Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Helping learners make assumptions using could,

might and must

LSA1/Language Systems: Grammar

Candidate number:

The ELT Hub, Strasbourg FR023

April 17, 2019

Word Count: 2497

Contents

1. Introduction 2 1.1 Epistemic modality 2 1.2 Scope 22. Analysis 2 2.1 Meaning 2 2.1.1 Could 2 2.1.2 Might 3 2.1.3 Must 3 2.2 Grammatical Form 3 2.3 Phonological Form 33. Learning Problems and Teaching Solutions

4

3.1 Problems Relating to Meaning 4 3.1.1 Teaching Solutions 4 3.2 Problems Relating to Form 6 3.2.1 Teaching Solutions 6 3.3 Problems Relating to Pronunciation 6 3.3.1 Teaching Solutions 64. Conclusion 75. Bibliography 86. Appendices 9-14

1

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

1. Introduction

1.1 Epistemic modalityWhen making assumptions about present, past or future situations we often do not think in absolute terms about truth and falsehood, but in terms of a scale of likelihood. Epistemic modality is a type of linguistic modality that allows speakers to express notions of possibility, probability, improbability, etc. We have several means at our disposal to express doubt, certainty or guesses:

by use of an adverbial such as perhaps, maybe, probably: Perhaps she’s sick. by use of a sentence with introductory it and a that-clause: It’s possible that

she’s sick.

But most importantly, we do this by using modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, must, etc.): She might be sick. Our choice of modal auxiliary depends on our attitude towards the person or situation we are speaking about and on how we feel about the reliability of our message (Bolinger, 1977). The grammatical category of modality is an example of a way in which speakers use grammar to fine-tune the meaning they wish to express (Thornbury, 1999).In my experience, the area of modal auxiliaries is a complex one for learners. As modals have multiple meanings and are often used to express subtle shades of meaning, learners easily misunderstand or are misunderstood. Through this assignment I hope to better understand how to help my learners see how different modal auxiliaries match the range of meanings they need to express and understand.

1.2 ScopeFor the purpose of this essay I will focus on epistemic modality: on the use of could, might and must to make assumptions about the past and present. These modal auxiliaries are the ones most frequently used to express doubt, certainty or guesses and they are the most useful when trying to help learners understand concepts such as remoteness, distance or degree of commitment (see paragraphs 2 & 3).

2. Analysis

2.1 MeaningAll modals, except shall have a primary and a secondary function. In their primary function they express some degree of freedom or lack of freedom to act. In their secondary function, the modals allow the speaker to give a personal evaluation of the truth of the statement he is making (Close, 1992).

2.1.1 CouldLewis (1986) states that could is best dealt with as a pair with can as they both deal with possibility but of a different ‘kind: the former being more ‘remote’ than the latter. A teacher may state simple paraphrases such as: She can help you: I assert

2

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

that it is possible that she can help or She could help you: I assert that it is ‘remotely’ possible that she can help. Remoteness in the context of epistemic modality is about degrees of likelihood (She could be a foreigner, but I don’t think so). Could suggests doubt (Lewis, 1986) about a present or past situation: I can’t find my wallet. I could have lost it at the supermarket, but I’m not sure. Can is not epistemic. When making an assumption about a person’s profession She could be a doctor (but I’m not sure) is preferable to *She can be a doctor. To negate could in an assumption, we do not use couldn’t: *She couldn’t be a doctor, instead we use can’t to say that something can’t be true or might not to indicate that it is possible that something isn’t true: She can’t be a doctor or She might not be a doctor (Wallwork, 2013). Can’t and couldn’t are both used to express the impossibility of a past situation: It can't/couldn't have been Carla you saw this morning. She is away on holiday.2.1.2 MightAs could, might is often used to express tentative possibility. The difference between could and might is subtle and they are often used interchangeably. Might possibly expresses the minimum degree of certainty. It is more remote than could and according to Willis (2004) might suggests that there is no commitment to the truth of a statement: She might still come to the party, although she’s been very sick or She could still come to the party; she said she felt a lot better. 2.1.3 MustIn its secondary function, must suggests that the truth of the speaker’s statement is inescapable. The sentence You must have been hungry, may be paraphrased as I assert it is necessary that you were hungry. Must expresses a certainty about an event which we do not observe, but about which we draw a conclusion from evidence (Leech & Svartvik, 1975). It is about logical necessity. To negate certainty or logical necessity we use can’t, or couldn’t. Mustn’t generally refers to prohibition, not to improbability or impossibility (it is: You can’t/couldn’t be hungry and He can’t have carried all that by himself (Close, 1992).

