RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Lecturer: Canisio Mutsindikwa

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Table of contents

Table of ContentsDefinition and purpose of research............................................................................................................4

Qualities of a good researcher....................................................................................................................4

Main types of research...............................................................................................................................5

Purpose of Research...................................................................................................................................7

Exploratory Research:..........................................................................................................................7

Descriptive Research:..........................................................................................................................7

Explanatory Research:.........................................................................................................................7

Different stages in conducting research.....................................................................................................8

Characteristics of a good research project...............................................................................................11

Characteristics of Research.............................................................................................................11

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROJECT............................................................................12

Definition of a Research Problem.............................................................................................................13

Necessity of Defining a Problem...........................................................................................................13

Research design........................................................................................................................................16

Research Design Definition...................................................................................................................16

Research Design Characteristics...........................................................................................................16

Types of Research Design.....................................................................................................................17

The Need for Research Design..............................................................................................................18

Operational plan..................................................................................................................................18

Validity and reliability of the research design.............................................................................19

The Features of Good Design................................................................................................................19

Understand the Important Concepts Relating to Research Design.....................................................20

Different types of Research Designs.....................................................................................................21

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs.............................................................................................22

Literature Review..................................................................................................................................23

Overview of the Literature search............................................................................................................27

References................................................................................................................................................28

In-text and reference list examples................................................................................................28

Secondary Data.........................................................................................................................................32

What Is Secondary Data?......................................................................................................................32

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Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data]...........................................................................35

Primary Data vs. Secondary Data: Market Research Methods............................................................35

What Is Primary Data?..............................................................................................................................36

Primary Data Examples.........................................................................................................................36

Use Survey Methods: communication with Participants.....................................................................37

Survey Research Definition.............................................................................................................37

Cross-sectional Survey Research vs Longitudinal Survey Research.............................................39

Survey Research Scales.....................................................................................................................41

Understanding Participant Observation Research...............................................................................44

Use Experimentation............................................................................................................................46

Interview research method..................................................................................................................48

Reasons for using interviews.............................................................................................................48

Advantages of interviews..................................................................................................................48

Disadvantages of interviews..............................................................................................................49

Interview process..............................................................................................................................49

The Focus Group Research Method......................................................................................................50

Qualitative Research Elements..........................................................................................................51

Focus Group Features........................................................................................................................51

Benefits of Focus Groups...................................................................................................................51

Drawbacks of Focus Groups...............................................................................................................52

Research question and research objectives.............................................................................................52

Data analysis.............................................................................................................................................53

Types of Quantitative Data with Examples...................................................................................53

Quantitative Data: Collection Methods...................................................................................................54

Qualitative data analysis..........................................................................................................................57

Qualitative data coding......................................................................................................................60

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LO 1

Definition and purpose of research.The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.In the broadest sense of the word, research includes any formal gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.Research  is the collection and evaluation of information about a particular subject. The overarching purpose of research is to answer questions and generate new knowledge.

Qualities of a good researcherFriendly with Respondents. A good researcher must have the quality to become friendly with respondents. It should have to talk to them in the same language in which the responding are answering and make happy made.Least Discouragement. If the people are not co-operate to give correct data, the researcher should not be discouraged and face the difficulties, it would be called a good researcher.Free From Prejudice. A researcher would be good if he has no prejudice or bias study about a problematic situation but he is capable of providing clear information’s.Capacity of Depth Information. A researcher should have the capacity to collect more and more information in little time.Accuracy. A researcher would be said to be good, if he is accurate in his views. His ideas must be accurate one.Truthful. A researcher must have to be truthful. Its idea would be free from false reports and saying information.Keen Observer. It is the quality of a good researcher that he may have the ideas of keen and deep observation.Careful in Listening. A researcher would be more careful in listening. He would have the quality of listening very low information’s even whispering.Low Dependency on Common Sense. A researcher should be called good if he has low dependency on common sense but keep in observation all the events and happenings.Least time Consumer. Good researcher must have the capacity of least time consuming. It will have to do more work in a little time because of the shortage of time.Economical. Good researcher must have control over his economic resources. He has to keep his finances within limits and spend carefully.Low Care of Disapprovals of Society. A good researcher have no care of the approvals or disapprovals but doing his work with zeal and patience to it.

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Expert in Subject. A researcher would be a good one if he has full command over his subject. He makes the use of his theoretical study in field work easily.Free From Hasty Statements. It is not expected from a good researcher to make his study hasty and invalid with wrong statements. Its study must be based on reality & validity.Good in Conversation. The conversation of a good researcher should be sympathetic and not boring. He must have the skill and art to be liked by the people.Having Clear Terminology. A good researcher’s terminology would be clear. It would be free from out wards to become difficult for the respondents to answer.Trained in Research Tools. Research is impossible without its techniques and tools. So, it should be better for a researcher to know about the use of these tools.Dress and Behavior same to the area. The dress and the behavior of the researcher should be same as to the study area. it is must for him to convince the people easily and adopt their dress.More Analytical. A researcher would be different from other people of the society. On the basis of this quality he may observe the situation very well. Then he should be able to solve the problems easily.Equality and Justice. A good researcher should believe on equality and justice. As equal to all type of people he may collect better information’s from the respondents.

Main types of research

Basic Research: Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers fundamental aspects of research. The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research and doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example, an experiment is a good example of basic research.

Applied Research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type of research refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. This research plays an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For example, finding a specific cure for a disease.

Problem Oriented Research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to understand the exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to having issues or two thoughts while making any decisions.

For e.g Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be the probable causes: There is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, economic conditions etc.

Problem Solving Research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied research to find solutions to the existing problems.

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Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry, that helps in-depth understanding of the problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non- statistical research method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people in a sample. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that one question leads to another. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.

Following are the methods used for qualitative research:

1. One-to-one interview2.  Focus groups3.  Ethnographic Research4. Content/ Text Analysis5.  Case study research

Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods

Quantitative Research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative research, this research method uses a computational, statistical and similar method to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.

Quantitative research involves a larger population as more number of people means more data. In this manner, more data can be analyzed to obtain accurate results. This type of research method uses close-ended questions because, in quantitative research, the researchers are typically looking at measuring the extent and gathering foolproof statistical data.

Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in quantitative research. There are various methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires. In recent times online surveys and questionnaires have gained popularity. Survey respondents can receive these surveys on mobile phones, emails or can simply use the internet to access surveys or questionnaires.

Learn more: What is Quantitative Research?

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Purpose of ResearchThere are three purposes of research:

Exploratory Research: 

As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore the research questions and may or may not offer a final conclusion to the research conducted. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been explored before. Exploratory research lays the foundation for more conclusive research and data collection. For example, a research conducted to know the level of customer satisfaction among the patrons of a restaurant.

Descriptive Research: 

Descriptive research focuses on throwing more light on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In descriptive research, only one variable (anything that has quantity or quality that varies) is required to conduct a study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining and validating the findings. For example, a research conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century posses the moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the company profit?

Explanatory Research: 

Explanatory research or causal research, is conducted to understand the impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual research. For example, research conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

To understand the characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis:

Learn More: Primary Research- Examples, Methods and Purpose

Research method is defined as the tools or an instrument that is used to accomplish the goals and attributes of conducting a research process. Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.

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To understand research methods we must first understand what research is. Research is a careful study of a specific problem or concern using scientific methods, tools, and instruments. Remember as kids, we were given projects in elementary schools and we were asked to know about it in details. Research is the adult form of that elementary project, only a more precise and thorough version!

Research can be about anything, scientific research, basic research, applied research, market research- qualitative market research and quantitative market research, problem-oriented research, problem-solving research. To begin researching something, you need to have a problem or a concern that needs a solution.

Different stages in conducting researchScientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in conducting research or evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals need to understand the eight steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a study. Table 2.4 lists the steps of the research process and provides an example of each step for a sample research study.Step 1: Identify the ProblemThe first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.Step 2: Review the LiteratureNow that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying

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statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).Step 3: Clarify the ProblemMany times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and ConceptsTerms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual’s health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.Step 5: Define the PopulationResearch projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts

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will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and resources.Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation PlanThe plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.

