Section B: Why Does Gender Matter in Development

AusAID, Guide to Gender and Development, p. 5

Since the mid 1980s there has been a growing consensus that sustainable development requires an understanding of both women’s and men’s roles and responsibilities within the community and their relations to each other. This has come to be known as the Gender and Development (GAD) approach. Improving the status of women is no longer seen as just a women’s issue, but as a goal that requires the active participation of both men and women.

The Gender and Development a pp roach is based on the premise that development cooperation programs cannot succeed or the impact be sustained if the people affected do not support them. The role of gender analysis is to examine ways in which men’s and women’s differing roles, responsibilities, resources and priorities may affect their project participation. Through the collection of sex disaggregated data, it identifies how development program s may impact differently on women and men. Gender analysis, an essential part of social analysis, considers the social, economic, political and cultural relationships between men and women, and how these will be affected by and influence development activities.

Mainstreaming women’s needs and perspectives into all activities is one of the primary objectives of GAD. Mainstreaming acknowledges that all development operations have a gender impact and do not automatically benefit men and women equally. A project which mainstreams gender considers women’s and men’s needs first at the country program level, and then at each stage of the project cycle. It ensures that women and men equally participate in every aspect of the project, both as beneficiaries and decision makers.

Gender and Development moves away from the practice of adding “women only” components to projects and programs, which characterised the “Women in Development” approach. However, separate programs, projects and components for women will continue to need support, since these are often necessary to ensure that women’s practical needs are met. Separate programming for women may also assist with mainstreaming women’s interests, or be essential for advancing their status and promoting their human rights.

AusAID, Guide to Gender and Development, p. 15

Incorporating a gender perspective into aid activitiesAnother of Australia’s key policy objectives is to incorporate a gender perspective into the development and implementation of policies, programs and projects. International experience indicates that undertaking gender analysis during project preparation does not guarantee that gender perspectives will be incorporated during implementation. This likelihood is improved if:

• key constraints to women’s and men’s participation are identified during project preparation for all project components;

• project strategies are identified to overcome constraints to participation, including the setting of quantitativeand qualitative targets against which pro g ress can be monitored, and the dedication of project resources to ensure that strategies will be implemented;• gender-sensitive monitoring indicators and processes are devised to monitor both the impact of the project on women and men and the relationships between them, and the pro g ress towards targets for involving women (sex disaggregated data should be collected throughout the project cycle);• counterpart institutional capacity for implementing gender-sensitive projects is assessed and appropriate actions taken to strengthen this capacity.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: Interpersonal Growth and Gender in Groups; MODUL E # 3: Gender and Development.

http://www.cngo.org.np/pdf/genderanddevelopment.PDF

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: Page 6:Gender and Development (GAD)“Gender and Development” is an approach to development that became popular in the mid1980s. At that time, the dominant approach to including women in development initiatives wasthe Women in Development (WID) approach. WID focused primarily on women, withoutconsidering their relationship to men and how development initiatives would affect both menand women in society. The GAD approach includes the participation of both women and men. It emphasizes gender balance in access to the resources and benefits of society, and in participation in decision-making. When changes are made in a society, there can be winners and losers. Sometimes the winners are women and the losers are men, and vice versa. The aim of gender and development is to ensure that change benefits both women and men.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 7 Gender MainstreamingGender mainstreaming focuses on bringing the experience, knowledge and interests of women and men into all aspects of the development agenda. These aspects include structures, policies, legislation, institutions and programs that affect society. It is system-wide. Mainstreaming activities seek to incorporate the goal of equality into all aspects of social development.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 23-24:Sub-Activity #3.3: Identifying Gender NeedsOBJECTIVEParticipants will understand the importance of considering gender when designing and implementingdevelopment projects.KEY QUESTIONWhy is it important to consider gender when designing and implementing development projects?TIME1 – 1 ½ hoursMETHODOLOGYGame, small group work, picture interpretation, discussion in plenary

MATERIALSFood items (e.g., chocolate or biscuits), rope and markersPREPARATIONAssemble materialsSTEPSPart A1. Start the game by selecting five participants.2. Have the five participants take on various handicaps, e.g., blindfold both eyes of one person, tie bothhands and legs of one person, tie both hands of one person, tie both legs of one person, and let oneperson be free.3. Place food items about 15-20 feet away from the place where the selected five are standing.4. Ask the five participants to wait until the signal to start the game is given, then go to the food itemsand take as much as possible. Ask the rest of the participants to remain silent and form observations.5. Ask questions after completing the game:How easy or difficult was it for the five participants to retrieve the food items?Who got more, and who got less?Did the five participants have equal opportunities to acquire equal portions of food?How can this situation be compared to the situation of gender in Nepal?6. Illustrate the situation of women by showing Picture #7.7. Review the message that it is important to recognize that men and women don’t begin the “race” under the same circumstances. Societal expectations about women and their roles and responsibilities often place women at a disadvantage in gaining access to resources.

Part B1. Divide participants into two groups.One group is to discuss “what are the main problems faced by women in your community?”The other group is to discuss “what are the main problems faced by men in your community?”2. Ask each group to present their responses in plenary.3. Allow for discussion on the following questions:What are the specific problems of women?What are the specific problems of men?What are the common problems of both women and men?What are some of the causes of these problems and how can they be resolved?CLOSUREAsk one of the participants to summarize the session. Ask the rest of the participants to contribute if necessary.Tips for FacilitatorsOpen ground is suitable for game play.Write down the learning points of the game from the participants.Give enough time for open discussion.Relate the learning points of the game with the situation of women and men in Nepal.

Find other practical examples of how women lack access to resources.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 27:Sub-Activity #4.2: Approaches to Gender-Related Development and Changingthe Roles of WomenOBJECTIVEParticipants will deepen their understanding of various approaches to gender-related development.KEY QUESTIONWhat are some of the different approaches to gender-related development?What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?TIME1 ½ to 2 hoursMETHODOLOGYSmall group role-play, discussion in plenaryMATERIALSFlipchart paper, markers, role-play cardsPREPARATIONPrepare the role-play cards. (See Reference #8: Approaches to Gender in Development)STEPS1. Divide the participants into four groups. Have each group pick one role-play card to prepare foracting in front of all participants. The role-play should be short, but should demonstrate how theapproach works in action. Allow about 15 minutes for preparation.2. In plenary have each group present their role-play.3. At the end of each role-play, discuss the approach to gender that was demonstrated.What roles did the women play in the skit (e.g., reproductive, productive, community development)?Did the approach challenge the traditional role of women?Did it change the role of men?Did the approach seek to change the way women are regarded in society?How did participants feel about the role-play and its messages?CLOSUREAfter all role-plays are complete, review the different approaches that were shown, and summarize the key elements of each.Tips for FacilitatorsFacilitators should use their judgment in deciding whether this activity is appropriate for participants. For example, it might not be appropriate at the village or community level.Role-play cards should be prepared to suit the local context.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 31: Sub-Activity #5.2: Power RelationshipsOBJECTIVESParticipants will understand how power affects participation and equality.KEY QUESTIONHow does power influence participation and gender equality?

