955, the USSR responded by creating the Warsaw Pact. Member countries were Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the USSR.The two superpowers came close to war during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In October 1962, after learning that the Soviets were sending missiles to Cuba, the U.S. set up a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent the shipment of missiles. Both sides seemed prepared to go to war. As tensions grew, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to stop shipping the missiles to Cuba. Another crisis was brewing, however. The Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe began to rebel against Soviet control.

Unrest in the Soviet Satellites

In 1968 Czechoslovakia’s leader Alexander Dubcek announced sweeping reforms. He wanted to give the press more freedom and to guarantee citizens’ civil rights. The Czech people welcomed the reforms, but the Soviets removed Dubcek from power.

In 1980 dozens of Polish trade unions joined together to form Solidarity. Solidarity used strikes to put pressure on the government. The Polish government responded by declaring Solidarity illegal and putting its leaders in jail. Solidarity became an underground, or secret, organization.

Changes Under Gorbachev

Then in the 1980s, a new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power and implemented new policies. Glasnost, which means “openness,” was an attempt to allow the people in the USSR and its satellite countries to have more social and political freedoms. Perestroika, which means “restructuring,” was an attempt to reform the Soviet economy.

Change came quickly in Eastern Europe. Solidarity was legalized in Poland in 1989, then the Communists were voted out of power. By 1990, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania had new governments. In Germany, the Berlin Wall that separated West and East Berlin was torn down. By the next year, East and West Germany were reunited. Soviet control of Eastern Europe was broken.

In 1991 a group of Soviet officials, who thought Gorbachev’s policies meant the downfall of the Soviet Union, staged a coup and arrested Gorbachev. Gorbachev’s allies resisted, the people protested, and the military turned against the coup leaders. Gorbachev was released, and the coup leaders were arrested. Communist control of the USSR was at an end. By the end of 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved, and all the republics had become independent countries.  

Divisions and Conflict

When Eastern Europe shook free of Soviet domination in 1989, ethnic tensions flared in the Balkan Peninsula. The former Yugoslav republics used to be one large country called Yugloslavia. In the early 1990s, disputes among ethnic groups tore the country apart. Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina broke free of Yugoslavia and became separate countries. Serbia and Montenegro each became its own country in 2006.

Kosovo, which was considered part of Serbia, has a mostly Albanian Muslim population. When Yugoslavia broke apart, many people in Kosovo decided they wanted to break free of Serbian control. When the Kosovo Liberation Army began an armed rebellion in 1998, Serbs responded with military force. NATO intervened to end the bloodshed, and the United Nations began governing Kosovo. Finally, in 2008 Kosovo declared itself independent, though Serbia, Russia, and other countries refused to recognize this.

LESSON 3 – Life in Eastern Europe and Western Russia

It has been more than 20 years since the collapse of the USSR. The countries that the USSR once ruled in Eastern Europe have all moved forward, some more easily than others.

People and Places – What were some of the challenges Russia faced after the fall of the Soviet Union?

Life has changed in Eastern Europe and Western Russia. Some people have benefited from the changes; others have not. The attempt to change from a communist state to a free market economy has not been easy or particularly successful.

Economic Changes

Russia faced enormous challenges following the collapse of the USSR. The economy that was centrally controlled by the communist government had been in decline for years. Most of its industry had centered on military hardware and heavy industrial machinery. The country was not prepared to transform into a producer of consumer products that are the real engine of free market economies

Inflation, or the rise in prices for goods and services, increased, while production slowed. The transfer of industry to private ownership was a great deal for wealthy individuals who had connections in government. However, these changes did not improve the living conditions for most Russians. People refer to the new owners of industrial Russia as oligarchs. An oligarch is one of a small group of people who control the government and use it to further their own goals.

Social and Political Changes

When the Soviet Union existed, the central government kept tight control over its many ethnic groups. Some groups wanted to form their own countries. Among them are the Chechens, who live in Chechnya near the Caspian Sea and Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia. The region has many oil reserves, and its oil pipelines transport fuel to major Russian cities. Russian troops fought Chechen rebels to keep Chechnya a part of Russia. When Russia finally pulled out in 1996, the Chechen rebellion was still not over. President Boris Yeltsin was widely blamed for being unable to solve these problems.