2.2 Grammatical formThe modal auxiliaries share some important structural characteristics, they:

occupy the first place in a complex verb phrase and cannot co-occur. are followed by the bare infinitive (without to) in assumptions about the

present (He must be so tired) and by have and a past participle in assumptions about the past: (She could have missed the train).

are not inflected in the third person: not *He musts be hungry. are negated by the addition of n’t or not: not *He don’t can be a doctor. are inverted with the subject to form a question. have no past tense (Parrott, 2000).

2.3 Phonological formIn most contexts, modal auxiliaries are weakened in natural speech. The vowel is often reduced to / / or is practically omitted. ə Could and must are reduced to /k d/ əand /m s/, ə except in questions, short answers in response to questions or when there is a need for contrastive stress or emphasis. The final consonant in must and

3

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

might is often omitted, especially if the verb that follows begins with another consonant. Could have, must have and might have are reduced to /k d v/, ə ə/m st v/ or/m st /ʌ ə ʌ ə and /m tʌɪ v/.ə

3. Learning Problems and Teaching Solutions

3.1 Problems related to MeaningThe area of modal auxiliaries is complex: each modal has multiple meanings and the differences are often subtle and depending on context, which makes choosing the appropriate modal difficult. Learners might have problems distinguishing between could and might, or they might use must when they mean should and vice versa: *He should be a doctor (because he’s wearing scrubs). This latter example is a mistake typically made by French learners: French uses forms of the single verb devoir to cover the notions of obligation and deduction (Swan and Smith, 2001). Learners might also have problems with the concept of remoteness. In my experience they often perceive modals used in assumptions as past tenses (could and might) and consequently fail to understand that the choice of modal reflects a speaker’s attitude towards his message. 3.1.1 Teaching SolutionsAs I discussed in paragraph 2, Lewis (1986) suggests it is preferable to talk about more or less remote forms instead of past or present. Although this concept has been useful for me as a teacher in gaining a deeper understanding of when, how and why we use modal verbs, I am not convinced that it is a useful concept to introduce in the classroom, especially with lower level students. Perhaps Willis’ (2004) idea of ’commitment’ is of more practical use. He suggests that the choice of modal shows how far a speaker is committed to the truth of his statement. To help learners with the concept of commitment (how sure are you about your statement?) I use a straightforward clarification activity to help them understand the difference in grades of (logical) certainty:

Write might, could and must (in that order) on the board with a visual to indicate degree of commitment/certainty (from might, least certain to must, most certain).

Write sample sentences on the board, leaving the space for modal auxiliary blank. Students choose the correct modal. Sentences need to be carefully chosen so that the choice of modal is clear.

Check correct answer and ask concept-checking questions (see Appendix 1).

The use of a visual is an efficient way to explain differences in degrees of ’certainty’ and helps learners choose the appropriate modal. It might appeal in particular to visual learners and the activity as a whole is suitable for all levels (complexity of sentences is easily adapted). The use of isolated sentences can be useful for clarification but for learners to gain a deeper appreciation of the way choice of grammatical form impacts meaning, activities should be based in context. I have used an activity based on a lesson plan from Teaching and Learning in the Language

4

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Classroom (Hedge, 2000) (see Appendix 2) to help learners make deductions about the past.

Show learners a magazine picture of more or less open-ended situation, e.g.: a woman in black, weeping or a happy young man reading a letter.