TIME1 ½ to 2 hoursMETHODOLOGYSmall group sorting exercise and discussion, presentation and discussion in plenaryMATERIALSFlipchart paper, markers, meta cards (two colours)PREPARATIONMeta cards showing family members and community groups can be prepared in advance, or can be prepared by participants at the beginning of the session.Family Members:Father, Mother, Boy Children, Girl Children, Father’s Father, Father’s Mother (other family members as identified by participantsCommunity Groups:Female groups (girls, unmarried women, married women without children, married women with children, divorced women, widows, old women, and other groups as identified by participants)Male groups (boys, unmarried men, married men without children, married men with children, divorced men, widowers, old men, and other groups as identified by participants)STEPSPart A: The Family1. Ask participants to identify family members, and prepare two sets of cards.2. Form two groups: one male and one female.3. Ask each group to organize the cards in descending order from those that have the most power within the family to those that have the least power within the family.4. Bring groups together and have a spokesperson from each group present the results. Record order on a sheet of Flipchart paper – putting the results from the male group on the left hand side, and the results from the female group on the right hand side.5. Determine whether there is a difference between the way the male and female groups in the power order. Discuss whether the power order is always the same, or if it varies depending on circumstances.Part B: The CommunityRepeat the above steps, only this time sort the cards for the community rather than the family.Tips for FacilitatorsThis exercise can become sensitive and personal and it requires strong facilitation and listening skills. Conversations may need to be limited in time. It is important to encourage everyone to participate but people should be allowed to pass if they don’t feel comfortable sharing personal examples.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 39:Gender Roles and Division of LabourGender roles are based on the attitudes and behaviours of men and women.Gender roles are determined by the society and accepted by the people.Gender roles are learned through the socialization process.Gender roles are particularly affected or influenced by caste, class, life-style, culture, social norms, values, traditions, political and legal systems, and ethnicity.

Gender roles are not universal. They vary by community, culture, religion, caste, class, age and marital status.Gender roles replicate from one generation to another generation, knowingly or unknowingly. But they are not fixed. They can change over time.People have the ability to influence or change gender roles.

Canada Nepal Gender in Orgs (CNGO). Training package #1: page 43:Reference #6: Practical Gender Needs and Strategic Gender InterestsThe Canadian International Development Agency’s (CIDA) Policy on Gender Equality (1997) states the following about practical needs and strategic interests. “ Practical needs can be defined as immediate necessities (water, shelter, food, income and health care) within a specific context. Projects that address practical needs generally include responses to inadequate living conditions.

Strategic interests, on the other hand, refer to the relative status of women and menwithin society. These interests vary in each context and are related to roles and expectations, as well as to gender divisions of labour, resources and power. Strategic interests may include gaining legal rights, closing wage gaps, protection from domestic violence, increased decision-making, and women's control over their bodies . To ensure sustainable benefits, both practical needs and strategic interests must be taken into account in the design of policies, programs and projects. (See section 6)

Gender analysis provides information to determine the most effective strategies in a particular context.A. Practical Gender Needs B. Strategic Gender Interests

Tend to be immediate Tend to be long-term

Relate to daily needs: food, housing, income,health, children, etc.

relate to disadvantaged positions, subordination,lack of resources and education, vulnerability topoverty and violence, etc.

Are easily identifiable by women Can be difficult to identify, i.e., women may havedifficulty identifying the reasons for disadvantageand potential ways to overcome it.

Can be addressed with specific inputs, e.g., food,hand pumps, clinics, etc.

Require change and transformation, e.g.,consciousness raising, increasing self-confidence,education, strengthening women's organizations,political mobilization, etc.

Meeting Practical Needs Meeting Strategic Interests

Meeting practical needs involves women as Addressing strategic interests involves women

beneficiaries and sometimes as participants asagents or enables women to become agents

Meeting practical needs can improve theconditions of women’s lives

Meeting strategic interests can improve theposition of women in society in relation to men(greater equality)

Meeting practical needs does not usually changetraditional roles and relationships

Meeting strategic interests can transformrelationships and help women gain control overtheir lives

CIDA, Accelerating Change: Resources for Gender Mainstreaming. p. 6

In recent years it has become generally accepted that gender equality is a prerequisitefor, rather than a result of, sustainable human development. Gender mainstreaming is an essential strategy not only for attaining gender equality, but also for the sustainable development of societies as a whole.

CIDA, Accelerating Change: Resources for Gender Mainstreaming. page 8:Gender Perspectives in Development: The Historical ContextThere has been a progressive evolution of perspectives, definitions, and approaches to achieving equality for women since the UN Conference on Women in Nairobi in 1975. In those early days, much of the concern was over women’s "issues" and women’s "access and opportunity". The women in development (WID) approach focused on how women could better be integrated into existing development initiatives. It largely promoted women’s participation as beneficiaries, rather than agents of development. But because the WID approach was perceived to be of relevance to women only, many social, economic, political and cultural issues were viewed either in isolation or as separate issues. This often had the effect of marginalizing women in government decision-making.

CIDA, Accelerating Change: Resources for Gender Mainstreaming. page 9:As a result of research and experience with WID, a growing awareness emerged in the early 1990s that barriers to equality are for the most part socially constructed, maintained by a complex array of historical, ideological, cultural, economic and religious influences. These barriers are often firmly entrenched and difficult to change. But there is a healthy body of evidence beginning to mount that shows they are not impossible to change. Women’s inequality is usually the result of a combination of factors (social, economic, political, and cultural) that impact differently upon the lives of women and men. It became evident that a new paradigm was needed to frame and explain the relationship between women and men in various societies, and to develop strategies for change that take these relationships into account. The recent gender and development (GAD) approach recognizes:• That gender is not a "women’s issue" but a relational issue• That women and men have different and special needs

• That women cannot be treated as a homogeneous group• That women tend to be disadvantaged relative to men• That the nature of inequality is often systemic and structural• That gender differences can also result in men being disadvantaged*

There have been countless discussions about the differences between WID and GAD, and the pros and cons of each approach. Analysis of these discussions should show that the approaches can be complementary, rather than contradictory. It is important for individuals and organizations to avoid getting trapped in semantics, and to get on with developing approaches that combine sound strategies to achieve gender equality. Gender equality issues must be approached with a multi-dimensional understanding that reflects the complexities of people's lives, and which will allow a cross-section of people to contribute to change. To be effective, gender analysis must make a practical contribution toward explaining the differences in men’s and women’s lives and helping to produce policies and programs that reduce inequalities.

