UNIT 1

THE CONCEPT EDUCATION

In dealing with the social and philosophical foundations of education it is expedient that the student if first exposed to the concept of education. An understanding of what education really means will help the student better understand and appreciate the social and philosophical issues in education.

The Meaning of Education

Education has been defined in various ways. Some common definitions of education include the following:

Education is the process by which people learn:

Education refers to the process of learning and acquiring information.

Education is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. `

Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related to educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and ducere, "to lead".

Education has been defined from the philosophical view point by people like Peters, Whitehead and Dewey. According to Peters, “education implies that something worthwhile is being or has been intentionally transmitted in a morally acceptable means” (Schofield, 1972). Whitehead (1932) defines education as “the art of the utilization of knowledge”. He sees education as guidance towards the understanding of the art of living. John Dewey (1916) on his part views education as “the reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and increase the ability to direct the cause of subsequent experience”. It means helping the child to develop in such a way as to contribute to his continued growth.The sociological definition of education sees education as the transmission of culture. This process of cultural transmission is also called socialization. Another sociological definition is by Emile Durkheim. To Durkheim (1956) education is the systematic socialization of the younger generation by which the latter learns religious and moral beliefs, feelings of nationality and collective opinions of all kinds.

Thus, in its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another.

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It must be acknowledged that it is always very difficult to define concepts. R.S Peters suggests that in view of the difficulty of defining education we can use some criteria to measure whether the process is education or not.

R.S Peters’ Criteria of what to be considered as Education

1. An activity is education if it involves the transmission of something worthwhile to those who become committed to it.

2. Education must involve knowledge and understanding and some sort of cognitive perspective, which is not inert.

3. Education at least rules out some procedures of transmission on the grounds that they lack willingness and voluntariness on the part of the learner. (Schofield, 1972).

In sum, education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. It is related to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values that enable the individual lead a good and useful life not only to himself but the society as a whole.

Processes of Education

One may ask how education actually occurs. Education occurs through many forms or processes. The educational processes to be considered are formal, non-formal and informal education. These could be considered as occurring along a continuum.

Informal ………… Non-formal ………….. Formal

1. Formal educationFormal education is the type of education which takes place in a special designated place known as the school. It is systematically structured, curriculum guided and teacher centred. It is also age specific, chronologically graded, and hierarchically structured, starting from primary to the university level.

In other words, formal education is intentional and systematic. It is the selection and systematic structuring of experiences. It involves the establishment of explicit aims (objectives), roles and patterns of operation. It is institutionalised and operates in special structures termed schools, colleges, polytechnics and universities etc.Such an educational system has three sub-systems, each with two components:1. Organization2. Human3. Curriculum

1. Organizationa. Mission

This is legally established framework of intention within which particular purposes, goals and objectives are evolved and pursued.

b. SponsorThis consists of political, religious, industrial, or other institutions which initiate, support and govern the enterprise. Within these operating institutions, schools are established, legitimized and managed.

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2. Humana. Mentors

The personnel trained and certified or those who teach, counsel and administer or staff the establishment

b. StudentsThese are the participants who are to be educated

3. Curriculuma. Content

This is the body of knowledge, subjects or skills which students are expected to learn.

b. Media These consist of materials, equipment, plants, and processes through which learning experiences are provided for participants.The extent to which the system closely integrates each of its organizational, human and curricular components to its own stability or maintenance requirements determines how formal it is.

2. Non-formal EducationNon-formal education is any intentional and systematic education outside the normal or traditional school system aimed at specific target groups or clientele such as the youth, the aged, farmers, expectant mothers, school drop-outs etc. Such education includes remedial classes for WASSCE candidates, vocational or apprenticeship training for the youth, extension services for farmers, adult literacy programme, health education for nursing mothers etc.

Though somewhat organized, curriculum guided and teacher related, it does not involve highly organized content, staff, and structure as the traditional school system. In other words, Non-formal education is any intentional and systematic education enterprise (outside the traditional school) in which content, media, time units, admission criteria, staff, facilities and other system components are selected or adapted for particular students to maximize attainment of learning goals.

Non-formal education is different from incidental and informal education in that non-formal education is intentional and systematic.

Non-formal education has certain variations which are unique to the system, e.g.1. It is not likely to be identified as education2. It is usually concerned with immediate and practical missions3. It usually occurs outside of schools4. It takes place at any learning site5. Proof of education is more likely to be performance than by certificate6. It does not involve highly organized content, staff or structure7. It usually involves voluntary participation

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8. It is a part-time activity of participants9. Instruction is seldom graded and sequential10. It is less costly than formal education11. It does not involve customary admission criteria12. Selection of instructors is likely to be based more upon experience and expertise13. It occurs in a more flexible setting14. It is need-centered

Pedagogical Style

There is a distinction between pedagogical approaches that are highly formal, rigid, and teacher-centered and measured in terms of adherence to standards and those that are more flexible, that build upon the needs of clients and their satisfaction.

Learning needs are:

1. General or basic education; this involves such fundamental processes and skills as literacy and numeracy- all of which should be related to liberal and cultural studies.

2. Family improvement education to raise the standard of health, nutrition, homemaking, child-care, family planning etc.

3. Community improvement education through civic education to enable people to participate actively in civic affairs, manage co-operative or credit banks, join clubs and societies or in community improvement projects.

4. Occupational education for better living and effective contribution to the community and national economy.

Function

While schools are charged with basic cognitive learning (literacy, numeracy, general education), the functions of non-formal education are those educational activities that lie outside the recurrent central core of schooling function.

