Fernando Tan01012170027

Chapter 3: Information and Communications Technologies (ICT): The Enterprise Architecture (EA).

This chapter examines four main points. First, the four hardware components of

a computer. Second, the major types of software and how it’s created. Third, the major

types of networks, transmission media, and network protocols. Fourth, the importance

of the enterprise architecture and the trends in ICT.

Nowadays, businesses require technology to reach their objectives and to be

competitive. However, the advancements of technology has created a pool of

technology options to choose from. Technology has obviously made our lives better, but

businesses may have a hard time deciding what technology to use and how to integrate

it into their strategy.

The hardware is the physical basis that has two main features. The first being

digital, which means that it processes information using binary language. Secondly, the

hardware is considered as computer components. [1] The computer is defined as “a

programmable usually electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data.”[2]

The computer is comprised of four components; input, output, processing, and

storage. Input components convert external representations into internal representations.

In other words, it converts input signals to a digital format to be processed. [3] Human

input is the most common input as most input devices rely on humans, such as the

keyboard, joystick, touchscreen, mouse, and a whole lot of other devices. The keyboard,

for example, has keys for humans to press on, but each press is converted into a digital

format to be further processed by the computer. Non-human input includes scanners and

sensors, such as QR code, OCR, and RFID

On the other hand, the output device is a device that the computer sends the

information to. It converts internal representations to external representations. Displays,

such as the LCD display is a very common form of an output device, as it receives

digital information from the computer and converts it into graphics which humans can

understand. Printers and speakers are another example of common output devices.

The computer needs a brain to carry out all the programmed instructions. The

central processing unit (CPU) is “the component of a computer system that performs the

basic operations (such as processing data) of the system, that exchanges data with the

system's memory or peripherals, and that manages the system's other components.”[4]

The technology advancements of a CPU are exponential. The invention of transistors

that replaced vacuum tubes have proven to be crucial. It enabled the mass production of

computers. Moore’s Law (1965) states that transistors in a chip will double every two

years. The law holds true until recent times, but now, growth is starting to slow down as

it is reaching physical limits. [5]

Figure 1: Moore’s Law calculation [6]

Every digital information in a computer has to be stored somewhere. The storage

is where it's kept. There are two types of storage; primary and secondary. Primary

storage is temporary. A known device is the random access memory (RAM). It

functions as a temporary storage, while the CPU is busy processing other instructions.

Secondary storage is permanent. With the size and amount of data these days,

computers require a very massive amount of data storage. This type is usually much

slower than primary, but developments in solid-state drives from hard drives have

increased speeds significantly. The amount of data that can be stored are expressed in

bytes, which contain eight zeros and ones. Decisions regarding storage management in a

business is also very important because an organization’s needs will be reflected.

Complementing the hardware is the software. The software instructs the

computer to carry out tasks. There are two major types of software; application software

and system software. Application software is the software that users usually interact

with. It supports out activities such as word processing, games, media, etc. There are

lots of different application software created for different purposes. The HR department

might have one and another department such as production department might have a

different software.

System software is the part of the software that bridges hardware and application

software. Known system software are Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and Linux. They

carry out the very basic tasks that a computer needs such as file structuring, memory

allocation, input/output management, etc. Microsoft Windows, the market leader has an

advantage, because businesses would prefer a platform that has the most software

written on. However, some industries would prefer Mac OS since it offers unique

features. Utility software is another type of system software that functions as a cleaner

and protector for both the hardware and software.

Software is created to solve certain problems. Programmers have to team up

with stakeholders and analysts to create a software that will function according to the

business’ needs. Software is written in an artificial language. There are different types

of programming languages that provide instructions for the computer in different ways.

Some examples are COBOL, Java, .NET, and C++. We can see what programmers

write in a source code, which contain all statements that were written to communicate

with the computer.

There are two major software deployment strategies. First, commercial-off-the-

shelf such as Adobe Suite which are ready to buy, install and use. Second, software as a

service (SaaS), which is a software that a vendor hosts and manages. Organizations pay

the vendor to use the software. There are numerous factors that will affect an

organization's decision which type of software to use.

Open source software is an alternative approach in software development and

distribution. The main feature is free distribution and the source code is also distributed,

so everyone can make their own improvements to the software. The emergence of open

source software has stimulated innovations in communities who embrace it. Notable

open source software include Linux and Firefox. [7]

Devices that were mentioned above can be interconnected through networks. A

network is a “group of interconnected devices”. Transmission media has different ways

to handle data coming through it. Just like hardware, it has limitations in speed and

capacity. Speed is measured in bits/second, while bandwidth is the maximum amount of

data coming through at a particular time. Wired media is one of two types of

transmission media. It requires wires to transmit data. Wireless media uses

electromagnetic waves to transmit data without wires. Wifi and Bluetooth are two

wireless technologies that the average consumer probably can’t live without. Wifi

requires waves at 2.4 or 5 GHz frequencies. Bluetooth works at the same frequencies

but are relatively limited in distance.