The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.

Step 8: Analyze the Data

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to

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the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.

Characteristics of a good research projectCharacteristics of Research

1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.

2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.

3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural settings.

4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no anomalies associated with it.

5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be generated from existing research.

6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.

7. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained while conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the final result of the experiment.

8. It must be written easy to understand vocabulary as the aim of the report is to convey the message in the write-up.

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9. It must have clear and short title related to the research problem.

10. It must give a summary(abstract) of the whole research in the introductory pages of the write-up.

11. The report must possess the methodology section to show how the research was carried out.

12. It must have a discussion of the findings and the conclusion section.

13 The report must be easily legible, written with good font type and font size  even though different authorities recommend different styles.

14. .ensure you reference all work that is not originally yours. This gives acknowledgment to the original generators of such work. Different styles of referencing exist including APA, MLA etc depending on the locality and nature of your research write-up.

15. Avoid plagiarism at all costs. It is the “sin” of intellectual resources.

16. Remember your audience. Be it a degree research dissertation or a Masters research project thesis or a senior final year college research project report, write it with the end user in mind.

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LEARNING OUTCOME 2 (LO2)

Definition of a Research ProblemA research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Select the Problem

Necessity of Defining a Problem

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.

2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.

3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem

As a researcher, you must have often read that defining a problem is the first step in a research process. But, have you ever wondered what is meant by defining a problem. Well, it simply means that the researcher has to lay down certain boundaries within which he/she has to study the problem with a pre-defined objective in mind.

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Defining a problem is a herculean task, and this must be done intelligently to avoid confusions that arise in the research operation. Try to follow the below steps systematically to best define a problem:

  i.   State the problem in a general way:

First state the problem in general terms with respect to some practical, scientific or intellectual interest. For this, the researcher may himself read the concerned subject matter thoroughly or take the help of the subject expert. Often, the guide states the problem in general terms; it depends on the researcher if he/she wants to narrow it down to operational terms. The problem stated should also be checked for ambiguity and feasibility.

ii.   Understand the nature of the problem:

The next step is to understand the nature and origin of the problem. The researcher needs to discuss the problem with those related to the subject matter in order to clearly understand the origin of the problem, its nature, objectives, and the environment in which the problem is to be studied.

iii. Survey the available literature:

All available literature including relevant theories, reports, records, and other relevant literature on the problem needs to be reviewed and examined. This would help the researcher to identify the data available, the techniques that might be used, types of difficulties that may be encountered during the study, possible analytical shortcomings, and even new methods of approach to the present problem.

iv.   Go for discussions for developing ideas:

The researcher may discuss the problem with his/her colleagues and others related to the concerned subject. This helps the researcher to generate new ideas, identify different aspects on the problem, gain suggestions and advices from others, and sharpen his focus on certain aspects within the field. However, discussions should not be limited to the problem only, but should also be related to the general approach to the problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

v.   Rephrase the research problem into a working proposition:

Finally, the researcher must rephrase the problem into a working proposition. Rephrasing the problem means putting the problem in specific terms that is feasible and may help in the development of working hypotheses. Once the researcher has gone through the above steps systematically, it is easy to rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms.

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LO 3Research designUnderstand the meaning of Research Design

Research Design DefinitionResearch design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence, the market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design.The design of a research topic is used to explain the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). There are three main sections of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and analyze data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is decided.An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement of research design2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research3. Method applied for analyzing collected details4. Type of research methodology5. Probable objections for research6. Settings for research study7. Timeline8. Measurement of analysis

Research Design CharacteristicsThere are four key characteristics of research design:Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the

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research questionscan be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research design is reliable.Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.

Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which type of research design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research design.Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between collected data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a researcher to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative research design is important for the growth of any organization because any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to be effective for the business. Further, research design can be divided into five types –1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights into the why and how of research.  2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable.  It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups – affect of one group on the other.3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different

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variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them.Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.  4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method.There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

Inception of the issue Diagnosis of the issue Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related to the research questions.

The Need for Research Design

Basically, every research design has two main functions;1. To develop an operational plan to undertake various steps of the research2. To ensure validity, reliability, and authenticity in each step of the research.

Operational planThe operational plan of the research is an overall, detailed answer to the steps that are taken in the research in order to get answers to the research question. This plan helps the researcher and the readers get to know about the sampling process, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation. It is necessary that you have a practical, workable procedural plan that also ensures research validity and authenticity. The researcher, his/her research supervisor, and in some cases a statistician can be asked for help to develop a research design. The research design constitutes the following.Sampling and sampling techniqueSampling size and sampling technique both need to be mentioned in the operational plan of the research design. Most of the research have a materials and methods chapter and the researcher precisely explains about the sampling procedure in that chapter.

Type of data to be collectedData can be primary or secondary and some research needs a combination of both of them. The researcher should explicitly describe the type of data to be collected as the person who is appointed to collect data will need this information.

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Data collection technique/sMultiple techniques can be used in one research, on the other hand, the researcher decides to use a single technique. It depends on the research problem and the objectives that what technique the researcher decides to use.

Data analysis technique/sThe researcher at this point already knows that the data is quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data needs a different approach for analysis while qualitative data needs completely different approach. The researcher needs to explain what variables need to be analyzed, whether a comparison between variables is to be studied or not.

Data coding and interpretation technique/sThe researcher should decide at this stage what codes need to be assigned and how to quantify and analyze raw data through the process of coding.

Validity and reliability of the research designThe other important function of the research design is to maintain validity, reliability, accuracy and authenticity of the research by using effective research tools. The researcher devises a research plan that he thinks is workable now he should discuss it thoroughly with his/her research supervisor or any expert in the field. An expert statistician or research supervisor can think about the loopholes in the research design and suggests new ideas.ReliabilityReliability is an important factor in any research study in order for a study to be valid it should first be reliable. The reliability of the research design can be maintained by asking questions like; does the sample size enough to represent the population under study? will the data to be collected will be adequate to test the hypothesis of the research? does the sequencing of the questions in the questionnaire suitable for the population under study or is there better options?

Authenticity

Authenticity is important especially in qualitative research where the research needs to use tools that best describe participants responses

ValidityValidity means that the research design you have devised should measure what needs to be measured in your research. The construct should measure the variables that need to be measured.

ObjectivityObjectivity is easy to achieve in a quantitative research where every step is quantifiable. In qualitative research, objectivity is simple to state but difficult to achieve. The researcher needs to keep his personality, values and likes away from the research study.

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The Features of Good Design

The features of good research design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

1. the means of obtaining information;2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;3. the objective of the problem to be studied;4. the nature of the problem to be studied; and5. the availability of time and money for the research work.

Understand the Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

1) Dependent and independent variables: A variable is a concept that can take on different quantitative values. E.g., weight, height, income, etc. A dependent variable can be defined as the variable, which depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable. On the other hand, an independent variable can be defined as the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable. E.g., if height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable, while age is an independent variable.2) Extraneous variable: Although, the independent variables are unrelated to the study purpose, they might however affect the dependent variables, known as extraneous variables. E.g., When a researcher investigates the hypothesis of the relationship between children’s gains in moral studies achievement and their self-concepts. The self-concept denotes an independent variable, whereas the moral studies achievement denotes a dependent variable. However, intelligence may also affect the moral studies achievement, but as it is unrelated to the study purpose, it will thus be called an extraneous variable.3) Control: The most significant quality of a good research design is to reduce the influence/effect of extraneous variables. Control is a technical term, which is used while designing the study, by reducing the effects of extraneous independent variables. Besides, in experimental studies, the term control refers to the restraining of experimental conditions.

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4) Confounded relationship: In case the dependent variable is bound by the influence of extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is known to be confused by extraneous variables.5) Research hypothesis: This can be defined as the prediction or a hypothesised relationship that needs to be tested by scientific methods. Besides, it is a predictive statement, which connects an independent variable to a dependent variable. Moreover, a research hypothesis needs to contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.6) Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When a research aims at investigating a research hypothesis, it is known as the hypothesis-testing research. However, it can be of the experimental or the non-experimental design. On the other hand, a research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as the experimental hypothesis-testing research, while the research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is known as the non-experimental hypothesis-testing research.7) Experimental and control groups: When any group is exposed to the usual conditions of an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as a control group. Whereas, when the group is exposed to some other special condition, it is known as an  experimental group.8) Treatments: This can be defined as the different types of conditions under which the experimental and control groups are put. E.g., In order to determine the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on a crop yield, the three different varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three different treatments.9) Experiment: This can be defined as the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem. E.g., An experiment conducted in order to research the usefulness of a newly developed medicine.