Ask learners: What’s the situation? What do you think has happened? Elicit suggestions, e.g.: Perhaps he’s passed his exams. Then ask learners if they know another way of saying the same and elicit: He

might/could have... Show learners other pictures and ask them to make deductions using could,

might and must. Ask concept-checking questions.

This activity provides a context in which speakers would naturally make assumptions about the past. By using more or less open-ended situations, learners are presented with contexts that call for the use of either could, might or must. It offers some guidance by asking them to use could, might or must. In that sense this is a somewhat controlled practice activity. The above-mentioned issue of French learners erroneously switching must and should can be dealt with here as must is presented as the appropriate modal for deduction. Teacher could correct by recasting: L: He should be a doctor. T: So because he wears scrubs you think he must be a doctor, do you?

An activity that might be preferred by the global learner who prefers experiential learning through classroom communication which encourages guessing and structuring, is an information gap activity that I have used at different levels (see Appendix 3):

Learners watch a short film featuring a woman with a peculiar daily routine. Something in her routine changes, which upsets her visibly. Pause at this

point. Tell learners to talk with their partner/group about her daily routine. What

do we know about this woman? During feedback, write comments on board relating to her routine, her

appearance: She goes to the same subway station every day, etc. Elicit questions based on these comments: Why does she never get on the

train, etc. Ask learners to make assumptions with their partner/group. Monitor, note examples of language. Feedback, write assumptions on board. Elicit, reformulate, correct and ask concept-checking questions. Learners predict the ending before rest of movie is played.

In this activity there is no initial presentation of target language. Students will likely use modal auxiliaries, but other (acceptable) language will naturally come up as well. Students are allowed to experiment and make mistakes. At the end of the activity, during the feedback phase where the teacher deals with learner errors,

5

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

there is opportunity for noticing the difference between learners’ output and the target language.

3.2 Problems relating to formI have found that my students (irrespective of their first language) often use the full infinitive (with to) after modal auxiliaries: *You must to be hungry. This mistake may be caused by over-generalisation from the many other instances in which the infinitive needs to be accompanied by to. They might also over-generalise the rules for forming questions and negative statements, which involve adding do or did: *She doesn’t might be a doctor. 3.2.1 Teaching SolutionsTo address issues with form, a dictogloss activity can be effective:

After brief lead-in teacher reads a short text twice (see Appendix 4) at normal pace. Text features grammatical elements learners need help with.

Learners note down key words/phrases after second reading. In small groups learners pool their resources to reconstruct the text. When they finish learners analyse and compare their versions to those of

other groups. Learners come up with a consensus version, which they compare, to the

original text. Teacher provides feedback/correction

Through an activity like this one, learners are encouraged to reflect on their use of language, to focus on form and negotiate meaning. They might discover features they had not noticed before (consciousness-raising) and in the final stage of the activity there is an opportunity for noticing the difference between their output and the target language. The activity is suitable for different levels: length and complexity of the text can be easily adapted.

3.3 Problems Relating to PronunciationFrench speakers often have great difficulty in perceiving shortened or weakened syllables, which can cause problems with modal auxiliaries in natural speech. They might not recognise could and must when they are reduced to /k d/ and /m s/, or ə əfail to recognise could have, must have and might have when reduced to /k d v/, ə ə/m st v/, /m st /ʌ ə ʌ ə and /m tʌɪ v/. Learners sometimes over-emphasise modal verbsə in contexts where they would normally not be stressed. This may give the impression that they are contradicting something that has already been said and can lead to misinterpretation of their attitude (Parrott, 2010).

3.3.1 Teaching Solutions To help intermediate learners with weak forms, I might use a ’dictation computer puzzle’ (Hancock, 1995: 78):

Activity is preceded by presentation of weak forms (see Appendix 5). Write phrases on board and draw learners’ attention to weak forms. Point out that

6

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

pronunciation of weak forms might lead to misunderstanding if context is not clear.