Clients

The four groups of beneficiaries are;

1. Persons directly engaged in agriculture.2. Persons engaged in commercial activities such as traders, transport workers,

manufacturers, dressmakers etc.3. General Service personnel such as local leaders, planners, administrators and

managers.4. Specific target groups such as school drop-outs, street children and nursing mothers

3. Informal Education

It is the traditional, incidental or indigenous education which one acquires consciously or unconsciously. Learning goes on anywhere at home, in the community, at the workplace, in the farm, bush, school, or at sea, etc. Learning is not organized or structured. The agencies of education include the home, peer group, the community, religious organizations etc.

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Informal education takes place even within the formal institutions in the society. The aims, content and methods of traditional education are interwoven. However, an attempt is made to identify them as follows:

The Goals of Traditional Education

The ultimate is to produce the ideal man and woman who are also builders of the state. The ideal man is a good father, while the ideal woman is a good mother. Furthermore, the ideal man and woman are honest, respectful, skilful and cooperative. They conform to social orders in the society and are, above all, builders of the state.

The following are seven cardinal goals of traditional African education

1. To develop the child physically2. To develop character3. To inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority4. To develop intellectual skills5. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards

honest labour6. To develop a sense of belonging and to encourage active participation in family and

community affairs7. To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at

large.

Specific Goals of Informal Education

1. These goals are ensuring education in matrimonial, social, religious domain.2. Ensuring training in thinking, practical wisdom and aesthetics etc.3. Ensuring education of will power through self-denial; physical endurance and self-

control

Content

As it has already been indicated, the aims, content and methods are intricately interwoven.

General Education

1. Children and adolescent learn the geography and history of their community from observation and from elders.

2. Botany and Zoology are the subjects of both theoretical and practical lessons.3. Proverbs and riddles are exceptional wit sharpeners which are used to teach the child

to reason and to take decisions.4. Mathematics is worked into game of wits. The youth attend baptisms, religious

ceremonies, weddings, funerals and annual yam festivals. In this way they learn the institution, norms and ideas of their culture.

5. Festivals are occasions when those who have travelled or stayed outside the town come back home; festivals are periods of reunion and learning of culture.

6. Libation is poured to the ancestors and gods; and durbars are held. It is the time to make merry. Good manners, moral rules and social laws are inculcated by close

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relatives or distant members of the family. Learning starts early in life with the child picking the mother tongue and identifying or imitating people who are immediately around

Vocational Education

This comprises:

1. Agricultural Education2. Trades and Crafts – weaving, sculpting, drumming, smiting, soap making, carpentry,

singing, trapping, pottery making, dyeing and hair plaiting.3. Professions – priesthood, medicine, justice, policing, messengers, judges, hunting,

military (Asafo) and chieftaincy.

Teaching is through apprenticeship and Special Schools (e.g. Secret societies) are created to provide such vocational training.

Methods of Informal Education

This is done through

1. Observation2. Imitation3. Identification4. participation

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UNIT 2

AIMS OF EDUCATION

Individual Aims of Education

1. If an individual is asked why he wants to be educated, his response might be “to be able to secure a good job or to be in good health.” Individual aims are many and varied depending upon their needs, problems and value systems. Such aims may also depend on how the individual sees the world. In other words, individual aims of education are derived from physical, psychological and social needs.

2. Education should aim at developing the whole man – his Head, Heart and Hand. The development of the “Head” means intellectual development, while the development of the “Heart” represents moral development. Finally the development of the “Hand” means acquisition of manual or vocational skills. This relates to Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives – cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Another way of saying this is that education should aim at the physical, mental, social, emotional, moral and spiritual development of the individual. It should also equip the individual, with vocational skills and also help them use their leisure hours profitably.

A. Physical Development:

Good health is an asset and a necessary condition to a happy life. The old Latin expression “Mens sana in corpore sano” translated “a sound mind in a sound body” applies here. For these reasons education should aim at physical development of the individual.

How this can be achieved

It can be done through:

i. Games and sporting activitiesii. Health inspection for example, once every week.

iii. The study of elementary scienceiv. Clearance of pieces of paper, empty tins, weeds, from surroundings, andv. Observation of rules of hygiene

B. Mental development

We live in an intelligent world where survival depends largely on how well we can think and solve our problems. Education, therefore, should develop the intellect. It should help us become critical in our reasoning.Again, education should train us to acquire the skills of problem solving. Lastly, one aim of education should be to enable the individual become mentally healthy.

How this can be achieved

This can be realized through:

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i. The teaching of the various school subjects, for example, environmental studies, and mathematics. Pupils should be presented with challenging, meaningful, and stimulating experiences to make them think critically. Inquiry skills such as observation, data collection and analysis should be encouraged whenever possible. Creative activities should also be encouraged.

ii. The use of audio-visual aids in teachingiii. Training children to reason in an abstract or deductively and inductively, at the “stage

of formal operations” (about the age of 11 and above).iv. Provision of guidance and counseling programmes in order to help individuals free

themselves of personal problemsv. The use of such techniques of teaching as Discovery Method, Project Method and

Activity Method

C. Social Development

Education should aim at helping individuals to be sociable. It should also help them to live in harmony with their neighbours. This aim of education for the individual is important because man actualizes or fulfills himself in a society and therefore there is the need to develop this human tendency to live with others.

How this aim can be Achieved

To achieve this, education should;

i. Make provision for games and athletics as social activities.ii. Encourage dramatization, drumming and dancing, exhibition, etc.

iii. Encourage group work among children, for example, undertaking project work in friendship, mixed ability groups or in Houses/Sections.

iv. Help children develop desirable habits such as cleanliness, etc.v. Train children to enjoy freedom of speech, choice, and movement within the confines

of the mores, norms, rules and regulations of the school or the society.