Moreover, experiments can be of two types:

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs

(1) Randomization: This is the first principle of an experimental design. This process randomly assigns treatments to the experimental units. It implies that every allotment of treatments ends up with the same probability. When dividing research participants into the different groups, random assignment ensures that every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to both the experimental group and the control group. Randomizations purpose is to remove bias and other sources of extraneous variation, which are uncontrollable. It is the basis of any valid statistical test. Therefore, the treatments must be assigned randomly to the experimental units.(2) Replication: This is the second principle of an experimental design. It is a repetition of the basic experiment. In all experiments, some variation exists because the experimental units, such as, individuals or plots of land, cannot be physically identical. This variation is removable by using a number of experimental units. Therefore, the basic experiment is performed repeatedly. Researchers repeat the same studies on different research participants to see if they produce the same statistically significant results each time. A replicate is an individual repetition. Its number, shape, and size are influenced by the nature of the experimental material. Replication helps in: obtaining an accurate estimate of

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the experimental error; decreasing the experimental error, thereby increasing precision; and obtaining a more precise estimate of the mean treatment effect.(3) Local Control: Randomization and Replication do not remove all extraneous sources of variation. A more refined experimental technique is required for that. A design should be chosen such that all the extraneous sources of variation come under control. For this purpose, local control, which refers to the amount of balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental units, is used. Balancing implies that the treatments should be assigned to the experimental units such that the result is a balanced arrangement of treatments. Blocking means that, similar experimental units should be collected together to form a relatively homogeneous group. The main purpose of local control is to increase the efficiency of an experimental design by minimizing the experimental error. In this case, local control should not be confused with the word control. Control in experimental design is used for a treatment. It does not receive any treatment, but the effectiveness of other treatments should be found through comparison.

Generate a Research Topic

The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you a specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:

brainstorm for ideas choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available make a list of key words be flexible define your topic as a focused research question research and read more about your topic formulate a thesis statement

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic, make sure you know what your final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely require a different format or style of research project.Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research topic.

Step 1: Brainstorm for ideasChoose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help generate topic ideas.

Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you

angry or anxious? Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more

about? Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester? Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?

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Look at some of the following topically oriented Web sites and research sites for ideas. 

Are you interested in current events, government, politics or the social sciences? Try Washington File

Are you interested in health or medicine? Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center or the National

Library of Medicine Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music?

Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities For other subject areas try:

the Scout Report or the New York Times/ College Web siteWrite down any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you. Could these terms help be used to form a more focused research topic?Be aware of overused ideas when deciding a topic. You may wish to avoid topics such as, abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide unless you feel you have a unique approach to the topic. Ask the instructor for ideas if you feel you are stuck or need additional guidance. Step 2: Read General Background Information

Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you cant find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a librarian.

For example, the Encyclopedia Britannica Online (or the printed version of this encyclopedia, in Thompson Library's Reference Collection on Reference Table 1) may not have an article on Social and Political Implications of Jackie Robinsons Breaking of the Color Barrier in Major League Baseball but there will be articles on baseball history and on Jackie Robinson.Browse the Encyclopedia Americana for information on your topic ideas. Notice that both online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web sites. These are listed in the left or the right margins.

Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your topics of interest.

Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently considered to be two of the best search engines to find web sites on the topic.

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

Keep it manageableA topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are:

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by geographical areaExample: What environmental issues are most important in the Southwestern United States

by cultureExample: How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view?

by time frame:Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years?

by disciplineExample: How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?

by population groupExample: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too: 

locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these (local) newspapers, if at all.

Example: What sources of pollution affect the Genesee County water supply? recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but

newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not be available.

broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information.Example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics and society of the Western states?

popular - You will only find very popular articles about some topics such as sports figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.

If you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic,discuss the topic with your instructor, or with a librarian Step 4: Make a List of Useful KeywordsKeep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.

Look for words that best describe your topic Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general

information Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen

your search capabilities Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and

catalogs

Step 5: Be FlexibleIt is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or manageable. Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These important factors may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic.

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Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word, then begin to have questions about the topic. For example:Ideas = Frank Lloyd Wright or modern architectureResearch Question = How has Frank Lloyd Wright influenced modern architecture?Focused Research Question = What design principles used by Frank Lloyd Wright are common in contemporary homes?

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your TopicUse the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an important and complex part of the research process.

Step 8: Formulate a Thesis StatementWrite your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic.

The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.For example, a thesis statement could be: Frank Lloyd Wright's design principles, including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture opened a new era of American architecture. His work has influenced contemporary residential design. The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.For example, a title could be: Frank Lloyd Wright: Key Principles of Design For the Modern HomeRemember to follow any specific instructions from your instructor.

LO 4LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview of the Literature search1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

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Your literature review should be guided by a central research question.  Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.Tips:

Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable? Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for

searches later. If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor.

2. Decide on the scope of your review.How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? Tip: This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.Make a list of the databases you will search.  Remember to include comprehensive databases such as WorldCat and Dissertations & Theses, if you need to.Where to find databases:

Find Databases by SubjectUWF Databases categorized by discipline

Find Databases via Research GuidesLibrarians create research guides for all of the disciplines on campus! Take advantage of their expertise and see what discipline-specific search strategies they recommend!4. Conduct your searches and find the literature. Keep track of your searches!

Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time. Write down the searches you conduct in each database so that you may duplicate

them if you need to later (or avoid dead-end searches that you'd forgotten you'd already tried).

Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others. Ask your professor or a scholar in the field if you are missing any key works in the

field. Use RefWorks to keep track of your research citations. See the RefWorks Tutorial if

you need help.5. Review the literature.Some questions to help you analyze the research:

What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?

Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings? What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples

and variables used, the results, and the conclusions. Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?

If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is? How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited?; if so, how has it

been analyzed?

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References

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In-text and reference list examples

In-text examples Reference list examples

Harvard is an 'author/date' system, so your in-text citation consists of author(s) and year of publication. 

In-text citation of a book (the same format applies for a journal article):

Note that there is no punctuation between the author's surname and the year of publication.

 If you quote directly from an author or paraphrase a specific idea or piece of information from a source, you need to include the page number of the quote or passage in your in-text citation.

For example:

It has been asserted that the primary "role of management is to combine, allocate and utilise the organisation's resources in a way that will assist the organisation to achieve its objectives" (Bray et. al. 2014, p. 129).

 In-text citation of a website

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 What if I want to cite some information that someone else has cited?If you read an article or book which cites some information that you want to cite, always refer to the source where you found the information, not the original source. For example:Sue reads an article by Alex Byrne in the Australian Library Journal in which he cites or refers to statements made by Tim O'Reilly on his website at http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html Sue wants to refer to O'Reilly's statement in her assignment.Sue would acknowledge O'Reilly in her text but her reference is to the source where she saw the information. Sue might write as her in-text reference:

(O'Reilly, cited in Byrne 2008)

In her reference list Sue would write a reference for Byrne's article because that's where she sourced the information. The entry in her Reference List would be:

Byrne, A 2008, 'Web 2.0 strategies in libraries and information services',  The Australian Library Journal, vol. 57 no. 4, pp. 365-376.

 

Two or more works cited at one point in the text

If two or more works by different authors or authoring bodies are cited at one point in the text, use a semi-colon to separate them:

(Larson 2000; Malinowski 1999)

The authors should be listed in alphabetical order.