At the end of 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was replaced by Vladimir Putin, who was elected president in 2000. Putin, a former officer in the KGB, the country’s secret police, was viewed as someone who wanted to keep a tight rein on government power. Putin launched reforms to reduce the power of the oligarchs

and encouraged economic development. Although Putin helped stabilize the Russian economy, he dealt harshly with those who opposed him.

He was reelected for a second term in 2004. In 2008 Dmitry Medvedev was elected president, and he appointed Putin to be prime minister. In 2012 Putin ran for the presidency a third time and won. Soon after, new restrictive laws were passed strengthening penalties against demonstrators, blocking some Internet sites, and restricting free speech.

Where People Live

The two largest cities in Western Russia are Moscow and St. Petersburg. In addition to being the political capital of Russia, Moscow is the cultural, educational, and scientific capital. It has also been the spiritual home of the Russian Orthodox Church for more than 600 years. St. Petersburg was founded by Peter the Great in 1703.

The biggest population centers in Eastern Europe are the capital cities, such as Kiev, Ukraine; Minsk, Belarus; Budapest, Hungary; Warsaw, Poland; and Prague in the Czech Republic. Each of these cities is a center of national culture.

At one time, most Eastern Europeans lived in rural areas. Now more people live in urban areas. The urban population of Albania, Macedonia, and Croatia, for example, is above 50 percent. In some countries, urbanization is even higher. In Poland and Montenegro, the urban population is about 60 percent. In Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Belarus, urbanization is 70 percent or more.

During the industrial age, people began moving from Eastern Europe to Western Europe and North America; that trend continues. Eastern Europeans have moved to escape political oppression and to seek better economic opportunities. Countries such as Romania have lost population since the lifting of Soviet travel restrictions.

People and Cultures – How did geographical barriers affect the development of Slavic culture in Eastern Europe?

The history of Western Russia and Eastern Europe has created a rich mix of cultures and people. People take great pride in their folk and religious traditions, most of which were frowned upon by Soviet authorities.

Ethnic and Language Groups

At one time, a single Slavic language, understood by most Slavic people, was spoken. As Slavic people settled in different parts of Eastern Europe, geographical barriers separated and isolated them. These groups developed distinct languages and cultures.

Slavs generally belong to one of three categories. East Slavs are represented by the Slavic ethnic groups in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. West Slavs include ethnic Slavs in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and parts of eastern Germany. The most diverse group are the South Slavs, who live in Bulgaria and other countries of the Balkans. Each of these groups speaks its own language. Russia is made up of more than 120 ethnic groups, although almost 80 percent of the population is ethnic Russian.

The people of Albania are a distinct ethnic group that has been living in that region for about 4,000 years. Albanian is the last surviving language of an entire Indo-European language group. It is the ancestor of the language spoken by present-day Albanians, and it has survived thousands of years of conquest and cultural change.

Religion

For most of the 1900s, religious practice was strongly discouraged throughout Eastern Europe and Western Russia. In some countries in Eastern Europe, a sizable percentage of the population does not practice any religion. Less than half the population of the Czech Republic belongs to any church. In the

Baltic region, nearly two-thirds of Latvians and one-third of Estonians are not affiliated with any church. In most of Eastern Europe, however, Soviet repression strengthened religious faith. The dominant religion in most of these countries is the Eastern Orthodox Church. Many different churches exist within the Orthodox faith.

Most of these churches are affiliated with a specific ethnic group or country. The majority of people in Belarus, Bulgaria, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and Ukraine worship at an Eastern Orthodox Church. The majority of people in Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia are Roman Catholics. Most of these countries also support minority populations of Muslims, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Protestants, and Jews. Nearly 70 percent of Albanians are Muslim, as are a sizable number of people in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Arts

In the 1800s and early 1900s, Russians produced some of the most important cultural works in all of Europe. The novels of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky; the music of Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, and Rimsky- Korsakov; and the plays and short stories of Chekhov and Gogol are still considered among the world’s finest.People in the countries of Eastern Europe are proud of the great art produced by their people. In many cases, those works are an important symbol of their national character. Although a small amount of literary work was written in the Czech language, Czech literature did not become internationally important until Czechoslovakia became an independent country in 1918. Karel Capek was a Czech writer who was famous for his plays and novels. His most well-known contribution to world literature is a word he coined—robot—in his 1921 play R.U.R. Eastern European composers, such as Bela Bartok and Zoltan Kodaly, celebrated the traditional music of Hungary and Romania by using it in their compositions. Bulgaria also has a rich tradition in folk and choir music.Western popular culture has had a huge impact on the art of Eastern Europe and Western Russia. Russian and Polish filmmakers can follow their national traditions, but they also can see how well-liked and influential American films and television are. Rock and pop music from the United States and Western Europe are extremely popular. Young artists in this part of the world are creating work influenced by international popular culture while trying to bring something uniquely Eastern European to it.