D. Emotional Development

Here education should aim at developing the positive emotions of the individual such as love, joy and happiness. This means that education should help to sublimate or channel the energies involved in negative emotions (such as fear, jealousy, envy, worry, anxiety and aggression) to useful ends. This is important because negative emotional outbursts bring about unhappiness, diseased personality or disunity. Emotional development, as one of the individual aims of education, is important because positive emotions ensure mental and physical health. It also ensures unity amongst people.

How to achieve this

i. Teachers should motivate children to learn to control their negative emotions. For example, rewards and praises may be used.

ii. Good examples could be set by teachers and parents for children to emulate.

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iii. Children can be taught directly to control specific emotions. For example, children can be taught not to fear creatures like cockroaches and earthworms because such creatures are harmless.

iv. The religious background of the children can help bring certain emotions under control. For example, a Christian learns to forgive.

v. Emotions bring about excess energy. Such energy may be harmful to the body. It is up to the teachers to help the child to get rid of the excess energy brought about by a child’s emotions. Games and sporting activities, dancing or any form of physical activity can purge the child of the excess energy. Again, such excess energies in say, aggressive tendencies may be redirected towards the solution of difficult problems in mathematics and science.

vi. Teachers should encourage such positive emotions as love, joy and happiness amongst children. Teachers should also create an atmosphere or environment that is free of obstacles.

vii. Children can be encouraged to dramatize their fears away. For example, masks can be used in drama to help children who are afraid of ghosts and bogey-men.

viii. Play therapy and counselling sessions can be organized to treat children of their negative emotions. Children who gave nightmares as an outgrowth of fear, worry and anxiety can also be subjected to the same methods of treatment.

E. Moral Development

Education should aim at developing the morals of children according to acceptable ways of behavior of the Ghanaian society. Again it should aim at inculcating good manners in children so that they can conform to the customs of their people and also be able to judge their own actions as right or wrong. Furthermore, education should aim at inculcating in the individual friendliness, respect for authority, honesty and courage.

How to achieve this

i. Discipline should be positive and consistent so that good conduct will sooner or later become habitual. Children should be taught what is right. Through external controls, they should be guided to act as society expects.

ii. Praise, rewards and social approval are incentives that can be used in moral training of the child.

iii. Children should be involved in formulating rules and regulations. Discussions and persuasion could be used to train the morality of adolescents.

iv. Moral training at home and in school should aim at one and the same thing. The child may be confused in case the training at home differs from training at school.

v. Group activities such as games, athletics, singing competitions or healthy atmosphere could be established. Clubs and societies such as Red Cross, Boy Scout and Girl Guide can also contribute to moral development of children.

vi. Family life education has lessons to offer towards moral development of boys and girls.

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F. Spiritual Development

It is a general believe that there is life after death and that the soul is immortal. The “soul” the inner-self and “the spirit” are terms used inter-changeably in religious circles. Religions like Christianity, Islam, for example, teach about life after death. The religions use prayers as means of communicating with the Supreme Being. Traditional Religion also teaches that life continues after death. It is for this reason that libation is poured to the gods and also to the departed. Some traditionalist bury their dead relatives with clothes, cooking utensils, money to enable them continue life in the spiritual world. Again it is the belief that a chief continues to rule in other world. Whatever the belief held by people, education should aim at the spiritual development of the individual

How this aim can be realized

i. It can be done through the teaching of religions. School worship and meditation should also be conducted. The art of praying should be taught.

ii. Pupils should be guided to observe moral codes of their religions as for example, truth, honesty etc

iii. Pupils should be taught hygienic rulesiv. Again, children should be taught to love others as themselvesv. Children should be guided to form the habit of giving willingly without counting the

cost

G. Vocational Skills

Education should predispose children to different vocations. It should guide them to acquire occupational skills. It should eventually place them in the vocations of their interest, for example, carpentry, etc. It is also important for education to guide children to have respect for manual work and actually use their hands in such work. The rationale behind vocational education is that it provides children with skills necessary for them to achieve economic independence by earning their living after schooling.

How to achieve this aim

i. Teachers should encourage creative and manipulative skills, for example, in art and crafts.

ii. Excursions and visits to various work places should be undertakeniii. Such vocational and technical subjects as agriculture, woodwork, tailoring, mental

work, typing and accounting should be included in the school curriculum.iv. Guidance coordinators should be employed to guide and place children in

occupations.v. Pupils should gradually be introduced to manual work. The continuation-school type

programme or industrial subjects should be introduced in all schools.

H. Leisure

Education should enable the individual use his leisure hours profitably. It should enable the individual to spend his free period for example, in playing a game, taking part in church choir activities, engaging in photography, making a farm, reading or undertaking a pleasurable

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activity with no aim of earning an income. This is an important aim for individuals because it helps them to avoid misusing their free periods. As the old saying goes, “Satan has work for idle hands”. Good use made of one’s leisure indicates good adjustment to life. Good use of leisure is a pleasure and an inner satisfaction to the mind. Instead of lying down idling and engaging in fantasy, one can engage one’s self in an acceptable activity. If it is worthwhile preparing a pupil for work, then it should be worthwhile preparing them for the use of their leisure.