 

Two or three authors or authoring bodies

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When citing a work by two or three authors or authoring bodies, cite the names in the order in which they appear on the title page:

(Malinowski, Miller & Gupta 1995)

 

Block quotations

If you are quoting a long piece of text (more than 30 words), the actual quote should be in slightly smaller font and indented from the left hand margin to distinguish it from the surrounding text. It can then be followed by an in-text citation. For example –

 

It was stated that:

If any similar qualitative research is to be undertaken in the future, then stringent controls should be put in place to ensure such statistical anomalies do not occur through lack of methodological rigor, particularly through corruption of data inadequately stored and processes (Mullane 2006, p. 66).

Reference List examplesAll in-text citations should be listed in the reference list at the end of your document. Reference list entries contain all the information that someone needs to follow up your source. Reference lists in Harvard are arranged alphabetically by first author. Book

 Journal article from an electronic database

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Note the various punctuation marks: commas between all elements except the author's initial/s and date (as per the book

reference) full stops between the: pages and database name, database name and date viewed

online, and at the end of the reference.The article title should be enclosed in 'single quotation marks' and should be in sentence case (only capitalise proper nouns).The journal title should be in italics and every word should be capitalised (except for words like the, an, a, and etc).The page range is the start and end page of the articleThe date viewed online is the date that you viewed the article online - in other words, the date that you found the article in the online database, or the date that you last looked at the article online (not the date that you looked at the PDF you downloaded).

Website

 Document from a website

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LO 5 - Sources of data Collection

Secondary DataSecondary data refers to data which is collected by someone who is someone other than the user.[1] Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally collected for other research purposes.[2] Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.

What Is Secondary Data?Secondary data is public information that has been collected by others. It is typically free or inexpensive to obtain and can act as a strong foundation to any research project — provided you know where to find it and how to judge its worth and relevance

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Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments. However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be outdated or inaccurate.[1]

Sources of secondary data

1.1. Administrative data and census

3Secondary analysis or re-use of qualitative data

4References

5Further reading

6External links

Sources of secondary data[edit]

Secondary data can be obtained from different sources:

information collected through censuses or government departments like housing, social security, electoral statistics, tax records

internet searches or libraries

Gps, remote sensing

km progress reports

Administrative data and census[edit]

Government departments and agencies routinely collect information when registering people or carrying out transactions, or for record keeping – usually when delivering a service. This information is called administrative data.[3]

It can include:

personal information such as names, dates of birth, addresses

information about schools and educational achievements

information about health

information about criminal convictions or prison sentences

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tax records, such as income

A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. It is a type of administrative data, but it is collected for the purpose of research at specific intervals. Most administrative data is collected continuously and for the purpose of delivering a service to the people.

Secondary Data Examples

Sources of secondary data include (but are not limited to):

Government statistics are widely available and easily accessed online, and can provide insights related to product shipments, trade activity, business formation, patents, pricing and economic trends, among other topics. However, data is often not presented explicitly for the subject you are interested in, so it can take some manipulation and cross-checking of the data to get it as narrowly focused as you’d like.

Industry associations typically have websites full of useful information — an overview of the industry and its history, a list of participating companies, press releases about product and company news, technical resources, and reports about industry trends. Some information may be accessible to members only (such as member directories or market research), but industry associations are a great place to look when starting to learn about a new industry or when looking for information an industry insider would have.

Trade publications, such as periodicals and news articles, most of which make their content available online, are an excellent source of in-depth product, industry and competitor data related to specific industries. Oftentimes, news articles include insights obtained directly from executives at leading companies about new technologies, industry trends and future plans.

Company websites can be virtual goldmines of information. Public companies will have investor relations sections full of annual reports, regulatory findings and investor presentations that can provide insights into both the individual company’s performance and that of the industry at large. Public and private companies’ websites will typically provide detail around product offerings, industries served, geographic presence, organizational structure, sales methods (distribution or direct), customer relationships and innovations.

Published market research reports are another possible resource, as anyone who’s ever googled the name of the industry they’re interested in and “market research” can tell you. For a fee, they can provide a great overview of an industry, including quantitative data you might not find elsewhere related to market size, growth rates and industry participant market share. The downside is that you might

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not be interested in an overview — you might be interested in a niche, and that niche is only discussed on three of the report’s 300 pages. 

With all these sources of secondary data, you should be all set, right? Well, maybe not. If you are interested in a niche product or a new technology, there may not be a lot out there in the public sphere. The most current information you can find might be a few years old. You might not be sure if the material you found online reflects an accurate portrayal of the whole industry. You might be asking a question no one’s ever asked before, let alone

Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data]

Secondary data is available from other sources and may already have been used in previous research, making it easier to carry out further research. It is time-saving and cost-efficient: the data was collected by someone other than the researcher. Administrative data and census data may cover both larger and much smaller samples of the population in detail. Information collected by the government will also cover parts of the population that may be less likely to respond to the census (in countries where this is optional).[4]

A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already been carried out, such as literature reviews or case studies. The data may have been used in published texts and statistics elsewhere, and the data could already be promoted in the media or bring in useful personal contacts. Secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Secondary data is key in the concept of data enrichment, which is where datasets from secondary sources are connected to a research dataset to improve its precision by adding key attributes and values.[5]

Secondary data can provide a baseline for primary research to compare the collected primary data results to and it can also be helpful in research design.

However, secondary data can present problems, too. The data may be out of date or inaccurate. If using data collected for different research purposes, it may not cover those samples of the population researchers want to examine, or not in sufficient detail.[1] Administrative data, which is not originally collected for research, may not be available in the usual research formats or may be difficult to get access to.

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Primary Data vs. Secondary Data: Market Research MethodsThere are more data sources than ever. Just googling a search term may not be sufficient, as the googled data may be inaccurate and/or biased. You want to avoid making important business decisions based on unreliable data. So which data sources should you use?

We’re here to help you navigate them all. Read on for a quick breakdown of secondary and primary data and tips for finding valuable insights for your market research needs.

At the highest level, market research data can be categorized into secondary and primary types.

.

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What Is Primary Data?Now it’s time for primary data, new information collected specifically for your purposes, directly from people in the know. Methods of primary data collection vary based upon the goals of the research, as well as the type and depth of information being sought.

Primary Data ExamplesIn-depth interviews present the opportunity to gather detailed insights from leading industry participants about their business, competitors and the greater industry. When you approach a company contact from a position of knowledge — thanks to all that secondary data you’ve already collected — you can have a free-flowing conversation about the topics of interest. You can guide the conversation toward your research objectives, but also allow yourself to be led down unexpected paths by interviewees — some of the most valuable insights are the ones you didn’t know you should be looking for.

If you’re seeking data you can quantify, surveys are an excellent way to collect a large amount of information from a given population. Surveys can be used to describe a population in terms of who they are, what they do, what they like and if they’re happy. You can then forecast the population’s future behavior in light of these identified characteristics, behavior, preferences and satisfaction. Surveys yield the most meaningful data when they ask the right questions of the right people in the right way, so care should be taken both to develop survey questions respondents will find relevant and interesting, and to determine which method of conducting the survey (online, telephone or in-person) is most appropriate.

Looking to get consumers’ thoughts on a new product or service offering idea when you’re in the early stages of the development process? A focus group can get a small group of people that fit your target demographic in a room to discuss what they like, dislike, are confused by, would do differently — whatever. The group’s leader encourages honest, open discussion among participants, collecting opinions that can further direct your development efforts.

Prefer to eavesdrop rather than ask questions outright? Social media monitoring can help you keeps tabs on candid conversations about your industry, your company and your competitors. How much are people talking about your brand compared to competitive brands? Is what they’re saying positive or negative? Is the public clamoring for something the industry currently doesn’t provide? How are your competitors portraying themselves via social media, and what does that say about their strategy? Social media monitoring shows that you don’t always need to participate in the conversation to learn from it.

Use Survey Methods: communication with Participants

Survey Research Definition

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Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that are sent to survey respondents. The data collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research conclusions.

In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to understand what their customers think about their products or services and make better business decisions. Research can be conducted in multiple ways but surveys are proven to be one of the most effective and trustworthy research methods. An online survey is classified as a method for extracting information about a significant business matter from an individual or a group of individuals and consists of structured survey questions that motivate the participants to respond.

A creditable survey research can give these businesses access to a colossal information bank. Organizations in media, other businesses, and even governments rely on survey research to obtain accurate data.