DFID, Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and Practitioners. April 2002. page 7-9.

Outline history of women, gender and developmentThe “welfare” approach: Until the early 1970s, development policies addressed the needs of poor women’s entirely in the context of their role as wives and mothers. Known now as the “welfare” approach, the focus was on mother and child health, childcare and nutrition. It was assumed that the benefits of macro economic strategies oriented towards modernisation and growth would trickle down to the poor, and that poor women would benefit as the economic position of their husbands improved.

Analytical critique: In 1970, Esther Boserup, a Danish economist, systematically challenged these assumptions. In her book “Women’s Role in Economic Development”, she concluded that far from women benefiting as their husband’s situation improved, women were increasingly losing status. Women were becoming associated with the backward and the traditional, whilst men (with the assistance of economic development projects, such as the introduction of cash crops and new agricultural technologies) were increasingly associated with the modern and the progressive.

The “Women in Development” (WID) approach: In the context of a groundswell of research andcampaigning on the situation of women, and the rise of the women’s movement in USA and Europe in particular, 1975 was declared the UN International Year for Women, and 1976–1985 the UN International Women’s Decade. This attracted high level attention to women, led to the establishment of national women’s organisations and ministries in many countries, and helped to institutionalise what became known as Women in Development (WID) policies in governments, donor agencies and NGOs.

Responding to the concern that women had been left out of the processes of economic development, the aim of WID was to integrate women into economic development. This resulted in newly established WID officers, units and ministries developing women’s projects, which

were still separate to mainstream development but focusing on women’s productive role. Typically, this resulted in women’s income generation projects.

Analytical critique: The “gender” approach originated in the early 1980s in academic criticism of WID. Gender analysts, drawing on marxist analysis and feminist activism felt that WID was not in any way an appropriate solution to the problems faced by women. Not only was WID failing in its own terms (most women’s income generation projects failed to generate significant income), it left the mainstream of development untouched, commanded marginal budgets, treated women identically, and failed to look systematically at why and how women were disadvantaged. Gender analysts made the crucial distinction between “sex” and “gender”. Sex refers to universal biological differences between women and men, and gender to male and female behavioural norms (which are learnt, are different in different societies and change over the course of time). In this context, gender analysts examine why women in different cultures are systematically assigned inferior or secondary roles. They seek to recognise the ways in which gender norms (what men and women do, what they have, what they think etc.) are affected by,and reflected in, processes of development and change. Drawing on feminist activism, genderanalysts explicitly see women as agents of change and stress the need for women to organise to bring about change. Through most of the 1980s, gender analysis was regarded by gender analysts themselves as demanding a degree of commitment to change in structures of power that was unlikely to be found in either national or international development agencies.

The gender “efficiency” and gender “empowerment” approaches: By the mid 1990s, however, a “gender” approach had replaced WID in most governments, donor organisations and NGOs. There remains a lot of confusion amongst practitioners themselves about the meaning of “gender” in practice, and many “gender” units in fact continue to operate a largely WID approach. However, those consciously adopting a gender approach adapted (and in some people’s view distorted) the ideas of academic gender analysts to address particular needs. Two contrasting approaches dominated from the late 1980s. Advocates working within mainstream development organisations drew on gender analysis to bring concerns with women and gender difference into the “mainstream” of development for the first time. Known now as the gender “efficiency” approach, their strategy was to argue, in the overall development context of structural adjustment policies, that gender analysis makes good economic sense. That argued that understanding men’s and women’s roles and responsibilities as part of the planning of all development interventions helps targeting, improves project effectiveness and ensures that women, as well as men, can play their part in national development. Those working within community level women’s projects drew on what gender analysts (and the women’s movement) had to say about women as agents of change. In the overall context of a rise in participatory approaches to development, the gender “empowerment” approach meant working with women at the community level building organisational skills and self-esteem throughparticipation in determining needs and managing change.

Analytical critique: Evaluations highlighted both strengths and limitations in “efficiency” and “empowerment” approaches. The “efficiency” approach succeeded to a degree in bringing a concern with women and gender into the mainstream of development, but at the expense of focusing on what women could do for development, rather than on what development could do

for women. The empowerment approach opened up space for women to determine their own needs, but “empowerment” was too oftenmisinterpreted as an end rather than a means. This could result in projects delivering empowerment to poor women, with development practitioners apparently knowing better than poor women themselves what their true needs were. Evaluations of the implementation of gender policies in mainstream development organisations were revealing the common problem of “policy evaporation”, as implementation and impact failed to reflect policy commitments. Increasing research on the gendered nature of development organisations themselves demonstrated that development organisations are part of the problem of gender inequality they are supposedly committed to addressing. Gender inequalities in wider society affect who is qualified and available to work; patterns of staffing; training, promotion and career development opportunities and many aspects of organisational culture.

The “mainstreaming gender equality” approach: The term “gender mainstreaming” came into widespread use with the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action (PfA) at the 1995 UN International Conference on Women. It represents an attempt by gender advocates to build on the successes of the past and address some of the challenges. It attempts to combine the strengths of the efficiency and empowerment approaches within the context of mainstream development. Mainstreaming gender equality is a commitment to ensure that women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences are integral to the design,implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all legislation, policies and programmes so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. Gender mainstreaming is integral to all development decisions and interventions; it concerns the staffing, procedures and culture of development organisations as well as their programmes; and it forms part of the responsibility of all staff. Gender mainstreaming does not preclude women-only projects. It shifts their focus from women as a target group, to gender equality as a goal. It supports women-only (or men-only) projects designed as strategic interventions to address aspects of gender inequality and promote greater equality.

Mercy Corps. BRIDGE and Gender Mainstreaming: A Guide for Program Staff.