How to realize the aim

i. Encourage pupils to take active part in arts and crafts, physical education, manual work, science, music etc. This is necessary because skills gained from such subjects can provide a basis for leisure activities

ii. Hobbies like photography and bookbinding could be organized in the schooliii. Technical and vocational subjects like carpentry, motor mechanics, home science and

leatherwork should be taught. These also provide skills for leisure activities.iv. Interest created in the study of any school subject or activity will serve as a basis of

leisure time activity.

Aims of Education from the Point of View of the Family

In many cases, family aims in Ghana are derived especially from those of the father in educating his children. In families where equality is respected, both parents agree on particular aims for educating themselves or their children. Not quite long ago, the main reason why children were educated in Ghana was to get them good jobs so that they could support their parents and their younger brothers and sisters later. Here the traditional responsibility to the family in giving each child a vocation or having the boy apprenticed to an experienced craftsman was being projected into formal education. The ultimate aim, however, is to enable the child earn a living or be self-supporting.

One of the aims of many Ghanaian families in educating their children is prestige. Having educated children, according to some families increases the social status of such families.

Another aim is the direct value of educated children in keeping accounts and reading or writing letters for illiterate parents. To some parents the aim of educating children is to get rid of troublesome ones by sending them to school to be supervised by teachers.

There have been some changes in the social, economic, educational and moral life of Ghanaians and many parents now send their children to school because they want them to be better educated than themselves. Again, education is valued for its own sake. Furthermore, education has moral implication for the children and this is enshrined in Ghanaian proverbs, for example, “Animguase mfata okani ba”. This literally means “Shameful behavior does not befit an Akan child. Honesty, respect, being economically self-sufficient and leading a good life, are regarded as the result of good education. School education is seen as a training ground for good habits. Furthermore, some parents send their children to school with a religious motive. Such parents want their children to be spiritually and morally sound.

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Parents see education of their children as overall development of the personalities of such children. This aim is the same as that of individual aims of education.

Aims of Education from the Point of View of the Society/Nation

It is important for the reader to remember that societal aims of education sometimes conflict with the individual aims. The aims of a society or a nation like Ghana can better be formulated considering her characteristics, needs and aspirations.

Characteristics of a Developing Society like Ghana

i. Large percentage of primary products constituting the National Products.ii. Economic mismanagementiii. Political instabilityiv. Sticking to archaic culturesv. Shortage of food and manufactured productsvi. Low level of sanitation and healthvii. High degree of dual economyviii. Size of population and rate of population growthix. Unexploited resources

Needs of our Country

The negative economic factors bedeviling Ghana, like any other developing country, boils down to the fact that Ghana’s needs are economic, political, social, moral and educational. However, the following may be considered as priority needs of Ghana.

i. Agricultural and industrial products like food, clothes, machines, etc.ii. Well-equipped hospitals and clinics; medical personnel like doctors, nurses and

midwives to see to the health needs of the peopleiii. Political stability through political educationiv. Good moralsv. Transportationvi. Vocational and technical skills to solve many of the economic problemsvii. Cultural and civic education

Aims and Functions of Education in Ghana

An outline of the characteristics of our society, typical of other developing countries, and the priority needs of Ghana had been stated. The rationale for this is to enable us formulates suitable educational aims for the country. The answer to the question “What should be the aims and functions of education in a developing country like Ghana?” follows:-

1. Education should aim at making the population proficient in numeracy and literacy. People should be able to read, write and deal with mathematical issues in their daily lives. This is basic or fundamental to the lives of Ghanaians. This will reduce the illiteracy rate and also ensure a lifelong education through the mass media.

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2. Critical and logical ThinkingThe next aim of education is related to the first aim of helping to read and write. Education should lead to the development of creative and inquiry skills, resulting in critical and logical thinking in everyday problem solving. This aim is necessary in order to help the individual to free himself from ignorance.

3. Vocational and Technical SkillsEducation should develop the vocational and technical skills of learners and also satisfy the manpower requirement of the society. For example, education should produce farmers, carpenters, technicians, engineers, doctors, tailors, etc. The vocational and technical skills acquired should help with the construction of the nation. It should help us exploit our natural resources. For instance, there should be skillful men who can dig for petroleum or minerals, design and build houses and roads, man the factories to produce soap, food, clothes etc. This aim of education should be given special emphasis especially with regard to manual work and production.

4. Political stabilityEducation should produce patriotic and informed citizens who will contribute ideas to solve the country’s numerous problems, or even take active part in communal labour in the towns and villages. Education should produce citizens who are self disciplined and democratic in their approach to local and national issues. Education should produce good leaders and sincere followers.

5. Patriotic and informed citizensEducation should produce patriotic and informed citizens who will contribute ideas to solve the country’s numerous problems, or even take active part in communal labour in the towns and villages. Education should produce citizens who are self disciplined and democratic in their approach to local and national issues. Education should produce good leaders and sincere followers.

6. MoralityEducation should aim at producing honest, truthful, courageous and kind boys and girls, men and women. Such good morals should rid society of corruption, selfishness, smuggling, mismanagement, stealing and profiteering.

7. Mental Physical HealthEducation should produce a healthy Ghanaian society. It should make people respect the rules of hygiene. Again, it should help people to take part in games and sporting activities. Ignorance and superstition should be driven away so that people first seek medical treatment before anything else. Through education enough health personnel should be produced to man hospitals and clinics in the country. This educational objective is important because many Ghanaians are dying as a result of ignorance, shortage of doctors and drugs.

8. Ghanaian Culture HeritageAny society may be identified by its culture. Certain aspects of the culture have to be conserved and transmitted to later generations. For example, the language of the people must be passed on from generation to generation through education. Ghanaians should hold on to the good aspects of their customs, traditions, arts and beliefs.