The traditional definition of survey research is a quantitative method for collection of information from a pool of respondents by asking multiple survey questions. This research type includes recruitment of individuals, collection, and analysis of data. It’s useful for researchers who aim at communicating new features or trends to their respondents.

Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick information about mainstream topics and conducting more rigorous and detailed quantitative research methods like surveys/polls or qualitative research methods like focus groups/on-call interviews can follow. There are many situations where this research can be conducted using a blend of both, qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey Research Methods

Survey research methods can be derived on the basis of two critical factors: Survey research tool and time involved for conducting research.

There are three main survey research methods, divided based on the medium of conducting survey research:

1. Online/ Email-Online survey research is one of the most popular survey research methods in this day and age. The cost involved in online survey research is extremely minimal and the responses gathered are highly accurate but the only drawback of this survey research method is that the response rates are lower compared to the other mediums.

2. Phone-Survey research conducted over phone can be useful in collecting data from a larger section of the target population but there are chances that the money invested in phone surveys will be higher than other mediums and also that the time required will be higher.

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3. Face-to-face- In situations where there is a complicated problem to solve, face-to-face survey research can be conducted. The response rate of this method is the highest but it can be extremely expensive.

Further, on the basis of the time taken, survey research can be classified into two methods:

Longitudinal Survey Research: Longitudinal survey research involves conducting survey research over a continuum of time, which may be spread across years and decades. The data collected using this survey research method from one time period to another, is qualitative or quantitative in nature. Respondent behavior, preferences, attitudes are observed constantly over time to analyze reasons for change in behavior or preferences. For example, if a researcher intends to learn about eating habits of teenages, he/she will follow a sample of teenages over a considerable period of time to ensure that the collected information is reliable.

Longitudinal survey research is often followed by cross-sectional survey research.

Cross-sectional Survey Research: Cross-sectional survey research is conducted to collect insights from a target audience at a particular time interval. This survey research method is implemented in various sectors such as retail, education, healthcare, SME businesses etc. Cross-sectional survey research can either be descriptive or analytical in nature. This survey research method is quick and helps researchers collected information in a brief time span. Researchers rely on cross-sectional survey research method in situations where descriptive analysis of a subject is required.

Cross-sectional Survey Research vs Longitudinal Survey Research

Survey research also be bifurcated according to the sampling methods used to form samples for research: Probability and Non-probability sampling. Every individual of a population should be considered equally to be a part of the survey research sample. Probability sampling is a sampling method in which the elements are chosen on the basis of a probability theory. The are various probability research methods such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, stratified random sampling etc. Non-probability sampling is a sampling method where the researcher’s knowledge and experience is considered to form samples. The various non-probability sampling techniques are convenience sampling, snowball sampling, consecutive sampling, judgmental sampling and quota sampling.

Process of implementing survey research methods:

1. Decide survey questions: Brainstorm and put together effective survey questions which are grammatically and logically appropriate. This can be done by understanding the objective and expected outcomes of the survey. There are many

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surveys where details of responses are not as important as gaining insights about what customers prefer from the provided options.

In such situations, a researcher can include multiple choice questions or closed-ended questions. Whereas, if details about certain questions are to be obtained, researchers can include open-ended questions.

Ideally, the surveys should include a clever balance of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Use survey questions like Likert Scale, Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Scorequestion etc. to avoid fence-sitting.

2. Finalize a target audience: Send out relevant surveys as per the target audience and filter out irrelevant questions as per the requirement. The survey research will be extremely effective in case a sample is decided from the target population. This way, results can be according to the desired market and be generalized to the entire population.

3. Send out surveys via decided mediums: Distribute the surveys to the target audience and patiently wait for the feedback and comments- this is the most important step of the survey research. The survey needs to be scheduled keeping in mind the nature of the target audience and the regions they belong to.

Surveys can be conducted via email, embedded in website, shared via social media etc. to gain maximum responses.

4. Analyze survey results: Analyze the feedback in real-time and identify patterns in the responses which might lead to a much-needed breakthrough for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint analysis, Cross tabulation and many such survey feedback analysis methods can be used to spot and shed light on respondent behavior. The results can be then used to implement corrective measures to improve customer/employee satisfaction.

Reasons to Conduct Survey Research

The most crucial and integral reason for conducting market research using surveys is that you can collect answers regarding definite, significant questions. These questions can be asked in multiple formats as per the target audience and the intent of the survey. Before designing a survey, every organization must figure out the objective of carrying this out so that the survey can be structured, planned and executed to perfection.

Questions that need to be on your mind while designing a survey are:

1. The primary aim of conducting the survey.

2. How do you plan to utilize the collected survey data.

3. The type of decisions you plan to take on the basis of the above-mentioned points.

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There are 3 very important reasons why an organization must conduct survey research.

1. Understand respondent behavior to get solutions to your queries:  If you’ve carefully curated a survey, the respondents will provide insights about what they like about your organization as well as suggestions for improvement. To motivate them to respond, you must be very vocal about how secure their responses will be as well as how will you utilize the answers. This will push them to be 100% honest about their feedback, opinions, and comments. Online surveys or mobile surveys have proved their privacy and due to this more and more respondents feel free to put forth their feedback through these mediums.

2. Present a medium for discussion: A survey can be the perfect platform for respondents to provide criticism or applause for an organization. Important topics like product quality or quality of customer service etc. can be put on the table for discussion. A way you can do it is by including open-ended questions where the respondents can write their thoughts. This will make it easy for you to get correlate your survey to what you intend to do with your product or service.

3. Strategy for never-ending improvements: An organization can establish the attributes of the target audience from the pilot phase of a survey research. The criticism and feedback received from this survey can be put to make improvements in the product/services. Once the improvements are successfully made, another survey can be sent out to measure the change in feedback keeping the pilot phase as the benchmark. By doing this activity, the organization can keep track of what was effectively improved and what still needs improvement.

Survey Research ScalesThere are four main scales for measurement of variables:

Nominal Scale:

In nominal scale, numbers are associated with variables for mere naming or labeling and the numbers usually have no other relevance. It is the most basic of the four levels of measurement.

Ordinal Scale:

Ordinal scale has an innate order within the variables along with labels. It establishes the rank between the variables of a scale but not the difference value between the variables.

Interval Scale:

Interval scale is a step ahead in comparison to the other two scales. Along with establishing a rank and name of variables, the difference between two variables is also made known using this scale. The only drawback is that there is no fixed start point of the scale, i.e., the true zero value is absent.

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Ratio Scale:

Ratio scale is the most advanced level of measurement scale which has variables that are labeled in order and also have a calculated difference between variables. In addition to what interval scale orders, this scale has a fixed starting point, i.e. the true zero value is present.

Benefits of Survey Research

In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is implemented in the right manner, marketers can benefit by gaining useful, trustworthy data that can be used to better the ROI of the organization.

Other benefits of survey research are-

1. Minimum investment:

Mobile surveys and online surveys have a very small finance invested per respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives provided to the people who participate in survey, online surveys are extremely economical in comparison to the paper-based surveys.

2. Versatile sources for response collection:

Surveys can be conducted via various mediums like online and mobile surveys. The online surveys are further classified into qualitative mediums like focus groups and interviews and quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to the offline survey response collection option, the surveys can be conducted in remote areas that have limited internet connectivity. This can make data collection and analysis more convenient and extensive.

3. Reliable for respondents:

Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent details and responses are kept safeguarded. This anonymity makes respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit responses for their survey research must mention that the survey will be confidential.

Survey Research Design

Survey research design is implemented in cases where there is limited cost involved and there is a need to access details easily. This method is often used by small and large organizations to understand and analyze new trends, market demands and opinions. Collecting information through a tactfully designed survey research can be much more effective and productive than a casually conducted survey.

There are five stages of survey research design:

1. Decide an aim for research: There can be multiple reasons for a researcher to conduct a survey but they need to decide an aim for research - this is the primary

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stage of survey research as it can mould the entire path of a survey and the impact of its results.