Gender Analysis is a systematic way for examining the relationship between women and men and looking at the different impacts of development interventions on women and men.• “Who” does “what”• “Who” has “what”• What influences arrangements related to resources access and control.Gender Analysis requires separating data by sex, and understanding how labor is divided and valued. Through gender analysis we can identify the differences between women and men regarding their specific activities, conditions, needs, access and control over resources, and access to development benefits anddecision-making.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. Navigating gender. A framework and a tool for participatory development. pages 8-9

Gender Analysis is a tool to better understand the realities of the women and men, girlsand boys whose lives are impacted by planned development. If you are involved in activitiesthat have the power to change the context and content of people’s lives, it is yourresponsibility to make sure that those activities are informed by what are the real lifecircumstances, strengths and needs of the women and men whose lives are about to change.

Gender Analysis can be utilized in a number of ways to inform decision-making. GenderAnalysis can be done by an individual organizing information according to the categoriesused, or it can be a powerful method used in the context of empowerment to furthercommunities’ access to and control over the use of resources their lives depend on. GenderAnalysis is not participatory by definition. It only becomes a framework and a tool forparticipatory development when it is used in such a way that the people whose informationis being organized have control over the process of using Gender Analysis.

Gender Analysis as an approach was preceded by a focus on Women in Development, orWID as it is commonly known. WID emerged during the era of the first United NationsDecade for Women (19755-1985). The challenge that WID presented to the way development was conceived at the time was the perception that women were equal partners in developmentactivities. WID activists and researchers pointed to statistics that did not differentiatewomen and men and therefore, when used as a basis of planning, obscured the fact thatwomen and men are in general engaged in different activities and consequently have differentneeds that have to be addressed. WID pointed out that “women are invisible” in much ofthe development thinking, while actually making a significant contribution to developmentas, for example, food producers, labourers, and environmental managers.

Gender Analysis as a tool and Gender and Development, or GAD, as an approach buildon WID. GAD examines the dynamics of access to and control over the use of resources thatwomen and men are engaged in within various cultural and economic contexts. GenderAnalysis is used to examine the impacts of development on both women and men, and isused as the basic tool to develop policy and action towards gender equality.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. Navigating gender. A framework and a tool for participatory development. page 11.

The reason we focus on gender is that, gender cross-cuts. A good GenderAnalysis incorporates the above by extending the disaggregation beyond gender to othersocially constructed factors. [for example, age, caste, poverty]

from UNDP, Introductory Gender Analysis & Gender Planning Training Module for UNDP Staff. pages 9-12

GENDER ROLESGender roles are learned behaviours in a given society/community, or other special group, that condition which activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as male and female. Gender

roles are affected by age, class, race, ethnicity, religion and by the geographical, economic and political environment. Changes in gender roles often occur in response to changing economic, natural or political circumstances, including development efforts.

Both men and women play multiple roles in society. The gender roles of women can be identified as reproductive, productive and community managing roles, while men’s are categorized as either productive or community politics. Men are able to focus on a particular productive role, and play their multiple roles sequentially. Women, in contrast to men, must play their roles simulaneously, and balance competing claims on time for each of them.

Productive roles: Refer to the activities carried out be men and women in order to produce goods and services either for sale, exchange, or to meet the subsistence needs of the family. For example in agriculture, productive activities include plating, animal husbandry and gardening that refers to farmers themselves, or for other people at employees.

Reproductive roles: Refer to the activities needed to ensure the reproduction of society's labour force. This includes child bearing, rearing, and care for family members such as children, elderly and workers. These tasks are done mostly by women.

Community managing role: Activities undertaken primarily by women at the community level, as an extension of their reproductive role, to ensure the provision and maintenance of scarce resources of collective consumption such as water, health care and education. This is voluntary unpaid work undertaken in ‘free’ time.

Community politics role: Activities undertaken primarily by men at the community level, organizing at the formal political level, often within the framework of national politics. This work is usually undertaken by men and may be paid directly or result in increased power and status.

Triple role/ multiple burden: These terms refer to the fact that women tend to work longer and more fragmented days than men as they are usually involved in three different gender roles —reproductive, productive and community work.

GENDER NEEDSLeading on from the fact that women and men have differing roles based on their gender, they will also have differing gender needs. These needs can be classified as either strategic or practical needs.

Practical Gender Needs (PGN): Practical gender needs are the needs women identify in their socially accepted roles in society. PGNs do not challenge, although they arise out of, gender divisions of labour and women’s subordinate position in society. PGNs are a response to immediate and perceived necessity, identified within a specific context. They are practical in nature and often concern inadequacies in living conditions such as water provision, health care and employment.

Strategic Gender Needs (SGN): Strategic gender needs are the needs women identify because of their subordinate position in society. They vary according to particular contexts, related to gender divisions of labour, power and control, and may include issues such as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and women’s control over their bodies. Meeting SGNs assists women to achieve greater equality and change existing roles, thereby challenging women’s subordinate position. They are more long term and less visible than practical gender needs.

WID and GAD: What are the Differences:Women in Development (WID) and Gender and Development (GAD) are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are some basic differences. The WID approach was developed in the 1970s, with the objective of designing actions and policies to integrate women fully into development. The GAD approach was developed in the 1980s with the objective of removing disparities in social, economic and political equality between women and men as a pre-condition for achieving people-centred development. Both approaches are still in use and are applicable in different situations. The chart below highlights the main differences.

POLICY APPROACHES TO WOMEN AND GENDER IN DEVELOPMENTWomen in Development (WID)

Gender and Development (GAD)

The Approach An approach which views women’s lack of participation as the problem

An approach to people centered development

The Focus Women Relations between women and men

The Problem The exclusion of women (half of the productive resource) from the development process

Unequal relations (between women and men, rich and poor) that prevents equitable development and women’s full participation

The Goal More efficient, effective development

Equitable, sustainable development with men and women sharing decision-making and power.

The Solution Integrate women into existing structures

Empower the disadvantaged and women; Transform unequal relations and structures

The Strategies Women only projectsWomen’s componentsIntegrated projects

Identify/address practical needs determined by women and men to improve their

Increase women’s productivityIncrease women’s incomeIncrease women’s ability to manage the household

conditionAt the same time address strategic gender needs of women and menAddress strategic needs of the poor through people-centered development

UNDP's Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: A Toolkit, pp. 65 -83.

Gender inequality remains a regrettably common feature of all of our societies, yet the way in whichindividuals experience gender discrimination varies greatly. This is because inequality is caused bymany factors other than gender alone – notably economic status, race or ethnicity, religious affiliation,age, physical or mental disability, and sexuality. Situational factors such as systemic poverty,environmental degradation, or rural neglect can also lead to serious hardship and inequality.