Daily Life

For much of the 1900s, the people of Eastern Europe and Western Russia lived under communist governments that attempted to control their private lives. The collapse of the USSR brought about devolution in Russian government and in governments throughout Eastern Europe. Devolution occurs when a strong central government surrenders its powers to more local authorities.

One of the results of this change is the return of national traditions and identity. Most of these countries have strong cultural and religious traditions. These traditions were never really lost, but the lack of strong Soviet control has made it possible for people to live and speak more freely about their beliefs and interests. Such freedoms emphasize unique aspects of these countries and their people.

The other result of the loss of Soviet control is the rising influence of international popular culture. Soviet authorities did not trust the music, films, and television programs coming from capitalist countries such as the United States, but they could not effectively outlaw them. Young Russians and Eastern Europeans are now having the same cultural experiences that young people are having in the rest of Europe and in the Americas. This shared culture emphasizes those things that all these people have in common with each other.

One issue in Russia is the generation gap that exists between people who grew up in communist USSR or are old enough to remember it, and those people who have lived most or all of their lives in the post-

Soviet era. One big question is how to teach the history of the USSR to young people who never experienced life under the Soviet system.

In the 1990s, historians took a critical look at the Russian Revolution, the leadership of Lenin and Stalin, and the excesses of the Soviet government. They took a more positive approach when looking back at the era of the Romanov czars.

Issues in Eastern Europe and Western Russia – What are the economic advantages and disadvantages of Eastern Europe’s location between continents?

Eastern Europe and Western Russia are still in the process of change. They are trying to modernize their industries and governments during difficult economic times.

Earning a Living

Western Russia and the countries of Eastern Europe cover a vast area. The landforms, the soil, the mineral resources, the climate, the economies, and the national traditions are different throughout the region. These factors combine to determine how people earn a living in these places. Nearly half the working population in Albania is employed in agriculture. Romania, Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina also have many people employed in agriculture.

Russia is one of the world’s leading suppliers of oil and natural gas. Most of it comes from western Siberia or the region between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains. Pipelines link these regions to the rest of the country. Russia supplies oil as well as natural gas to European countries, especially the countries in Eastern Europe.

Russia is also a major supplier of iron ore and other metals. About 1 million people work in Russia’s forestry industry. The majority of people in Russia and in most of Eastern Europe now work in the service industries, or businesses that provide services to individuals as well as other businesses.

Many of the industries in Eastern Europe fell on hard times after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Many industries suffered big losses, leading to high unemployment, especially in the Balkans. One positive move is the number of Eastern European countries that have joined the European Union. Since 2004, the following countries have joined the EU: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The EU has sought to protect employment, improve workers’ living and working conditions, and create a strong European trading bloc that can compete effectively with the United States.

Connections: Europe and Asia

Developments in Europe and Asia have affected Russia. Russians lived under Mongol rulers for centuries and later were next door to the Ottoman Turks, one of the most powerful Islamic empires to exist. Russia was influenced by developments in Europe, and, in turn, made contributions to European culture. Russian culture has always been a mix of European and Asian influences.

Today, oil and natural gas extracted from the Siberian oil fields in Central Asia are delivered via pipeline to all of Russia, Eastern Europe, and as far west as Italy and Germany. Geographically and culturally, Russia plays a key role in the relationship between Europe and Asia.

Addressing Challenges

Russia and countries that were formerly part of the Soviet republic continue to discuss agreements on the borders of the countries. The countries involved are Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan (in Central Asia). Even though fighting died down in Chechnya, occasional outbreaks of violence still occur in that republic, and rebels continue to call for independence. The 2008 financial crisis hit Eastern Europe hard. The countries there struggled as they transformed into free market economies. Joining the EU should have been a great benefit to the economies of its new members, but all members of the EU have suffered as a result of the financial crisis.