2. Filter the sample from target population: Whom to target? - is an important question that a researcher should answer and keep in mind while conducting research. The precision of results can be driven by who the members of a sample are and how useful are their opinions. The quality of respondents in a sample is very important for the results received for research and not the quantity. If a researcher seeks to understand whether a product feature will work well with their target market, he/she can conduct survey research with a group of market experts for that product or technology.

3. Zero-in on a survey method: There are many qualitative and quantitative research methods which can be discussed and decided. Focus groups, online interviews, surveys, polls, questionnaire etc. can be carried out with the pre-decided sample of individuals.

4. Design the questionnaire: What will the content of the questionnaire be? - A researcher is required to answer this question to be able to design it effectively. What will the content of the cover letter be? Or What are the survey questions of this questionnaire?

Understand the target market thoroughly to create a questionnaire that targets a sample to gain insights about a survey research topic.

5. Send out surveys and Analyze results: Once the researcher decides on which questions to include in a survey, they can send it across to the selected sample. Answers obtained for this survey can be analyzed to make product-related or marketing-related decisions.

Survey Examples: 10 Tips To Design The Perfect Research Survey

Picking the right survey design can be the key to gaining the information you need to make crucial decisions for all your research. It is very important to choose the right topic, choose the right questions types and pick a corresponding design. If this is your first time creating a survey, it can seem like an intimidating task. But with QuestionPro, each step of the process is made simple and easy.

Below are the Survey Examples: 10 Tips To Design The Perfect Research Survey

1. Set your SMART Goals: Before conducting any market research, or creating a particular plan – it is very important to set your SMART Goals. What is that you want to achieve with the survey? How will you measure it in a timely manner and what are the results you are expecting?

2. Choose the Right Questions: Designing a survey can be a tricky task, asking the right questions may help you to get the answers you are looking for and ease the

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task of analyzing. So, always choose those specific questions – relevant to your research.

3. Begin your survey with a Generalized Question: It was always preferred to start your survey with a “General Question” so that that right from the beginning you get to know whether your product is even used or not. That also provides a good base and intro for your survey.

4. Enhance your Survey: Choose the best, most relevant 15-20 questions. Frame each question as a different question type, based on the type of answer you would like to gather from each. Create a survey using different types of question types such as multiple choice, rating scale, open-ended etc. Look at more survey examples and 4 measurement scales every researcher should remember.

5. Prepare Yes/No Questions: You may also want to use yes/no questions to separate people or branch into groups of those who “have purchased” and those who “have not yet purchased” your products or services. Once separated, different questions can be asked of each of these groups.

6. TEST – On all electronic devices: It becomes very easy to distribute your surveys if it can be answered on different electronic devices like mobile, iPad etc. Once you have created your survey. It’s the time to TEST. You can also make any corrections if needed at this stage.

7. Distribute your Survey: Once your survey is ready. It’s time to share and distribute to the right audience. You can share handouts, share it via email, social media and other industry related offline/online communities.

8. Collect and Analyze responses: After distributing your survey, it is time to gather all responses. Make sure you store your results in a particular document or an excel sheet, with all the necessary categories mentioned, so that you don’t lose your data. Remember, this is the most crucial stage. Your responses should be gathered based on various categories such as:

o Demographics

o Psycho-graphics

o Behavioral

This is because, as a researcher, you must know where your responses are coming from. It will help you to analyze, predict decisions and help write the summary report.

9. Prepare your Summary report: Now, is the time to share your analysis. At this stage, you should mention all the responses gathered from a survey in a fixed format. Also, the reader/customer must get clarity about your goal, which is what were you trying to gain from the survey. Questions such as – whether the product or

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a service is been used/preferred or not. Do respondents prefer some other product to another? Any recommendations?

10. Finalize your overall plan: Now is the time to prepare your final an action plan, based on the goal set, responses gathered and the conclusion conducted. Here you need to fix the process of your final plan and execute.

Understanding Participant Observation ResearchThe participant observation method, also known as ethnographic research, is when a sociologist actually becomes a part of the group they are studying in order to collect data and understand a social phenomenon or problem. During participant observation, the researcher works to play two separate roles at the same time: subjective participant and objective observer. Sometimes, though not always, the group is aware that the sociologist is studying them.

The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with a certain group of individuals, their values, beliefs, and way of life. Often the group in focus is a subculture of a greater society, like a religious, occupational, or particular community group. To conduct participant observation, the researcher often lives within the group, becomes a part of it, and lives as a group member for an extended period of time, allowing them access to the intimate details and goings on of the group and their community.

This research method was pioneered by anthropologists Bronislaw Malinowski and Franz Boas but was adopted as a primary research method by many sociologists affiliated with the Chicago School of Sociology in the early twentieth century. Today, participant observation, or ethnography, is a primary research method practiced by qualitative sociologists around the world.

Subjective Versus Objective Participation

Participant observation requires the researcher to be a subjective participant in the sense that they use knowledge gained through personal involvement with the research subjects to interact with and gain further access to the group. This component supplies a dimension of information that is lacking in survey data. Participant observation research also requires the researcher to aim to be an objective observer and record everything that he or she has seen, not letting feelings and emotions influence their observations and findings.

Yet, most researchers recognize that true objectivity is an ideal, not an actuality, given that the way in which we see the world and people in it is always shaped by our previous experiences and our positionality in the social structure relative to others. As such, a good participant observer will also maintain a critical self-reflexivity that allows her to recognize the way she herself might influence the field of research and the data she collects.

Strengths and Weaknesses

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The strengths of participant observation include the depth of knowledge that it allows the researcher to obtain and the perspective of knowledge of social problems and phenomena generated from the level of the everyday lives of those experiencing them. Many consider this an egalitarian research method because it centers the experiences, perspectives, and knowledge of those studied. This type of research has been the source of some of the most striking and valuable studies in sociology.

Some drawbacks or weaknesses of this method are that it is very time-consuming, with researchers spending months or years living in the place of study. Because of this, participant observation can yield a vast amount of data that might be overwhelming to comb through and analyze. And, researchers must be careful to remain somewhat detached as observers, especially as time passes and they become an accepted part of the group, adopting its habits, ways of life, and perspectives. Questions about objectivity and ethics were raised about sociologist Alice Goffman's research methods because some interpreted passages from her book On the Run as an admission of involvement in a murder conspiracy.

Use Experimentation

Experimental Research – Definition

Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific approach, where a set of variables are kept constant while the other set of variables are being measured as the subject of experiment.

Experimental research is one of the founding quantitative research methods.

The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a laboratory test. As long as research is being conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions – it qualifies as an experimental research.  A true experimental research is considered to be successful only when the researcher confirms that a change in the dependent variable is solely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

It is important for an experimental research to establish cause and effect of a phenomenon, which means, it should be definite that effects observed from an experiment are due to the cause. As naturally, occurring event can be confusing for researchers to establish conclusions. For instance, if a cardiology student conducts research to understand the effect of food on cholesterol and derives that most heart patients are non-vegetarians or have diabetes. They are aspects (causes) which can result in a heart attack (effect).

Experimental research is conducted in the following situations:

Time is a vital factor for establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

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Invariable behavior between cause and effect.

The eminence of cause-effect relationship is as per desirability.

Learn about: Quantitative Market Research

Types of Experimental Research Design

There are three primary types of experimental research design:

Pre-experimental research design

True experimental research design

Quasi-experimental research design

The different types of experimental research design are based on the how the researcher classifies the subjects according to various conditions and groups.

1. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of experimental research design. A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after factors are considered for cause and effect. It is usually conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be carried out on the target group/s, due to which it is considered to be cost-effective.

The pre-experimental research design is further bifurcated into three types:

One-shot Case Study Research Design

One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design

Static-group Comparison

2. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is the most accurate form of experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis. It is the only type of Experimental Design that can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group/s. In a true experiment, there are three factors which need to be satisfied:

Control Group (Group of participants for research that are familiar to the Experimental group but experimental research rules do not apply to them.) and Experimental Group (Research participants on whom experimental research rules do apply.)

Variable which can be manipulated by the researcher

Random distribution

This experimental research method is commonly implemented in physical sciences.