What is Gender Equality?Gender equality is defined in many different ways. One way to approach this concept is by breaking it down into five main components:• rights• opportunities• value• situation and outcome• agency

RightsGender equality means that both men and women should have the same rights, and be equal before the law. (This is known as “de jure,” or formal gender equality). These rights are articulated in international conventions, such as the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW); in national constitutions; and in legislation and other normative documents. Granting both men and women the same legal rights is the cornerstone of building a society in which men and women enjoy equality.

OpportunitiesWhile the provision of equal rights can establish “de jure” (legal) equality between men and women, true gender equality requires more than legal guarantees. In order to ensure “de facto” (practical) equality between men and women, these laws need to be put into practice. In reality, many social, cultural, economic, and other barriers exist that prevent women, and men as well, from being able to fully enjoy their legal rights to equality. For this reason, gender equality must also be about equality of opportunity. In other words, neither men nor women should face any barriers to learning, working, or participating in politics, the community or family simply because of their sex. Even in cases where equal opportunities are formally ensured through law

and policies, men and women may still encounter barriers to enjoying truly equal opportunities. The practical operation of institutions (ranging from the household to the state), attitudes and stereotypes about gender roles and relations as well as traditional and cultural practices all greatly influence the existence of these opportunities.

ValueThirdly, gender equality also means that men’s and women’s contributions to the family, society,and community should be valued equally, even though those contributions may be different. These contributions include men’s and women’s work (paid and unpaid) and their contributions of nonmonetized or immaterial resources such as time, care, skills, and knowledge. Attributing equal value to men’s and women’s resources can sometimes be achieved through law and policy, but it also requires that we shift our attitudes and actions. Undervaluing ‘women’s work’ has negative consequences for women and men Most societies do not explicitly value the work that (primarily) women do in the home. This can have significant public policy impact. For example, if pensions are calculated according to income, women are disadvantaged for they do not receive an income for the work they do.

Undervaluing “women’s work” also has negative consequences for men. Men are deterred from taking on “women’s work” – either in the domestic sphere or in professions such as nursing, kindergarten teaching, or as secretaries – because of the stigma and stereotypes attached to this type of work. As a result, men not only suffer because they are denied the emotionally enriching and psychologically rewarding experience of looking after their children – these stereotypes also limit the kind of work they can do. In times of economic crisis and transition, which many countries in the region are still experiencing, this inflexibility of gender roles can drastically limit economic opportunities and innovative strategies for coping with unemployment. Increasing the value of “women’s work” will primarily require a shift in attitude.

Situation and OutcomeSome critics of gender equality initiatives have pointed out that striving for equality of situationor outcome means that we are limiting men’s and women’s choices. Their argument states thateven if men and women have the same rights and opportunities, they may not make the samechoices, and therefore it is wrong to expect that the end result for men and women should bethe same.

This criticism raises an important point: Part of gender equality should be to increase the choicesof men and women, and certainly not to constrain these choices in any way. And, yes, it is true that men and women can and do make different choices. However, what this criticism does not attend to is the way in which individual choices are overwhelmingly determined by the context in which these choices are made. In most cases, men and women cannot make the same choices because of the deeply engrained social, economic, cultural, and legal contexts in which they live and work. For example, in societies where violence against women is implicitly or explicitly tolerated (which is unfortunately still too often the case all around the globe), women are not able to make real choices. The threat of violence will always constrain them.

Currently, freedom to make real choices is limited to a privileged few, and is certainly not the norm. Moreover, because some individuals can make these choices, this does not address the

systemic nature of gender disparities that limit choices overall. Until real choices are available to the majority of the population, differences in outcome and situation between men and women need to be interpreted as a signal of unequal opportunities, rights, and value.

Inequality in the situation of men and women is often a “red flag” that inequality of opportunitiesexist. That is why inequalities in outcome or situation should always be investigated further in order to see if any hidden barriers exist that make real choices impossible for either men or women. Barriers to equality of situation are complex and often hidden. Even though both men and women have the same right to get a job in the construction and building industry, men usually outnumber women in this profession. In some cases this difference in situation has arisen because women have chosen not to enter this profession. But is this always a real choice? What barriers exist for those women who wish to get a job in this often well-paid and stable profession? Does the education system encourage women to get training in this area? What attitudes and stereotypes might prevent women from applying for such jobs? This difference in situation in fact points to an inequality of opportunity.

At the same time, it is important to highlight that achieving equality of situation does not mean that women and men are the same, nor that the goal is to make them “identical.”

AgencyThe final but equally important component of gender equality is agency. While the first four components for the most part consider the social, economic, cultural, legal and other contexts in which men and women live, they might leave the impression that gender equality is something that is simply “given” to us by the state or society. Although rights, opportunities, and value might be conferred through institutions and decision makers, we also need to stress that gender equality is something that men and women can claim through their actions and voice.

In summary: “Gender equality” is not a one-dimensional phenomenon. It is rather a complex constellation of rights, opportunities, value, situation, and agency. Each of these aspects is intimately connected to the others.

What Causes Gender Inequality?There is no one cause of gender inequality that can be isolated. Rather, gender inequality works like a spiral whereby inequality in one place gives momentum to inequalities in other places. These instances of inequality overlap and reinforce each other, creating a tangled web that is difficult to unravel. Existing inequalities, if unchecked, lead to further inequalities. This is why addressing gender inequality is very challenging, and why it requires a multi-pronged approach. Moreover, because inequalities have existed for a very long time, the weight of history makes change even more difficult. It is clear, however, that our norms, values, and attitudes play a key role in perpetuating gender inequalities.

Long-standing cultural values influence us all and affect our actions – sometimes withoutus even noticing. Unfortunately, in many cases these values include the belief that women are inferior or weaker than men, that women are poor decision makers, that men have no role or skills for raising children, and so on. Practical experience has proven all of these assumptions to be false. Still, we often uncritically follow the conventions that stem from these assumptions,

because “this is how things have always been done” (even though history shows us that gender roles and conventions have indeed changed a great deal through the ages). As a result we sometimes end up perpetuating discrimination or gender stereotypes, even if we consider ourselves to be fair and just people.

Law and public policy might also support gender inequality. These formal structures are a mirrorfor society’s values; if gender inequality is part of a society’s deep-rooted value system, then laws and policies will reflect this. Rather than protecting and promoting justice and welfare for all, these systems can actually cause and increase inequality between men and women.

