Investigating the Headwater: An Examination of the PK-12 Student Experiences of Mexican-American PK-12 Educators to Promote Authentic

Educator Recruitment Strategies

A Submission for theAmerican Association for Colleges for Teacher Education

2013 Outstanding Dissertation Award

August, 2012

Jason M. Morton, Ed.D.Fort Osage R-I Public SchoolsIndependence, Missouri 64058

816-914-3087jayhawk95@comcast.net

Dissertation Supervisor:Barbara N. Martin, Ed.D.

University of Central MissouriWarrensburg, MO 64093

660-543-8823bmartin@ucmo.edu

LETTER OF SUPPORT

August 6, 2012

Dear Committee Members:

I am writing this letter of support for Jason Morton, who is submitting his dissertation,

finished May, 2011, to the AACTE 2013 Outstanding Dissertation competition. Dr. Morton’s

dissertation was entitled Investigating the Headwater: An Examination of the PK-12 Student

Experiences of Mexican-American PK-12 Educators to Promote Authentic Educator Recruitment

Strategies. I was the chair of his dissertation committee and believe that his dissertation is

worthy of consideration for the award.

Dr. Morton wanted to do an investigation that would focus on his quest for social justice

leadership in public schools. In order to hear the voices of the participants, Jason chose a critical

collective case study framed around these conceptual frameworks: critical race theory (CRT),

Latino critical theory (LatCrit), and social capital theory. He interviewed and observed, over a

period of time, six Mexican-American teachers, as to their experiences in schooling that

enhanced or hindered their ascension into the teacher profession. It was Jason’s purpose that, by

exploring and understanding the experiences of PK-12 educators of Mexican-American descent,

the recruitment of talented Latino students into the PK-12 education ranks could be increased.

Specifically, he investigated any possible connections that existed between consideration of

education as a profession and perceptions of the profession based on personal experiences one

had as a PK-12 student. Irrespective of one's teaching position, the findings revealed the vital

need for maintaining both a relational and institutional focus in order for Latinos (and other

marginalized populations) to academically persist at the level of rigor necessary to successfully

pursue a postsecondary education, much less a degree in PK-12 education.

2

Because the researcher is a Mexican-American educator, the participants opened up and

revealed experiences, behaviors, and attitudes of educators and family that allowed them to

pursue teaching as a profession. I believe this to be strength of the inquiry. The analysis of data

framed through the three constructs allowed for deeper meaning to surface. Using critical race

theory, the data were examined to identify institutional structures, policies, and practices in PK-

12 schools that encouraged or discouraged Latino students from recruitment into the education

ranks. The use of Latino Critical theory honed the focus on the unique positionality of educators

of Mexican-American descent. Accordingly, Jason intended to alleviate some of the ambivalence

that exists among LatCrit scholars about the Latino community’s group identity given the fluid

nature of race and ethnicity encompassed within the “Latino” label. Finally, social capital theory

was used to explore the data by which PK-16 educators provided organizational support to

sanction prospective Latino educators to become agents of social change and social justice

themselves by a teaching career. In this way, I believe this dissertation is highly innovative and

creative.

The significance of this investigation is captured by statistics arguing that, while students

of color make up more than a third of our nation’s schools, only 13 percent of the teaching force

is comprised of people of color. Coupled with the fact that 85 percent of students in preparatory

teaching programs are white females, a population who researchers note have poor attrition rates

for working with large minority populations, the significance of this inquiry is revealed.

When judging the merit of this dissertation, as compared to the fifty-one dissertations I

have chaired and completed, I would rank this inquiry in the top three, and among the social

justice focused dissertations it is in the top two. Dr. Morton was thorough in his investigation

3

into the research and meticulous in his analysis of the data. I believe his dissertation is worthy of

consideration for the AACTE 2013 Outstanding Dissertation competition.

Sincerely,

Barbara N. Martin, EdDProfessor in the Cooperative University of Missouri Ed.D. Program Professor in the Educational Leadership DepartmentUniversity of Central Missouri

4

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Nearly half of new American immigrants are Latino, with 28 percent coming from

Mexico (Gibson, 2002). The Latino population could rise to upwards of 31.3 percent in 2050

(Ortman & Guarneri, 2009). Gibson thus posited there is "a pressing need to recruit more Latinos

into teaching so our teacher force is more reflective of the student population" (p. 247).