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UNIT 3

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Introduction

Physicians study anatomy – parts of the body; and physiology – what the various parts of the body do, i.e. the function of each parts of the body.

Some of the parts are: The head, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach, hands, nose, ears, eyes, mouth and so on.

Each of these has a role to play to keep the body going. Whenever any of these parts fails to function well we say the body is sick. So physicians have to study the parts of the body and their functions in order to diagnose sicknesses.

The various parts of the body, we say perform specific functions – but they do not work in isolation that is, they work in a coordinated manner hence their functions are interrelated and interdependent. In fact, they are so interrelated and so interdependent that none can function well unless the others also function well.

Sociologist such as August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim liken society to an organism. Just as an organism is made up of component parts working in an interrelated and interdependent manner, so does society has parts that function in the same manner. The component parts of society ie, the structures of society that hold it altogether include:

The economy Education The political system Culture and technology Religion Marriage and family Medicine Military and so on

In sociology these structures or parts are called social institutions, or social facts, or socio facts. They are put in place by society to perform specific functions without which society cannot hold together. The parts together and the way they work are called social structure or social organization.

The main focus of the sociologist is the study of social structures or social organizations or social institutions. Whenever any of the social institutions fails, all the other social institutions will suffer. For example, if the economy is weak it cannot support education, health, agriculture, and so on. Similarly if the family breaks down upbringing of children becomes a problem.

Sociology is therefore the scientific study of society. It is the study of social structures or social organizations. It is the study of how each of the structures of society works, as well as how they work in a coordinated manner.

Since society is made up of people interacting either as individuals or groups, sociology is also the scientific study of social relationships. Questions can arise such as, what factors bring people and groups together? What happens when a man meets a man, when a woman

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meets a woman, when a man meets a woman, when humans meet other humans? When people live together for the purpose of survival, what do they put in place to ensure that they can meaningfully live together? When conflicts arise what measures are put in place for resolving such conflicts? All the above constitute what sociologists focus their study on.

Sociology can also be defined as follows:

Sociology is the study of social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of voluntary associations, professional bodies, groups, and institutions.

Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior. As the study of humans in their collective aspect, sociology is concerned with all group activities: economic, social, political, and religious. Sociologists study such areas as bureaucracy, community, deviant behavior, family, public opinion, social change, social mobility, social stratification, and such specific problems as crime, divorce, child abuse, and substance addiction. Sociology tries to determine the laws governing human behavior in social contexts.

Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization. Sociology as a discipline became prominent in the 18th Century after the Industrial Revolution. There are several branches of sociology. One cannot be a specialist in all of them, so sociologists specialize in their areas of interest. Some of the special branches of sociology are:

Education The family Development Religion Medicine Work Crime Deviance Organizations Childhood

Since we are in education our focus is on education. In education we have educational sociology which is made up of sociology in education, and sociology of education. Educational sociology is the study of the relationship between society and education and the school. It is the study of what education does for society as well as what society does for education and the school. That is why in the training college it is called school and society.

Sociology of education is the study of education using sociological theory, principles and methods. Here education is studied as a social institution. The purpose is to enable us to get a good understanding of that social institution so that we can understand sociological theory much better. The ultimate goal of sociology of education is enhanced understanding of social institutions and how they relate to education. The ultimate benefit is academic. An example is, using the social systems theory.

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Sociology in education is applied sociology. It is borrowing and using ideas and concepts in sociology for answering questions in education. The goal is to generate sociological information that will help us understand educational issues that are social in character. For example, we may learn from sociology that when people are oppressed they revolt hence, student demonstration.

Society

Since sociology is the scientific study of society, it is important to understand what society is. Sometimes society and community are used interchangeably. Both imply a group of people having something in common such as a geographical territory and feeling that they belong together.

Community however, is more general. It includes both children and adults. Collingwood (1942) says community is everybody, adults, and children, social and non-social persons, living in a certain territory where they all share a mode of life, but not all are conscious of its organization or purpose. Society members have become socially conscious. Thus, society (i) may be defined as a 'group of people drawn together into voluntary membership of a society through mutual interest in a particular activity.' Society (ii) might be considered 'a community of people living within certain defined geographical limit.

In education we are interested in the individual in society. We are interested in how children or the non-social members learn and master the way their society functions, as well as their roles, responsibilities, rights, and privileges. Children are potential members of society and must be prepared for this membership. The process of teaching the young all that they need to know in order to become responsible social members of their society is called socialization. The young belong to the non-social community because they don’t know the laws, the norms, the values and the customs of the community in which they live. Through education, and for that matter socialization, they learn to become social members. So the prime aim of education is the socialization of children and youth.

Note that sociologists, as social scientists, describe and explain social facts. They do not say what ought to be done. Sociologists cease to be social scientists when they focus solely on prescribing what ought to be done. That is the domain of philosophy or religion. Sociologists and sociologists of education describe what they observe and they explain the why of what they observe.

Sociology of Education

Sociology of education is mainly concerned with the application of the general principles and findings of sociology to the examination of the whole range of human phenomenon called education. It attempts to explore the various relationships between education and society and deals with such general concepts as society, culture, community, socialization, status and role etc.

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It also considers the social institutions involved in the educational process, such as the family, the church and the school. According to Ezewu et al. (1988), sociology deals with the process of education under four broad headings.

1. The educational process as an aspect of social interaction.2. The school as a social group (micro-society, rules govern activities).3. The influence of other social institutions upon the institutions of education (health,

economy).4. The functions of society as regards the institutions of education (the role society plays

concerning educational institutions, such as, provision of lands, accommodation for teachers and motivation of pupils and teachers) – The formation of PTA and its roles.