Ultimately, norms, values, and attitudes combine with laws, policies, and practices to produce a gender- based power structure in virtually all societies. This power structure generally permeates public and private institutions and the home, and has four main characteristics:• The separation of people into two categories: male and female• General privileging of the male side of this separation• A view of the male side of this separation as the “norm”• The gendered division of resources (money, time, skills, other)Again, it is important to note that the differences between men and women are not in themselves problematic. Problems arise when the two sides of this separation come to be valued hierarchically, and the male side comes to be seen as representative of “humans” or “the population” in general.

Additional problems arise when resources are unequally divided between men and women. As we see in virtually all societies, this leads to such results as the division of the labour market into “jobs for men” and “jobs for women,” a significant gap between what men earn on average and what women earn, a general disregard of women’s experiences and opinions in many areas that concern society as a whole, and violence against women, to name but a few.

It is important to note that this gender-based power structure describes structural differences insociety – in other words, general trends that shape attitudes, institutions, and social, cultural, andeconomic practices. Even if we oppose gender inequality on an individual level, this age-old power structure probably still seeps into our interactions with other men and women at an unconscious level. Changing this structure will take changes not only in attitudes and individual behaviour, but targeted changes to the systems and institutions that shape our societies.

In summary: Norms, values and attitudes, laws and policies, and our institutional practices all reinforce one another in a manner that creates and sustains gender inequality. Because this results in a gender-based power structure, gender inequality continues to flourish even if we, as individuals, oppose it in theory.

What are the Costs of Gender Inequality?Gender inequality is not only disadvantageous to those directly affected by discrimination. It affects individuals, families, and the human development of the nation as a whole. Moreover, as noted above, inequality breeds inequality: That is, gender discrimination has a domino-like effect which creates ripples of inequalities and problems throughout society.

Gender inequality can have devastating consequences for individuals directly affected by it. Bothmen and women can be barred from earning a living because of it, or suffer the material and psychological effects of harassment, discrimination, and exclusion. In its most severe instances, gender discrimination can kill: Domestic violence is a common example of this. In countries across the world, the most common cause of unnatural death for women is murder at the hands of her partner. Gender discrimination also kills in indirect ways. For example, pressures associated with traditional gender roles have led to shocking suicide rates among young males in many countries. These individual costs obviously result in a variety of costs for society as well. Still, if our societies are truly committed to human rights and democracy, the violation of even one person’s rights and the unjust treatment of any individual should be cause for our concern.

Equally important, gender inequality limits potential and innovation in a way that disadvantagesthe development of the entire nation. If we become stuck in traditional gender roles and tied tooutdated notions about men’s and women’s position and value, we close ourselves off to possiblesolutions to challenges our societies might face. We fail to utilize our maximum creative and productive energies, and this has both economic and social consequences to our societies.

How can gender equality be achieved? rebuilding our norms, values and attitudes reviewing and amending laws and policies Transforming our institutions and institutional practices Breaking down the gendered/sexual division of labour

UNDP's Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: A Toolkit, pp. 88-91

Gender analysis is the starting point for addressing the gender dimensions of any given issue or intervention to mainstream gender. Gender analysis is defined in different ways in different contexts. At its most basic level, it interprets data and information about a given or potential situation from a gender perspective. Gender analysis therefore pays specific attention to differences in the gender roles, activities, needs, and available opportunities of men and women. The objective of gender analysis is to clearly identify these often overlooked differences. Analysis occurs at many different levels. It can be a review that you perform at your desk when planning a project, or it can be an in-depth research project that you contract out to experts. Yet at every level, gender analysis has a common goal: to provide quantitative and qualitative information and data that can enable informed decision-making for the benefit of both men and women.

Gender analysis is sometimes also referred to as:• Gender-sensitive analysis: This term reminds us that we need to be sensitive to gender-relateddifferences that are not always obvious. We need to look for specific information in order to make these real and potential differences visible to policy makers.• Gender-based analysis: This term stresses that we are specifically looking for differences thatare based on gender.

• Gender-aware analysis: This term reminds us that although gender differences often exist, traditional research and analysis does not always make us aware of these differences. We require a specific gender perspective in order to create this awareness.

Each of these terms emphasizes a different aspect or objective of gender analysis, but they are often used interchangeably. Remember, the name is not the most important thing - our focus should beon the general principle that all of these concepts refer to.

NOTE: No matter what we call it, gender analysis always interprets information from a gender perspective in order to highlight similarities and differences between men and women. It subsequently uses this analysis to make better decisions about policies and projects. It thus provides the information base necessary for successful gender mainstreaming.

Gender analysis requries 1) sex-disaggregated data; 2) analysis; and 3) a gender perspective.

Some basic theories that inform gender analysis include the following:• Our societies are shaped by a gender-based power structure, which divides the population intomen and women, and values their contributions unequally. This power structure is so long-standing and pervasive that many of us have come to see it as “normal” and “natural” – although it is not.• The gender-based power structure is systemic – which means that this power structure shapesthe institutions and systems in which we participate, even if as individuals we support gender equality.• Because gender is largely a cultural and social construct, gender roles and relations can and dochange over time.• The gendered division of labour (i.e., the fact that most paid and unpaid work is generally divided between “men’s work” and “women’s work”) is the starting point for many gender imbalances and inequalities in society. Because men and women frequently occupy/work in different spaces, their needs, priorities, experiences, and perspectives are influenced by the lived realities that more often than not limit women’s choices and opportunities.• Access to resources is distinct from control over resources, and control over resources in virtually all societies is unevenly distributed between men and women.• Resources include not only material resources but also time, knowledge, and information. Because of their multiple roles in the home and community, women are often “time-poor” – but for the same reasons they are rich with knowledge and experience that is not always valued.• De jure (legal) gender equality does not always translate into de facto (practical) gender equality.• Culture, attitudes, and stereotypes profoundly influence access to and control over resources,and thus the realization of de facto gender equality.

FEMNET, p. 7 - 14

Equality versus Equity

Equality refers to similarity of treatment as it is legally, constitutionally and divinely given. It is a fundamental right. Equity refers to a fair sharing of resources, opportunities and benefits according to a given framework. It is one of the measures of equality, but not the only one. Equity is measurable and manifested in parity. Experience illustrates that equity is used instead of equality within institutions. This means that equity often undermines equality as women enter institutions on male terms without the equality process being fully explored and utilized. Equity is often viewed as a favour, whereas equality is a fundamental right.