However, this ideal is far from reality. Bracey and Molnar (2003) found that Latinos constitute

fifteen percent of the student population, yet only four percent of the teaching population.

The question thus begs itself: is this indeed the foundation for the professional epidemic

of which Ramirez (2009) speaks? As Ladson-Billings (2005) posited, “We insist that prospective

teachers demonstrate that they can be successful with a diverse group of students, [yet] we

demonstrate no such success in our own professional lives” (p. 231). Howard (2003) noted that,

“at the current rate, many students stand a good chance of completing 12 years of schooling and

never coming into contact with a teacher of color..." (p. 150).

It is therefore the purpose of this paper to discover ways for PK-16 educational leaders to

bolster the recruitment of talented Latino students (specifically, educators of Mexican-American

descent) into the PK-12 education ranks by exploring any possible connections that may exist

between consideration of education as a profession and perceptions of the profession based on

personal experiences one had as a PK-12 student. The following research questions were thus

gleaned from the literature review to guide the present study:

1) What are the perceptions of PK-12 educators of Latino descent regarding their own

experiences as students in the PK-12 milieu, and how might those perceptions have

impeded or facilitated educational aspiration and persistence?

5

2) Do Latino educators believe that their presence in PK-12 educational institutions can

further mitigate negative perceptions of the efficacy and potential of Latino youth not

only for themselves, but also for those of different races and ethnicities?

3) How can PK-16 educational leaders inform and implement transformational strategies

to bolster future recruitment of Latino educators?

Conceptual Framework

The study was guided by three conceptual frameworks: critical race theory (CRT), Latino

critical theory (LatCrit), and social capital theory (SCT). CRT was employed by the researcher to

identify institutional structures, policies, and practices (Solorzano et al., 2005) in PK-12 schools

that encourage or discourage Latino students from recruitment into the education ranks, thus

illustrating how entrenched majoritarian notions of color blindness and meritocracy inherently

disadvantage minorities through racial inequality (Bell, 1992; Crenshaw et al., 1995; Delgado &

Stefancic, 2001; Huber et al., 2008; Solorzano et al., 2005).

A focus was placed on the unique positionality of educators of Mexican-American

descent. Accordingly, the researcher aimed to mitigate some of the ambivalence that exists

among LatCrit scholars about Latino group identity given the fluid nature of race and ethnicity

encompassed within the “Latino” label (Trucios-Haynes, 2001). The LatCrit framework compels

researchers to "investigate the ways in which the dominant culture defines [the Latino] group…

in order to suit its convenience” (Trucios-Haynes, p. 3).

Finally, SCT was used to explore means by which PK-16 educational leaders can

empower potential Latino educators to become agents of social change and social justice

themselves (Stanton-Salazar, 2004). SCT emphasizes the importance of social ties, familial

cultural capital (Yosso, 2005), and extrafamilial networks (Portes, 1998) with institutional agents

6

across institutional domains (Stanton-Salazar, 1997), thus allowing Latinos to mobilize and

secure the relational resources and institutional support needed "to secure goods and forms of

support that facilitate the accomplishment of goals" (Stanton-Salazar, 2004, p. 25).

Methodology

The design selected for the study was the collective case study approach. This allowed

the researcher to explore multiple cases (i.e., subjects) from multiple sites to collect open-ended,

emergent data (Creswell, 2003) by “captur[ing] multiple realities not easily quantifiable...

[through] information collection in [a] natural setting” (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006, p. 72).

Participants

The sampling design selected was purposeful sampling (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) with

specific subjects selected to "best help the researcher understand the problem and the research

question" (Merriam, 1998, p. 185). Thus, selected and interviewed were six educators of

Mexican-American descent who were currently teaching in a public PK-12 institution.

Observation Protocol

The researcher spent a school day in a complete observer role (Creswell, 2003), studying

subjects in their natural professional settings and roles. These observations served two purposes:

1) they allowed the researcher to become familiar with the setting and to develop a working

relationship and rapport with the subject, and 2) they allowed the researcher to share a “day in

the life” with the subject and to document this experience in writing (Emerson et al., 1995).

Interview Protocol

Participants were interviewed individually on two separate occasions at each site. The

interview format consisted of a semi-structured interview protocol including main questions,

probes, and follow-ups. The main questions were the “scaffolding of the interview” (Rubin &

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Rubin, p. 133), prepared in advance to develop rapport with the subject (Bogdan & Biklen) and

ensure comprehensive coverage of the research problem. Follow-up questions “obtain[ed] depth

and detail and helped in obtaining more nuanced answers” (Rubin & Rubin, p. 136).