Importance of Sociology of Education in Teacher Education.

The teacher trainee needs to study sociology of education for the following reasons.

1. Education is a social institution, which forms a sub-system or component within the entire social system and must therefore relate to all other social institutions in the social system.

2. The content of education is the culture of the society. In other words, education is the means of socialization. The culture of the society is embodied in the curriculum, hence the need to study sociology.

3. To be effective, the educational system of any society must take into consideration the technological development, the historical background and the geographical environment of society.

4. Also education is seen as an instrument of social change and it must bring about desired change without disrupting the total social system.

5. The educational system of any nation must reflect the philosophy of the society. Thus, the goals or objectives of the society.

6. Also for it to be functional, education should always meet the needs, aspirations and ambitions of the society.

In sum, in view of the important relationship between education and society, it is absolutely necessary that the teacher trainee is exposed to sociology of education.

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UNIT 4

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Ordinarily, social function means the role of education in the society. In order words, what education is supposed to do for the family/society.

An American sociologist Robert King Merton defines social function as the consequence of a thing or an event. Thus, it is the consequence of education as the possible outcome or results of society. This has to do with the consequences of education on the development of society, or the impact or influence of education on society.

Sociology describes and explains and not prescribes what is and how it should be given though when they want to influence policy they prescribe based on findings. The role of education is about what education does and not what it should do.

According to Robert King Merton there are several types of consequences, some are anticipated, and others are not. Thus, there are manifest and latent functions.

Manifest functions are those that are anticipated and recognized as consequences of a thing or an event. For example, entertainment is the consequence of concert party. It is the main reason why it is being organized. Therefore one is not surprised when it comes. Latent functions are the unanticipated and unrecognized consequence. For example, the moral lesson or education derived from the concert party was accidental since it was not anticipated by the planners. Another example of a latent function is, getting a partner as a result of entering the university to learn for a degree.

Both manifest and latent functions can be negative depending on the actor’s motive. For instance an armed robber’s manifest function is to rob. When the consequence is destructive it is said to be a dysfunction and when it is constructive it is eufunction.

Socialization

According to Havighust and Neugarten (1967), there are two major aspects of social development that are of social importance to educators. The first is the general process of social learning, whereby the child learns all the many things he must know and all the things he must do or not do to become an acceptable member of society. This process is referred to as the socialization process. This means that the child is gradually “socialized” (that is, he becomes a member of the group and takes on the ways of life that are the group’s ways) into the society through its agents (parents, teachers, and other persons).

The second aspect of social development is the formation of social values and social loyalties in the child: his feeling of allegiance to the various groups of which he is a member; his desire to collaborate with others; and the merging of his self-interest with group-interest.

Social learning

Biologically, the human organism is predisposed toward social living and social learning. Because of his biological immaturity and his long-extended growth period, the infant is dependent upon other people. But the human organism is also characterized by adaptability and by intelligence; by the ability to learn a great variety of modes of behavior, to benefit from experience, to change and to organize behavior in countless ways. Indeed, it is great

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adaptability that makes the human infant different from the animal infant (Havighurst & Neugarten, 1967).

The human infant is capable of learning any culture or subculture in which he finds himself. If he is born and reared in Ghana or any country, he will learn the general culture of that country and also learn the particular customs and values of his group. For instance a child born to a catholic family will learn something different from the child born to a protestant family; the child of Nigerian immigrants learns differently from a child of Togolese immigrants; and the child born into an upper-class family learns different behaviours and attitudes from those of a child born into working class family.

The socialization process

Socialization is a lifelong process. The child who learns in school how to read and write, the adolescent who learns to speak the slang used by his peers, the woman who learns how to behave as a mother and the man who at 60, learns how to retire from work “gracefully” are all being socialized. Various social groups constantly provide new learning situations and expect new responses from the individual; all through life the individual is constantly fitting his behavior to social expectations.

One aspect of the socialization process is “housebreaking”. This implies that socialization is a matter of controlling, restricting, or hindering the child’s behavior. Socialization has also active and constructive aspects; it produces growth; it encourages, nurtures, stimulates and motivates; it produces variety of desires and strivings in the individual; it leads to development and to achievement of all kinds.

Socialization is therefore said to be a moulding and a creating process, in which the culture of the group is brought to bear upon the infant, and in which the individual’s thought, feeling, and behavior gradually develop in accordance with the values set by the social groups to 'which he belongs ( Harvighurst & Neugarten, 1967).

Social Roles

According to Harvighurst and Neugarten (1967), a social role may be defined as a coherent pattern of behavior common to all persons who fill the same position or place in society and a pattern of behavior expected by the other members of society. For example, all women behave in certain patterned ways when they fill the role of mother, so we speak of the social role of a mother. All teachers are expected to behave in certain ways within the school room; when school is over they may fill other roles such as a father or mother, husband or wife, friend or church member.

The growing child takes on a series of social roles and incorporates the expected behavior into his personality. A very young child learns first how to behave in the role of child. For instance he learns that his parents take care of him and make decisions for him; that he may behave in certain ways, but not in other ways. He soon learns to differentiate other social roles like that of brother or sister, playmate and so on.

Social roles increases with age and so as the child grows and his circle of social interactions becomes wide, he takes on a number of social roles and incorporates the role behaviours into his personality. In this sense, the socialization consists in large part, of the behavior the individual expresses in his various social roles. In this sense, too, the well-socialized individual is one who fills various roles successfully, or better still the well-socialized person

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is one whose behaviours are appropriate to the expectations set by the social groups with which he interacts.