Gender RelationsGender relations refer to how men and women relate to each other, resulting in manifestations of gender-based power. This arises from the roles men and women are expected to play and the impact of their interactions. The family is a good example, as men assume the earner and leader roles and women assume the domestic and childcare roles. These power relations are uneven because the male has more power in making legally influential decisions. Roles, assumed attributes and social systems lead to the creation of blueprints for behaviour. If we do not conform to these roles we are seen to be deviant by society. Power relations always result in one party being worse off than the other and create social imbalances.

DevelopmentThere are many definitions of development. However, it can be seen as a process and as an end. It can be seen as growth (physical increase), combined with qualitative change. In defining development, it is vital to include the human element because structures alone have no meaning unless they transform the lives of the people who use or depend on them. Furthermore, when including the human element, gender must be analyzed in order to assess the particular needs of both men and women. In summary, development is the movement from a simple or worse situation to a sophisticated and better situation. It is both qualitative and quantitative and needs a gender perspective to be complete.

EmpowermentThis can be seen as the process and end result of improvement in autonomy through various means such as access to knowledge, skills and training. The acquired improvement is then applied. The process and result of empowerment is a critical issue in development.

Women in Development (WID)*This is an approach to development that focuses on women. The approach aims at ensuring that women are included in development. The approach does not address itself to the benefits of women's participation.

Gender and Development Approach: (GAD) *This is an approach to development that advocates for a shift from focusing on women as a group to socially determined relations between men and women. This approach focuses on the social, economic, political and cultural forces that determine how women and men can best participate and benefit from a development project.

Practical Needs versus Strategic Gender Interests

Although these concepts belong to the Caroline Moser framework, they can be clarified under the first session as they relate to the Gender and Development approach. In undertaking gender analysis it is important to keep in mind that women and men have different gender roles and positions in society, resulting in different gender needs and interests.Practical Gender Needs are defined as basic needs of survival not unique to women. They include food, shelter, clothing and water. They relate to material conditions of life, are short-term, can be met through direct material inputs and operate at welfare (availability) and access (means) levels.

Strategic Gender Needs/Interests on the other hand, refer to socio-economic and political positions of women compared to men. They relate to structures and systems, which are embedded and therefore more difficult to deal with. In looking at strategic needs, focus is placed on factors such as:

Marginalisation: exclusion in processes such as decision-making. This results in women’s inability to articulate their needs and interests. Discrimination: differential treatment based on factors over which an individual has no control, e.g. sex, tribe, nationality, race, etc. Objectification: assignment of less than human status and treatment to women. Infantilisation : categorizing women with children, i.e. having no legal decision making powers, voting rights or capacity to enter into contracts. Dispossession: through patriarchal systems of property inheritance. Value assignment : determining a woman’s value by the sex and number of children she bears. Violence: physical, mental and emotional abuse, which is culturally accepted as

correcting a wife or harmful practices such as female genital mutilation to subdue female sexual urge.

Sub-ordination : assignment of an inferior position e.g. treatment as second-class citizens.

HANDOUT 2.5Why Gender is a Development IssueThe rationale for considering gender can be made using the following statistics:*

Women form 50% of the world’s population. Women perform 2/3 of the world’s work. Women make up 2/3 of the world’s illiterate population. Women earn 1/10 of the world’s income. Women earn less than 1/100 of the world’s property. Women constitute 70% of the world’s poor living on less than $1/per day.

Such inequities are a result of numerous factors such as women’s lack of access to economic opportunities and resources, access to agricultural land, technology and credit, as well as, employment opportunities. Thus, addressing gender inequalities is not only a development goal, but also a means to sustainable development.*The trainer should add statistics and examples to localize the perspective of gender issues in the area/region of the training.

Hannah Warren, Using Gender Analysis Frameworks: Theoretical and Practical Reflections. page 118-9

The demand for and emergence of gender-analysis frameworks (note: the following 3 paragraphs were also provided to Section C group)Gender-analysis frameworks emerged initially in response to the realisation of the significance to development of the differing roles of men and women and the social construct of gender2. Until the 1970s, development was generally assumed to be gender-neutral and of equal benefit to men and women (Karl 1995; Rao 1991). However a number of studies3 illustrated not only the varying impacts of development on men and women (often citing negative effects on women), but also the failures of development interventions (what Kabeer terms ‘project misbehaviour’ (1994, 268)). These failures were identified as having occurred as a result of ignoring or making erroneous assumptions regarding the differing roles and activities undertaken by men and women in the variety of contexts in which development projects were being implemented. As Karl states, ‘The high rate of failure of development policies, programmes and projects is attributable at least in part to the neglect or lack of knowledge of women’s productive and reproductive roles’ (Karl 1995, 94, emphasis mine). Thus, the demand emerged for methods which could assist development planners to gather data from which to make informed decisions for the benefit of both men and women, prevent possible negative effects, and make development more effective and efficient (Longwe 1991; Rao 1991; Gianotten et al. 1994; Kabeer 1994; Karl 1995).

There was also a growing political desire, led principally by feminists in the development sector, and later adopted throughout the majority of development agencies (at least in rhetoric), to address and transform unequal gender relations and ‘empower’ women. Thus gender equality became an objective of development. However, this desire for gender equality alone was not sufficient and as Smyth points out, ‘For a long time, [development] agencies have been decrying the lack of expertise and methodologies that prevents them from achieving their objectives’ (Smyth 1999a, 14).

The need for appropriate methodologies was, and still is, felt by many to be the missing factor in translating the desire among those committed to ‘incorporating women/gender into development’ into practice. For instance, as Moser (1993, 5) has argued ‘many of those committed to integrating gender into their work at policy, programme or project levels still lack the necessary planning principles and methodological tools. This issue is critical; planners require simplified tools which allow them to feed the particular complexities of specific contexts into the planning process’.

Kenya Ministry of Gender, Training Manual on Gender Mainstreaming, pp 56-58

APPROACHES TO GENDER MAINSTREAMING AND INTEGRATIONWomen in Development (WID) and Gender and Development (GAD)

The term ‘women in development' came into use in the early 1970s, after Ester Boserup’s publication on “Women’s Role in Economic Development”. Boserup analyzed the changes in traditional agricultural practices as societies modernized and examined the differential impacts of the changes in work done by men and women. WID was initially used by the Women’s committee of the Washington DC chapter of the Society for International Development as part of a deliberate strategy to bring new evidence generated by Boserup and others to the attention of American policy makers. This was articulated by liberal feminists who advocated for legal and administrative changes that would ensure women would be better integrated into economic systems and governance. This was later to form the basis of the gender agenda, which is best summarized under the following international women’s conferences, that have united the international community behind a set of common objectives with an effective plan of action for the advancement of women everywhere, in all spheres of public and private life.