Data Analysis

After all field notes were completed and interviews were transcribed, coding methods

were employed that could "capture the complex categories or phenomena in [the] data" (Saldana,

2009, p. 47). An open coding approach was employed using both inductive and iterative analysis

(Hancock & Algozzine, 2006), allowing for patterns and themes to organically become emergent

(Creswell, 2003). Through the conceptual frameworks of CRT/LatCrit and SCT, the researcher

simultaneously utilized values coding and narrative coding to analyze the data.

Findings

Using the data set, the following themes emerged: 1) the Role of Relational Support, with

the subthemes of: a) Educators, b) Family, and c) Community; and 2) the Role of Institutional

Support, with the subthemes of: a) Increased Student Expectations, b) Building Capacity, and c)

Cultural and Socioeconomic Awareness and Validation. In tandem, the themes paint a vivid

picture for PK-16 educational leaders of the sociological impact they can have through the

implementation of transformational strategies during the formative years to attract more Latino

youth to PK-12 education. Latinos have a unique conundrum. They must expand their social

networks in a manner that can enable them to make the transition from high school to college

(Saunders & Serna, 2004) while reconfiguring their existing relationships and social ties

(Saunders & Serna) without alienating those in their family or community who may not share the

same beliefs on the efficacy of a postsecondary education.

8

Thus the first conclusion, as it relates to determining ways in which transformative PK-16

educational leaders can bolster the future recruitment of talented Latino students (specifically,

those of Mexican-American descent), is a fundamentally simple one: relationships matter. Each

participant had significant role models and mentors in their PK-12 student years that affirmed

Latino "cultural values such as familismo (importance of family), personalismo (the preference

for personal over impersonal relational styles), conflanza (trust), respeto (mutual respect), and

dignidad (care for the dignity of each person)" (Gardella et al., 2005, p. 42). Effective leaders

must embrace the notion that “[d]ifference becomes not something to fear, or to avoid, but part

of the rich fabric of human existence with which we interact on a daily basis” (p. 166).

Conversely, institutional agents (Stanton-Salazar, 1997) must fully utilize not only their

trained faculty and staff, but also the familial cultural capital (Yosso, 2005) and extrafamilial

networks (Portes, 1998) available to them through both neighborhood families and the

community at-large. By doing so, they can authentically generate the valued resources (e.g., an

education) that Latino youth must acquire to attain a postsecondary degree, much less a degree in

PK-12 education. If educational leaders are to foster the institutional support necessary to

promote an authentic commitment to educating an increasingly diverse population, they must

ensure their espoused values are commensurate with the underlying beliefs of their institution

(Schein, 1992) on both on an instrumental and symbolic level (Tierney, 1998).

Ultimately, all of the institutional support in the world is for naught if the pool of talented

Latino youth with the potential for excellence as educators is shallow. PK-16 educational leaders

(particularly those at the middle and secondary levels) have an ethical imperative to identify and

duly scrutinize both tacit and explicit "policies that marginalize Latinas/os in the education[al]

arena [by] limiting, rather than moving forward, Latina/o educational and societal advancement"

9

(Gonzalez and Portillos, 2007, p. 261). The counterstories of the participants revealed many

examples of tacit or explicit institutional policies that fomented cultural deficiency (Rolon, 2002)

or deficit thinking (Kohli, 2009) - namely, subtractive schooling through the invalidation of

Latino culture and/or language (Valenzuela, 1999), underrepresentation in advanced courses, and

overrepresentation in remedial courses (Gonzalez et al., 2003). Furthermore, based on the

counterstories that emerged, one might infer that many Latino youth with the potential for

excellence as Latino educators may never realize that potential unless PK-12 educational leaders

strive to eliminate a culture of low expectations (Kohli, 2009) for Latino youth deeply rooted in

the majoritarian norms (Huber et al., 2008) of many educators. Such dismissive pedagogy

appears to still be quite prevalent, particularly in districts that service large socioeconomically-

disadvantaged Latino populations.