A variety of network types have been used throughout the years. They’re

classified based on their scale and scope. There are 6 network types which are PAN

(personal area network), LAN (local), CAN (campus/corporate), MAN (metropolitan),

WAN (wide), and GAN (global). These networks operate at different scopes of

geography.

Another classification is based on the approach in data transmission. A circuit-

switched network establishes a connection between the sender and receiver for as long

as the connection endures. Regular voice calls use this mechanism. Another approach is

packet switching. This approach breaks data into segments (packets) before

transmission. These packets are transmitted through different channels rather than just

one connection. On the other end, the packets gather and reassemble. It is significantly

quicker and more efficient, because it calculates the fastest paths to reach its destination.

Packet switching is favorable for its reliability and stability. [8]

Figure 2: Circuit switching network on telephones [8]

Figure 3: Packet switching network [8]

Networks can also be classified based on how centralized they are. A client-

server network is a highly centralized network. Workload is centralized on one or more

high performance host. The clients also share the workload, but not as much as the

server. On the other side is the highly decentralized approach, which is the peer-to-peer

network. There are no central servers in this approach. Each component in the network

can act as the server in certain situations. Homes are usually set up this way because it is

practical and most operating systems support it.

The network has protocols — a set of procedures in order for networks to

understand each other. Ethernet is a popular protocol among LANs. It is the market

leader since the 1980s. It connects clients and servers within a network. Transmission

Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) connects Ethernet and other networks

together. It is an efficient protocol, because of its hourglass architecture. TCP/IP acts as

a medium for all kinds of transmissions. It enables a large variety of services to transmit

data through a uniform layer (TCP/IP), which significantly simplifies the transmission

process. However, the shortages of available addresses requires the new Internet

Protocol Version 6 (IPv6).[9]

Figure 4: Hourglass architecture of TCP/IP [9]

At last but not least is the wireless protocol. It provides procedures on how

wireless transmission is used. The protocol is called 802.11. It is the standard for wifi

connections. There are some variations of it such as 802.11a, b, g, n, ac, and ad which

supports different frequencies, data rates, and distances.

All of these information and communications technology take a significant

portion in an Enterprise Architecture (EA). It is the framework for an organization to

reach their objectives. EA provides a guideline for managers to make decisions in order

to achieve the mission, given current circumstances. It is not just about technology, but

it surely does play a big part.

Trends in EA trace the advancements in ICT. First, mainframes were introduced

in the 60s, before microcomputers replaced them in the 80s. This changed the way

businesses operate and transmit information. Then, client-server architectures were

introduced. It was a major breakthrough as it offered significantly better performances

with lower costs, which saved a lot of money for businesses. The internet was also

revolutionary during that era, which replaced private line leasing in the past.

Virtualization followed through as the next trend, which allowed multiple OSs to

run on a single machine, acting as if it is on another machine. It’s like a computer

running inside of a computer. However, it requires a powerful machine to run it

smoothly. At the same time, it generated further cost savings, reduced electricity, and

maintenance. These savings are a result of needing less physical computers in a data

center. [10]

In today’s era, cloud computing is the next big thing. Jack Newton defines it as

“an infrastructure and business model, where software and data, rather than being stored

locally on servers, are delivered in real-time via the internet”. [11] Businesses no longer

have to build their own data centers. They can simply lease from providers who can

operate the cloud efficiently, thus costing less. Cloud computing opened the way for

Software as a service companies to emerge in the markets and achieving success. The

downside is that it might not fit every business, especially those with special

configurations.

ICT is always developing, which affects EA developments as well. The trends

that are happening right now might become obsolete in a few years. Therefore, it is

important to adapt with changes and be steps ahead of others. The enterprise

architecture needs to be developed and guided continuously, in line with the business

mission of an organization. Managers need to have knowledge in ICT, as it is becoming

more and more prominent in today’s world.

Referensi:

[1] Wallace, P. (2015). Introduction to Information Systems. Pearson. 2nd ed.

[2] Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/computer

[3] Nelder, J., & Cooper, B. (1971). Input/Output in Statistical Programming.

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C (Applied Statistics), 20(1), 56-

73. doi:10.2307/2346631

[4] Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cpu

[5] Cumming, D., Furber, S., & Paul, D. (2014). Preface: Beyond Moore's law.

Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,

372(2012),1-2. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/24502743

[6] Moore, G. (1965, April 19). Cramming More Components onto Integrated

Circuits. Electronics, 38.

[7] Lerner, J., & Tirole, J. (2002). Some Simple Economics of Open Source. The

Journal of Industrial Economics, 50(2), 197-234. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/3569837

[8] Kahn, R. (1987). Networks for Advanced Computing. Scientific American,

257(4), 136-143. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/24979517

[9] Burney, B. (2007). A "Parallels" Reality. GPSolo, 24(4), 24-27. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/23673447

[10] Yoo, C. (2013). Protocol Layering and Internet Policy. University of

Pennsylvania Law Review, 161(6), 1707-1771. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/23527816

[11] Newton, J. (2010). Is Cloud Computing Green Computing? GPSolo, 27(8), 28-

31. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.uph.edu:2056/stable/23630285