Explain that a dictation computer writes down everything the way it is heard. Write Don’t lighter your mother! on the board and explain learners that this is a sentence written by the dictation computer. Ask learners to identify the error. As a clue, give reply: Why not? She always lies to me!

Learners receive a puzzle and identify errors with help of a clue as in the example (see Appendix 6).

After feedback teacher can drill pronunciation of weak forms.

This activity focuses on the receptive understanding of weak forms as most misunderstandings emanate from a breakdown in understanding. Learners are encouraged to use context to figure out meaning. Mistakes are more easily identified when the sentences are read aloud, thereby also helping learners with the production of weak forms.

4. Conclusion

I believe language should be a means to an end and that focus should be on meaning not on form. My research has confirmed that presenting language out of context in isolated sentences will not help learners come to terms with the complexity of modals and the subtle shades of meaning they may express. I will continue to focus on communicative activities that make the use of certain modal auxiliaries natural and useful. These activities are the core of my teaching practice, however my research has shown me that paying attention to form is essential as well. Perhaps not in the form of traditional presentation, but in consciousness-raising activities, which in my opinion are compatible with a communicative, task-based approach to teaching.

5. Bibliography

7

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Research:

Bolinger, D. Meaning and Form. London: Longman, 1977.

Close, R.A. A Teacher’s Grammar: The Central Problems of English. Hove: Cengage Learning EMEA, 1992.

Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan. A Communicative Grammar of English. Essex: Longman Group Ltd, 1975.

Lewis, Michael. The English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning. Hove: Language Teaching Publications, 1986.

Parrott, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Swan, Michael & Smith, Bernard. Learner English: A Teacher’s Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Thornbury, Scott. How to Teach Grammar. Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 1999.

Wallwort, Adrien. English for Academic Research: Grammar, Usage and Style. New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2013.

Willis, Dave. Rules, Patterns and Words. Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 2003.

Practical:

Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Appendix 1

8

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Jane ……….. (must) have a well-paid job - she’s just bought another new car. Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I think Jane is rich? (Yes) Do I know? (No) Am I sure about this? (No) Do I think it is very likely? (Yes) Why do I think this? (Because she’s just bought another car)

Robert ……….. (could) be in the library. He’s been there studying all week for his exam. Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I have an idea of where Robert is? (Yes) Do I know for sure where he is? (No) Do I think it is quite likely he’s in the library? (Yes) Why do I think this (Because he’s been studying there all week)

Alex……. (might) come to the party, although she’s been sick all day. Am I talking about the past or present? (Present) Do I know for sure if Alex is coming to the party? (No) Is it possible she’s coming? (Yes) How likely do I think it is she’s coming? (Not very) Why do I think this? (Because she’s been sick all day)

Appendix 21

1 From: Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pages 32-33

mustcould

might

9

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Appendix 3

For this activity I use the short film Mind the Gap (https://vimeo.com/103459634). The film is about an elderly lady who goes to the same subway station every day, sits on a

10

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

platform bench, waits for the train doors to open but never gets on. She just sits there and listens to the recorded message ‘mind the gap’ and then goes back home. One day the male voice has been replaced by a female computer-generated voice. This visibly upsets her. She goes back home. At the end of the movie we find out the male voice belonged to her late husband and the reason she went to the station was to listen to his voice. The movie ends well in a way, as she appeals to London Underground after they remove her husband’s voice. So touched by her story, they decide to reinstate the recording in his honour at the one station she used to visit.

Appendix 4

Below is an example of a short text for a dictogloss activity to address problems relating to form. This text is suitable for pre-intermediate learners.

11

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Laura, do you hear that noise? Listen to all those fire engines! Oooh there must be a fire somewhere. Where do you think it could be? I don’t know, it sounds like they’re going to the eastern part of town; it might be the new library. No, it can’t be! The library is on the other side of town. What about the hospital, it could be the hospital. Let’s give Mary a call, she might know as she lives close by.

Appendix 52

2 From: Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Page 78

12

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

Appendix 63

3 From: Hancock, Mark. Pronunciation Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Page 80

13

Helping learners make assumptionsusing could, might and must

14