Accordingly, PK-16 educational leaders should proactively begin outreach to Latino

youth during the formative years of middle school and secondary school, not reactively once (or

if) these youth go to college. Research affirmed several participant's assertions that educational

leaders should offer encouragement and incentives to consider teaching (Peterson & Nadler,

2009) through authentic programming that respects and validates the motivational variations

between Latinos and their majority peers (Oliva & Staudt, 2003). Otherwise, the number of

Latino youth who view a PK-12 educational career "as a prestigious career option with

opportunities for supportive interaction with other students and faculty" (Ramirez, 2009, p. 21)

will remain grossly disproportionate to the demographic shift outside the educational milieu.

The conclusions, based on the study findings, illustrate the cumulative effect of a PK-16

educational leader’s actions in further facilitating the acquisition of social capital necessary for

talented Latino youth to pursue a postsecondary degree in PK-12 education. The cumulative

10

actions of transformative educational leaders via the conduits of relational support and

institutional support are thus represented below in Figure 1:

Figure 1: Conclusions Based on Study Findings

At the core of this paradigm is the self, where personal values are the leader's initial

source for guidance, however laden they may be with biases and imperfections (Brown, 2004).

Ethical leaders must acknowledge that the needs of Latino youth are often strikingly divergent

from their majority peers. Conversely, as opposed to the employment of difference-blind

institutionalism (Larson & Ovando, 2001), leaders must adopt a philosophy of additive schooling

(Valenzuela, 1999) for all disadvantaged youth, including Latinos.

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Implications for Practice

The study findings indicate the paramount need for support on both a relational and

institutional basis in order for Latinos (and other marginalized populations) to academically

persist at the level of rigor necessary to successfully pursue a postsecondary education, much

less a degree in PK-12 education. These findings supported the emphasis by Lin (2001), Portes

(1998), and Yosso (2005) of the need for Latino youth to accumulate at least as much (if not

more) social capital as their majority peers, given the deficit of social capital they often bring to

the table. With the cumulative accretion of social capital comes the enhanced ability to secure

resources through durable social networks that allow these youth to access information,

influence, and social credentials while reinforcing and recognizing their Latino identity (Lin).

The study findings also suggested a need for heightened critical collaboration among PK-

16 educational leaders as well as with the people they purportedly serve, including Latino youth

who may not have yet been compelled to expect the exceptional in themselves due to the

perpetuation of subtractive schooling (Venezuela, 1999) practices in their educational

institutions. As Schuhmann (1992) asserted two decades ago, future "language used to refer to

ethnic minorities in schools... must reject such terms and concepts of the past as remediation and

language deficient" (p. 103). Educators, regardless of their own race or ethnicity, must be agents

of social change and justice and relentless advocates for all of their students, particularly those

stuck in the headwaters of PK-12 education (Solorzano et al., 2005), those who have yet to

visualize the vast ocean on the horizon and its limitless potential.

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Assessment of Study Design

The collective case study approach (Creswell, 2007) allowed the researcher to explore in-

depth "how individuals experience and interact with their social world [and] the meaning it has

for them" (Merriam & Associates, 2002, p.4). Furthermore, the conceptual frameworks of CRT

and LatCrit served as a conduit for the researcher to explore "how larger contextual factors [e.g.,

race/ethnicity, power, and oppression] affect the ways in which individuals construct reality"

(Merriam & Associates, p. 4). Additionally, the conceptual framework of social capital theory

addressed the exploration of power – “who has it, how it’s negotiated, what structures in society

reinforce the current distribution of power, and so on” (Merriam & Associates, p. 327).

The researcher would conjecture it is an asset to bring one’s subjective personal values

and standpoint (Rubin & Rubin, 2005) to the table, so long as biases such as one's personal

biography (Creswell, 2003) do not compromise the integrity of the research. Rubin and Rubin

(2005) expanded on this assertion when noting, “Interviewers are not expected to be neutral or

automatons… [but they have] to be self-aware, examining… biases and expectations that might

influence the interviewee” (p. 30).

One limitation was that the study was completed with a small sample size. However, as

Merriam and Associates (2002) posited, small samples are often “selected precisely because the

researcher wishes to understand the particular in depth, not to find out what is generally true of

the many” (p. 28). The researcher worked near the parameters as delineated by Creswell (2007)

of identifying “no more than four or five cases" (Creswell, p. 76) in order to ensure naturalistic

generalizations (Creswell, 2007).