Agents of socialization

The child learns through agencies of socialization such as the home or family, the peer group, the church, the school, the community and the mass media.

1. The home/family: - The family here includes both the nuclear and the extended family. In other words, the home and the neighbourhood. The family is the foremost agency in the child’s socialization process. That is he receives the beginning of his education there as follows:-

i. The family inculcates its customs, norms and beliefs shown in the vocabulary and language of the child.

ii. The child discovers and secures satisfaction of his bodily requirement by communicating through sounds and gestures with others. That is the home provides affection and belongingness to the child.

iii. The family teaches the child the basic rules of right and wrong and by that instills in the child, certain moral standards such as honesty and truthfulness.

iv. The child learns to play adult as well as sex roles as the family gives him models (i.e. father and mother) of successful family roles.

v. The child learns what to wear and how to wear it.vi. The family inculcates its attitudes and values and this is the laying of the

foundation of character of the child and makes the child to develop and establish his own particular social personality and identify.

vii. The child acquires a wide range of knowledge from the home before he starts schooling. Thus, the type of foundation laid during the pre-school life is significant in the child’s school life. The child enters school with all kinds of attitude and values which he learns through trial and error and observation.

2. The Peer Group: - The social world of the child and adolescent is really of two worlds, one is of the adults in his family, neighbourhood, church and school, and the other of his age-mates or peers. At the age of five or six, the Ghanaian child enters the social world of his peers and begins to receive major socialization influences from the peer group.

In contrast to the family which is typically more authoritarian (and from the child’s view point always so in some degree) and more likely to transmit traditional values, the peer group usually offers a freer experience, although it may also occasionally become rigidly authoritarian in its demands upon its members. In the peer group the child or adolescent is freer, has more initiative and is more active in his learning than he is in most adult-dominated groups.

Within the peer group there are often opportunities to discuss topics in relation with adults, all aimed at breaking away from parental constrains and to establish independent identity.

The peer group helps the child to form his own social personality i.e. his ways of getting along with other people, of being friendly or reserve, brave or timid. Through

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playing and working with people equal to him in age and power, the child or the adolescent learns co-operation and fair play and responsibility. A boy learns to be masculine and a girl learns to be feminine, and boys and girls learn the customs of dating and courting in the peer group. And much of the sex information obtained by most boys and girls come from the peer group.

The principal contribution of the peer group to the social and personal development of a boy or girl is: -

i. Teaching masculine or feminine social roles such as shoe shine, sex roles, preparing cookies, food of all type.

ii. Teaching a set of moral standards for relations with people of similar age, how to conform to set rules/regulations, respect the views of others.

iii. Giving support to the individual as he/she seeks to become independent of his parents and other adults.

3. The Church: The church or the religious organizations whose principal function is to show the individual how to relate himself/herself to the unknown and the supernatural, take on other functions such as teaching or governing. The church or the religious organization acts through people who train the child by the usual methods of social learning.

i. The church provides moral education through its formal and informal teaching. Through Bible stories such as the Good Samaritan.

ii. It helps in moulding the child’s personality through inculcating virtues such as honesty, respect and patriotism, and modelling our life style on that of Christ.

iii. It provides models for imitation. For example the young imitate the adults’ ways of worship and their being devout Christian, Muslim, Hindu etc.

iv. It helps to transmit the society’s culture to the child e.g. drumming, dancing, enacting plays.

v. Through the various groups within the church the child is trained for leadership and other responsible positions e.g. boy’s brigade, girls fellowship.

vi. It provides formal education – grammer type, vocational and technical education.vii. It directly teaches certain skills and vocations. – Talks/seminars/workshops using

resource persons.

4. The School: The school is the principal agent established by modern society for the socialization of children. It stands beside the family in importance. These two institutions i.e. the family and the school carry the major responsibility. The school contributes significantly to the preparation of the child for adult life. A school with a good tone has good influence on the child. The school is not only expected to transmit skills and practical knowledge but important values as well such as patriotism, ambition, concern for others and so on.

The school provides the child with social learning which will be valuable for him when he becomes an adult member of his community.

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The school offers the pupils who are young citizens diverse opportunities to demonstrate the sense of civic responsibility.

The impact of the school is affected of course by family attitudes and behaviours, which can facilitate formal educational efforts or hinder it. That is if the family or the home co-operates with the school, the influence of the school on the child would yield good results. The opposite would however, happen if the home does not co-operate with the school.

The school itself includes both the formal organization with prepared curriculum and established procedures, and the teachers with whom pupils can establish personal relationship that may significantly affect their attitudes and behavior. It also provides a convenient centre for the development of informal though often important, peer groups.

5. The Community: - The community inculcates in the individual its culture, values and social attitudes. The influence is so great that it sets the social climate which the home and the school function. The child in the course of his development is influenced by the habits of his community hence the difference in the behavior of the children of different nationalities and from children of rural areas from children of urban areas. The influence of the community can be either good or bad. The school should be aware of the influences of the community and help the child to make the right choices and again to help educate the community. For it is said that it is good school which makes a good village.

The community through its various Youth Associations contributes to the education of the Ghanaian child in the following ways:

i. They help in personality development by shaping the child’s attitudes, way of thinking and values:

ii. They provide models for imitation;iii. Help in cultural transmission;iv. Provide avenues for the interaction with peers;v. Help train children for leadership and other roles; and

vi. Provide avenues for learning vocational and technical skills.