1975: Mexico City - A global dialogue is openedThis first world conference on the status of women was convened in Mexico City to coincide with the 1975 International Women's Year to remind the international community that discrimination against women continued to be a persistent problem all over the world. Three key objectives were identified which became the basis for the work of the United Nations onbehalf of women: Full gender equality and the elimination of gender discrimination; The integration and full participation of women in development; An increased contribution by women in the strengthening of world peace.

1980: Copenhagen - The review process beginsThis conference was attended by over 145 representatives and reviewed the gains made and to appraise the 1975 World Plan of Action. An important milestone had been the adoption by the General Assembly in December 1979 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, one of the most powerful instruments for women's equality. The Copenhagen Conference recognized that signs of disparity were beginning to emerge between rights secured and women's ability to exercise these rights. It pinpointed three areas where specific, highly focused action was essential if the broad goals of equality, development and peace, identified by the Mexico City Conference, were to be reached. Thesethree areas were equal access to education, employment opportunities and adequate healthcare services.

1985: Nairobi - “The forward looking strategies"The Nairobi conference reviewed and appraised the achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women and identified WID as a strategy that isolates women from mainstreaming development.It showed that development interventions had little impact on women’s welfare, legal and social status. This shortcoming opened up debates on the most appropriate way on how women can participate in development and that is how GAD was born. GAD questioned existing power relations between men and women in all spheres of life; The women's movement, divided by world politics and economic realities at the Mexico Conference, had now become an international force unified under the banner of equality,

development and peace. It broke new ground as it declared all issues to be women's issues. Women's participation in decision-making and the handling of all human affairs was recognized not only as their legitimate right but also as a social and political necessity that would have to be incorporated in all institutions of society.

1995: Beijing - legacy of successThe efforts of the previous two decades helped to improve women's conditions and access to resources, but did not change the basic structure of inequality in the relationship between men and women. Decisions were still being made mostly by men. The Conference unanimously adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action that was in essence an agenda for women's empowerment and stands as a milestone for their advancement in the twenty-first century. It specified twelve critical areas of concern considered to represent the main obstacles to women's advancement and which require concrete action by Governments and civil society: Women and poverty Education and training for women Women and health Violence against women Women and armed conflict Women and the economy Women in power and decision making Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women Human rights of women Women and the media Women and the environment The girl child

UN-HABITAT, GENDER IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT - A SOURCEBOOK FOR TRAINERS, pp 20-21

Gender and Development (GAD) and Women in Development (WID)

Gender and Development, or GAD, refers to a set of policy approaches to gender equality and women’s rights which emerged during the 1980s as a response to some of the challenges that were faced by the Women in Development (WID) policy approaches of the 1970s. There are a few major differences between GAD and WID as policy approaches. The central focus of GAD is the need to address discrimination against women and gender inequality in the context of gender relations. This means that, rather than working exclusively with women, GAD approaches work tactically with both women and men, in recognition of the fact that efforts to promote gender equality require commitment andbehaviour changes from both sexes.

GAD approaches also recognize that, while women are subject to the vast majority of gender inequalities, in some specific contexts or sectors males can also find themselves marginalized in development processes. For example, in some countries a disproportionate number of boys drop

out of secondary education, and in some cities it is primarily young men who are involved in urban crime and violence – meaning that, in such specific contexts, these categories of men and boys must be targeted by development interventions. GAD approaches recognize that the institutional structures developed in response to WID policies (for instance, Women’s Ministries or Women’s Units) have frequently become a ‘women’s sector’ which as such has been marginalized from the mainstream sectors involved in development interventions. Consequently, GAD approaches set out to ensure that mainstream sectoral institutions effectively promote gender equality, while at the same time re-defining the roles of specialist women’s or gender institutions as coordinators and catalysts, rather than as principal practical promoters of gender equality. GAD also takes a different methodological approach to WID. The GAD analytical approach stresses the need to understand gender equality as the relations between and among women and men and girls and boys; this stands in sharp contrast to WID approaches, which tended to focus on the needs of women and girls in isolation.

One frequent misconception about GAD approaches is that working with a ‘gender’ rather than a ‘women’ focus means that there is no place for ‘specific actions’, or interventions focusing on women as a separate target group. It should be made clear that this is not true. There is a place for specific, women-focused interventions in a GAD approach – but such interventions are identified as a result of strategic choice (for example, on the basis of a gender analysis) rather than by default, as was often the case under WID approaches. Under a GAD approach, a gender analysis may result in the formulation of interventions bringing women or men together, or with women as a separate group, or with men as aseparate group.

Working with men as a separate group may either be in response to men’s special needs (e.g., access to education, involvement in primary healthcare, dealing with victims of violence or conflict) or when it is recognized that men’s attitudes and behaviour must be changed before women’s needs can be effectively addressed [for instance, when dealing with violence against women]. Since the 1985 United Nations World Conference on Women, another critical term has gained prominence in the vocabulary of elected women and men, municipal staff, and the range of stakeholders featuring in any municipality. This is known as gender mainstreaming. Gender Mainstreaming assesses the implications for women and men ofany planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. As a strategy, gender mainstreaming makes women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres, so that both sexes benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality [through transformation of the mainstream]. (United Nations ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions, 1997/2)

Exercise 7: Gender and Power (Adapted from: Oxfam UK Poverty Programme. 2004. See both sides. A practical guide to gender analysis for adapted quality service delivery. Pp36-7.)

Objectives :Explore the notion of power. Understand different kinds of power.Time Required: 2 hoursProcess

Part AIntroduce the notion of power by asking participants to describe different sorts of power:

Power over (forcing someone to do something through use of a position of authority or strength.)

Power with (doing things by combining your strength with the strengths of other women and men.)

Power within (one’s personal inner strength.)

Break the group into small sub-groups of 3 or 4 and ask them to imagine being a child at school. On one piece of paper, ask them to write, “Who has power in school?” Under the question they will write answers such as: teacher, principal, school cleaner, etc. On a second piece of paper, ask them to write: “Why do they have power and what kind of power is it?” Here you should expect comments such as: power of authority, physical power to …, Then ask each group to report to plenary. Ask them to comment on what they have heard. What are their thoughts about this kind of power?

Part BNow divide the participants into pairs and ask them to think about a 3rd question: Were the power holders men or women and what difference did it make to participants’ own impressions of gender and power?You can wrap-up the exercise by asking participants a few reflection questions about the exercise.