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3. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word “Quasi” indicates resemblance. A quasi-experimental research design is similar to experimental research but is not exactly that. The difference between the two the assignment of a control group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned as per conditions. The independent variable is manipulated before calculating the dependent variable and so, directionality problem is eliminated. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

Learn about: Market Research

Advantages of Experimental Research

Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any industry can implement it for research purposes.

Results are extremely specific.

Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other similar aspects.

Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyze greater details.

Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods.

Interview research method

What is an Interview?

An interview is a conversation for gathering information. A research interview involves an interviewer, who coordinates the process of the conversation and asks questions, and an interviewee, who responds to those questions. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone. The internet is also emerging as a tool for interviewing.

Interviews

Reasons for using interviews

Interviews are a useful method to:

investigate issues in an in depth way

discover how individuals think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions

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investigate the use, effectiveness and usefulness of particular library collections and services

inform decision making, strategic planning and resource allocation

sensitive topics which people may feel uncomfortable discussing in a focus group

add a human dimension to impersonal data

deepen understanding and explain statistical data.

Advantages of interviews

The main advantages of interviews are:

they are useful to obtain detailed information about personal feelings, perceptions and opinions

they allow more detailed questions to be asked

they usually achieve a high response rate

respondents' own words are recorded

ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers followed up

precise wording can be tailored to respondent and precise meaning of questions clarified (eg for students with English as a Second Language)

interviewees are not influenced by others in the group

some interviewees may be less self-conscious in a one-to-one situation.

Disadvantages of interviews

The main disadvantages of interviews are:

they can be very time-consuming: setting up, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, feedback, reporting

they can be costly

different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.

Interview process

Stage 1: Determine what information is required. What do you want to find out?

Stage 2: Decide on the method of data collection and the audience for the interviews eg students, library staff, academics.

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Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, by telephone or using chat messaging.

Interviewees might be contacted by email, posters or flyers or, if particular individuals are to be targeted, by individual invitations sent by post or email. Tutors may be useful to help to recruit students. Invitations should describe:

the purpose of the interview

the participants' role and what is expected of them

how long the interview will last

any rewards which will be provided.

Stage 3: Draft the interview schedule, considering content, wording, format, structure and layout

Issues to consider

Can the question be easily understood?

Is the question biased?

Is the question necessary to the evaluation?

Will interviewees be willing to provide the information?

Is the question applicable to all interviewees?

Does the question allow interviewees to offer their opinions/expand on basic answers?

Are follow up questions likely to be required?

Will it be straightforward to analyse?

Stage 4: Pilot/test the interview schedule with colleagues or a sample of potential interviewees and revise as necessary

Stage 5: Conduct the interviews

In the introduction, the evaluator should:

confirm that anonymity will be preserved

describe the ground rules

reiterate the purpose of the research.

Record interviews if possible to allow greater interaction between the interviewer and respondent

Conducting interviews by telephone can reduce the costs and time involved

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Preplanning is important: know who you are going to interview, when and where.

Keep to time

Advise interviewees that their confidentiality/anonymity will be respected

Advise interviewees how you intend to use and make available the results.

Stage 6: Transcribe interviews

Stage 7: Analyse the transcripts

Stage 8: Write up, present and use the findings

Case studies

The Focus Group Research Method

As a business owner, you can’t properly target or service your audience if you don’t gather information about their specific wants, needs and fears. One of the most effective means of obtaining this type of information is to go directly to your audience to find out what’s on their minds.

A focus group is a common qualitative research technique used by companies for marketing purposes. It typically consists of a small number of participants, usually about six to 12, from within a company's target market. The consumers are brought together and led through discussions of important company and brand topics by a moderator.

Qualitative Research Elements

A focus group is qualitative research because it asks participants for open-ended responses conveying thoughts or feelings. The other prominent research type is quantitative research. This is more data-driven research that uses surveys or questionnaires to derive numerical-based statistics or percentages.

With qualitative research, researchers seek more open and complete perspectives on the brand or product. However, more general interpretations and uses of the research are necessary, since you cannot as easily break down the research into facts.

Focus Group Features

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Within a focus group, a moderator poses a series of questions intended to gain insight about the way the group views the brand, product, related images, slogans, concepts or symbols. As a representative sample of consumers targeted by the company, a focus group can offer insights consistent with those shared by the broader target market. Focus-group moderators should pose questions in a way that does not lead group members to provide desired responses, but rather honest and insightful responses.

In most instances, you will have to offer some type of incentive to your focus group members to ensure their active and honest participation. If you hire a research firm to conduct your focus group, that firm will typically handle the disbursement of the incentive, whether it’s a monetary payment or some type of free product or service.

Benefits of Focus Groups

A focus group is generally more useful when outcomes of research are very unpredictable and you’re looking for more open feedback rather than comparisons of potential results as in a quantified research method. A focus group also allows consumers to express clear ideas and share feelings that do not typically come out in a quantified survey or paper test. Because of the open conversation among group members, topics and discussions are freer flowing and members can use comments from others to stimulate recall.

Another benefit is that the moderator can observe the dynamics among members of the focus group as they discuss their opinions with each other. In many of these groups, the moderator will leave the room to allow focus group members to communicate with each other without feeling self-conscious. This type of honest commentary can often yield nuggets that you can later use to further refine your marketing strategy and your messaging.

Drawbacks of Focus Groups

"Groupthink" is a primary concern with focus groups. When you bring a group of people together to talk about a brand, the tendency exists for influential group members to affect the expressions of others within the group. Additionally, consumers are often more reluctant to express negative ideas in a face-to-face setting than in a more indirect research format when they know the company is conducting research.

Another major drawback of a focus group is that if you don’t hire a good moderator, it can be difficult to elicit the full range of thoughts, opinions, wants and needs of the group. And if your moderator is weak, some focus group members may not feel comfortable enough in the environment to offer their opinion.

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Research question and research objectivesResearch questions are main broad questions and may be complemented by a few investigative questions.

They must be fact-oriented, information-gathering questions, capable of being confirmed or refuted.

Research objectives are statements of intention or actions intended. Objectives may be specified in the form of actions (verbs) to answer the posed questions.

Generally objectives begin with: to discover, to determine, to establish, to access, to identify, to compare, to analyze, to evaluate, and the like.

Let’s say this is the topic -

An Exploratory study on Ethnic population and product choices with reference to Indian settlers in Africa.

Here are examples of research questions -

R Question 1. How far do settlers stick to their culture and values which are then reflected on consumption?

R Question 2. To what extent is the assimilation of cultures taking place which will have a bearing on consumption?

R Question 3. Do the subsequent generations of settlers exhibit the same characteristics of the first generation settlers?

R Question4. To what extent is the host culture showing changes in adopting immigrant’s culture and values?

Here are examples of corresponding research objectives.

R Objective1. To measure the percentage of the Indian settlers in select African countries who still follow the culture and customs of their Country Of Origin.

R Objective 2. To determine the extent of tendency the Indian settlers have to assimilate with the host country.

R Objective 3. To determine the extent of acculturation that had taken place of these Indian settlers in the host country and the importance the Indian settlers place on ethnic values.

R Objective 4. To find out whether the second and subsequent generation of Indian settlers exhibit similar behavior of the first generation of Indian settlers.

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Data analysis

Quantitative and quantitative data analysis

Quantitative Data: Definition

Quantitative data is defined as the value of data in the form of counts or numbers where each data-set has an unique numerical value associated with it. This data is any quantifiable information that can be used for mathematical calculations and statistical analysis, such that real-life decisions can be made based on these mathematical derivations. Quantitative data is used to answer questions such as “How many?”, “How often?”, “How much?”. This data can be verified and can also be conveniently evaluated using mathematical techniques.

For example, there are quantities corresponding to various parameters, for instance, “How much did that laptop cost?” is a question which will collect quantitative data. There are values associated with most measuring parameters such as pounds or kilograms for weight, dollars for cost etc.

Quantitative data makes measuring various parameters controllable due to the ease of mathematical derivations they come with. Quantitative data is usually collected for statistical analysis using surveys, polls or questionnaires sent across to a specific section of a population. The retrieved results can be established across a population.

Types of Quantitative Data with ExamplesThe most common types of quantitative data are as below:

Counter: Count equated with entities. For example, the number of people who download a particular application from the App Store.