The use of interviews can be limited as the information is indirectly filtered, is not always

delivered in the natural field setting, and may be biased by the presence of the researcher

13

(Merriam, 1998). In addition, the use of counterstories as part of the interview protocol can be

somewhat problematic. As Litowitz (2009) argued, storytelling places more emphasis on the

aesthetic and emotional dimensions of narration that can lead in any direction: “If one set of

narratives can make us more sympathetic to people of color, it stands to reason that a different

set of narratives can make us less sensitive” (p. 303). Ultimately, as Seidman (2006) espoused,

“If the researcher’s goal…is to understand the meaning people in education make of their

experience, then interviewing provides a necessary, if not always completely sufficient, avenue

of inquiry” (p. 11), so long as the interviewer has the capacity to produce knowledge through his

interaction with each conversational partner (Kvale & Brinkman, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2005).

14

APPENDIX A

Abstract

Table of Contents

References

15

ABSTRACT

This critical collective case study examined the perceptions of PK-12 Latino educators

regarding their personal experiences as students in the PK-12 milieu, and how those perceptions

impacted their consideration of education as a career. From the data, two themes emerged with

one clear constant: the Role of Relational Support and the Role of Institutional Support. The

implications of this inquiry could affect both K-12 institutions and higher education institutions

as they reflect on existing practices to infuse the support necessary to address the inverse growth

of PK-12 Latino educators relative to the American population as a whole.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................ii

LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................viii

ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................ix

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................

Background................................................................................................................1

Conceptual Framework..............................................................................................4

Statement of the Problem...........................................................................................7

Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................8

Research Questions....................................................................................................9

Design of the Study....................................................................................................9

Limitations and Assumptions of the Study................................................................10

Design Controls.........................................................................................................12

Definition of Key Terms............................................................................................13

Summary....................................................................................................................15

Chapter

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.................................................................

Introduction................................................................................................................17

A Dual Lens: Critical Race and Latino Critical Theory............................................18

Critical Race Theory............................................................................................18

Latino Critical Theory.........................................................................................22

Social Capital Theory................................................................................................26

17

Persistence Issues in Educational Attainment............................................................29

Secondary Persistence Issues..............................................................................30

Postsecondary Persistence Issues........................................................................31

Lack of Academic Preparation............................................................................33

Perceptions of PK-12 Education and the Formation of a Learner Identity................37

Negative Perceptions Regarding Status, Power, and Opportunity......................37

Positive Perceptions Regarding Status, Power, and Opportunity.......................42

Forming an Educator Identity - Does a "Familiar Face" Matter? ....................44

Implications for PK-12 Latino Recruitment .............................................................47

Need for Early Identification of Teacher Candidates..........................................48

Increased Social Capital for Both Students and Parents.....................................50

Increased Enrollment in Two-Year Versus Four-Year Institutions.....................54

Reassessment of Teacher Admission and Certification Exams............................55

Field Placement of Latino Candidates into Critical Learning Settings..............57

Authentic Commitment to Diversity.....................................................................59

PK-16 Leadership Implications.................................................................................61

Summary....................................................................................................................63

18

Chapter

3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.....................................................

Introduction................................................................................................................66

Research Questions....................................................................................................67

Rationale for Use of a Critical Collective Case Study...............................................67

Limitations of a Critical Collective Case Study Design............................................70

Design Controls.........................................................................................................73

Participants.................................................................................................................75

Data Collection and Instrumentation.........................................................................76

Data Analysis Procedures..........................................................................................81

Summary....................................................................................................................83

Chapter

4. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA.....................................................

Introduction................................................................................................................84

Study Design..............................................................................................................85

Data Collection Methods...........................................................................................86

Conceptual Underpinnings.........................................................................................86

Research Questions....................................................................................................87

Process of Data Analysis...........................................................................................88

Settings.......................................................................................................................88

Participants.................................................................................................................92

Themes.......................................................................................................................98

Summary....................................................................................................................122

19

Chapter

5. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS............................

Introduction................................................................................................................124

Summary of Findings.................................................................................................125

Conclusions................................................................................................................133

Limitations.................................................................................................................141

Implications for Practice............................................................................................144

Recommendations for Future Study..........................................................................147

Concluding Overview ...............................................................................................150

APPENDIX

A. Gatekeeper and Informed Consent Documents...................................................152

B. Educator Participant Interview Protocol..............................................................158

C. On-Site Observation Form...................................................................................162

D. University of ***** Review Board Approval.....................................................164

E. Data Codes...........................................................................................................166

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................168

VITA ..............................................................................................................................184

20

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