Measurement of physical objects: Calculating measurement of any physical thing. For example, the HR executive carefully measures the size of each cubicle assigned to the newly joined employees.

Sensory calculation: Mechanism to naturally “sense” the measured parameters to create a constant source of information. For example, a digital camera converts electromagnetic information to a string of numerical data.

Projection of data: Future projection of data can be done using algorithms and other mathematical analysis tools. For example, a marketer will predict an increase in the sales after launching a new product with thorough analysis.

Quantification of qualitative entities: Identify numbers to qualitative information. For example, asking respondents of an online survey to share the likelihood of recommendation on a scale of 0-10.  

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Quantitative Data: Collection MethodsAs quantitative data is in the form of numbers, mathematical and statistical analysis of these numbers can lead to establishing some conclusive results.

There are two main Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Surveys: Traditionally, surveys were conducted using paper-based methods and have gradually evolved into online mediums. Closed-ended questions form a major part of these surveys as they are more effective in collecting quantitative data. The survey makes include answer options which they think are the most appropriate for a particular question. Surveys are integral in collecting feedback from an audience which is larger than the conventional size. A critical factor about surveys is that the responses collected should be such that they can be generalized to the entire population without significant discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in completing surveys, they are classified into the following-

Longitudinal Studies: A type of observational research in which the market researcher conducts surveys from a specific time period to another, i.e., over a considerable course of time, is called longitudinal survey. This survey is often implemented for trend analysis or studies where the primary objective is to collect and analyze a pattern in data.

Cross-sectional Studies: A type of observational research in which the market research conducts surveys at a particular time period across the target sample is known as cross-sectional survey. This survey type implements a questionnaire to understand a specific subject from the sample at a definite time period.

Learn more: Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Survey

To administer a survey to collect quantitative data, the below principles are to be followed.

Fundamental Levels of Measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Scales: There are four measurement scales which are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice question in a survey in collecting quantitative data. They are, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales without the fundamentals of which, no multiple choice questions can be created.

Use of Different Question Types: To collect quantitative data, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey. They can be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic differential scale questions, rating scale questions etc. that can help collect data that can be analyzed and made sense of.

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection: In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design to collect quantitative data. Survey distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the survey

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process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most commonly used methods are:

Email: Sending a survey via email is the most commonly used and most effective methods of survey distribution.  You can use the QuestionPro email management feature to send out and collect survey responses.

Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and collect quantitative data is to use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and also are open to participating in research studies, the responses are much higher.

Embed survey in a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high number of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand when the survey pops up.

Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting higher number of responses from the people that are aware of the brand.

QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any object/medium.

SMS survey: A quick and time effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high number of responses is the SMS survey.

QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows to quickly circulate surveys and the responses can be collected both online and offline.

API integration: You can use the API integration of the QuestionPro platform for potential respondents to take your survey.

One-on-one Interviews: This quantitative data collection method was also traditionally conducted face-to-face but has shifted to telephonic and online platforms. Interviews offer a marketer the opportunity to gather extensive data from the participants. Quantitative interviews are immensely structured and play a key role in collecting information. There are three major sections of these online interviews:

Face-to-Face Interviews: An interviewer can prepare a list of important interview questionsin addition to the already asked survey questions. This way, interviewees provide exhaustive details about the topic under discussion. An interviewer can manage to bond with the interviewee on a personal level which will help him/her to collect more details about the topic due to which the responses also improve. Interviewers can also ask for an explanation from the interviewees about unclear answers.

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Online/Telephonic Interviews: Telephone-based interviews are no more a novelty but these quantitative interviews have also moved to online mediums such as Skype or Zoom. Irrespective of the distance between the interviewer and the interviewee and their corresponding time zones, communication becomes one-click away with online interviews. In case of telephone interviews, the interview is merely a phone call away.

Computer Assisted Personal Interview: This is a one-on-one interview technique where the interviewer enters all the collected data directly into a laptop or any other similar device. The processing time is reduced and also the interviewers don’t have to carry physical questionnaires and merely enter the answers in the laptop.

All of the above quantitative data collection methods can be achieved by using surveys, questionnaires and polls.

Learn about: Quantitative Research

LO 7 ANALYSIS OF DATA

Quantitative Data: Analysis Methods

Data collection forms a major part of the research process. This data however has to be analyzed to make sense of. There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative data collected in surveys. They are:

Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is the most widely used quantitative data analysis methods. It is a preferred method since it uses a basic tabular form to draw inferences between different data-sets in the research study. It contains data that is mutually exclusive or have some connection with each other.

Trend analysis: Trend analysis is a statistical analysis method that provides the ability to look at quantitative data that has been collected over a long period of time. This data analysis method helps collect feedback about data changes over time and if aims to understand the change in variables considering one variable remains unchanged.

Gap analysis: Gap analysis uses a side-by-side matrix to depict quantitative data that helps measure the difference between expected performance and actual performance. This data analysis helps measure gaps in performance and the things that are required to be done to bridge this gap.

SWOT analysis: SWOT analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methods that assigns numerical values to indicate strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of an

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organization or product or service which in turn provides a holistic picture about competition. This method helps to create effective business strategies.

Text analysis: Text analysis is an advanced statistical method where intelligent tools make sense of and quantify or fashion qualitative and open-ended data into easily understandable data. This method is used when the raw survey data is unstructured but has to be brought into a structure that makes sense.

Qualitative data analysisQualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview transcripts, notes, video and audio recordings, images and text documents. Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the following five categories:

1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioural data to classify, summarize and tabulate the data.

2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by respondents taking into account context of each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data by researcher.

3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written text.

4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several stages such as familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.

5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an analysis of a single case to formulate a theory. Then, additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the theory.

 

Qualitative data analysis can be conducted through the following three steps:

 

Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes. Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a short phrase that represents a theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide range of non-quantifiable elements such as events, behaviours, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.

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There are three types of coding:

1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to make sense of it.

2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories of codes.

3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through connecting the categories.

Coding can be done manually or using qualitative data analysis software such as

 NVivo,  Atlas ti 6.0,  HyperRESEARCH 2.8,  Max QDA and others.

When using manual coding you can use folders, filing cabinets, wallets etc. to gather together materials that are examples of similar themes or analytic ideas. Manual method of coding in qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as labour-intensive, time-consuming and outdated.

In computer-based coding, on the other hand, physical files and cabinets are replaced with computer based directories and files. When choosing software for qualitative data analysis you need to consider a wide range of factors such as the type and amount of data you need to analyse, time required to master the software and cost considerations.

Moreover, it is important to get confirmation from your dissertation supervisor prior to application of any specific qualitative data analysis software.

The following table contains examples of research titles, elements to be coded and identification of relevant codes:

Research title Elements to be coded Codes

Born or bred: revising The Great Man theory of leadership in the 21st century

 

Leadership practice

Born leaders

Made leaders

Leadership effectiveness

A study into advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market

 

 

 

Market entry strategies

Wholly-owned subsidiaries

Joint-ventures

Franchising

Exporting

Licensing

Impacts of CSR programs and   Philanthropy

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initiative on brand image: a case study of Coca-Cola Company UK.

 

Activities, phenomenon

Supporting charitable courses

Ethical behaviour

Brand awareness

Brand value

An investigation into the ways of customer relationship management in mobile marketing environment

 

 

Tactics

Viral messages

Customer retention

Popularity of social networking sites

 Qualitative data coding

 

Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships. Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no universally applicable techniques that can be applied to generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking skills of researcher plays significant role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative study can be repeated to generate the same results.

Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify common themes, patterns and relationships within responses of sample group members in relation to codes that have been specified in the previous stage.

Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data interpretation include the following:

Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and phrases most commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and phrases used with unusual emotions;

Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data collection method with the findings of literature review and discussing differences between them;

Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the issue was not mentioned by respondents, although you expected them to be mentioned;

Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to phenomena from a different area and discussing similarities and differences.

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Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage you need to link research findings to hypotheses or research aim and objectives. When writing data analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order to highlight major themes within findings and possible contradictions.

It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis described above is general and different types of qualitative studies may require slightly different methods of data analysis.

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