6. The Mass Media: - The mass media which is referred to as non-personal agents of socialization consist of reading materials, files, radio and television programmes and other amusement programs. These contribute to the socialization of the child and the continuing socialization of the adult. With the information they make available, the experiences, thrills, entertainment, horror, and so on they offer, the mass media can reinforce the efforts of the family and the school or weaken and dilute them. That is, when the child is from a good home and a good school and he is exposed to good models of behavior by the mass media, he will grow to be a good person. On the hand, when he is exposed to bad models of behavior by the mass media, he will be inclined to deviate from the good behavior learnt at home and school.

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The various ways through which the mass media serves as agents of socialization are as follows:

i. The television which at present seems to be especially important in the socialization of children has children’s special programmes. E.g.by the fire side,

ii. There are entertainment programmes such as football; other games and sports on the television as well as on radio.

iii. The radio and television programmes are given to supplement school programmes. E.g. science quiz, what do you know?

iv. The radio and television programmes serving as an audio-visual aids, motivate the children.

v. News commentaries and bulletins on radio and TV serve as a source of knowledge on current world events.

vi. Some of the dailies carry separate sections for children.vii. The government reports, policies etc. are published in the dailies and

magazines.viii. Books and libraries are major socialization influences. Children form concepts

of appropriate and desirable behavior from the heroes they read about, and they can imitate those heroes, though it is doubtful whether a character in a book is ever as effective a model for a child’s behaviour as are some of the people with whom he comes into personal contact.

ix. Computers; getting information on the internet.

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UNIT 5

CULTURAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Cultural function of education means the consequences of education on culture or the consequences of education on the cultural heritage. Also it is the consequences of education on cultural development. It also means the contribution of education to the cultural heritage improvement.

In summary, it is the role of education in the transmission and improvement of the cultural heritage. What do we mean by contributing to the cultural heritage? It means that we came to meet culture and we are improving our cultural heritage.

What is culture?

Culture is one of the phenomenon in human societies that defy an all embracing definition. There are as many definitions of culture as there are scholars who write on the phenomenon. The word “culture” is derived from the Latin word “Colere” which signifies “to fill” or “to cultivate” to denote the labour that is bestowed upon the soil to prepare it for the seed and for raising of crops. But today the word has no longer this limited signification. Its wide meaning today denotes any human activity bestowed on the Kosmos including man himself for the purpose of refining, improving and elevating human life to higher level.

Culture is about the customs and practices of the people such as identity, kinship, clan system, inheritance, chieftaincy, seasons, occupation, music, drumming, dancing, values beliefs, artifacts, symbols and festivals.

According to E.B. Taylor (1871) culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquire by man as a member of society.

G.F Kneller (1965) sees culture as “the total shared way of life of a given people, which comprises their mode of thinking acting and feeling and which is expressed for instance in religion, law, language, art and custom as well as in material products such as houses, clothes and tools.” Culture also includes the food people in a society eat, how it is prepared and how they eat it. It also includes the economic activities they engage in, the tools they use and how they are made. Again, it includes the way they drink, how they bring up children, how they worship and the way they worship. It also includes what is valuable and is not valuable; what is appropriate behavior and what is inappropriate behavior; it also includes what is moral and what is immoral.

Culture is a human production, and man differs from animals because he creates culture, and because he transmits what he has learned and what he has created from one generation to the next (Havighurst & Neugarten, 1967).

The cultural function of education is dual in nature. The first is to promote stability in the society and this is what is referred to as conservative dimension. It implies the transmission of culture from generation to generation or it is more or less the same culture which is transmitted.

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The second is referred to as the dynamic or change dimension. What this means is that apart from transmitting culture from generation to generation, one more role of education is to make allowance for cultural change. In other words, the role of education is to transmit the perennially worthwhile element of the culture while adding new ones to it. This means that there are certain elements of our culture which have stood the test of time and have to be modified or changed.

How does the change occur? It occurs through schooling or school education. Social change is a process which is characteristic of all societies. Every society is constantly changing; but some societies change faster than others. Pre-literate societies are characterized by a relatively slow change; modern literate and complex societies are undergoing very rapid changes which are due to scientific and technological development (Agyeman, 1986).

Basically, sociologists agree that social change may be caused by either of two forces. It may be an internal force (also called endogenous force) which occurs by accident or chance such as an epidemic or by a revolution. The result of such unpredictable change may be good or bad; it may bring about progress or retrogression (Sproth 1967, p.22-27). An endogenous change may also be planned, for example, the Five – Year Development Plan of a country. The second force of social change is an external force (also called an Exogenous force). Factors such as cultural contact, invasion, colonization bring about change in the society. In today’s world in which there are a lot of international communications, many changes are brought about through the external world (Bottomore as cited in Agyeman 1986).

Education also initiates change directly in the society by preparing the learners to cope with life. Education, especially school education promotes critical thinking among students. Students are encouraged to criticize the existing order and to suggest better alternatives. Apart from that, in good schools teachers teach for creativity. In other words, teachers make deliberate attempts to encourage students to be creative.

Another means through which education promote change is through research. In institutions of higher learning, research is done from which new ideas and new techniques are produced and adopted throughout the culture that goes a long way to modify it. For example, through research in institutions of higher learning new food products are produced on the market to give variety to the diet of the people.

Education, especially school education brings about attitudinal change. For example, it delays marriage ie by making people marry at a later rather than an earlier stage of their lives. In the African context, it has been found out that school education has influenced people’s ethnic attitude considerably. It has made people less tribally inclined and more inter-tribally and nationally inclined (Agyeman, 1974). In this case school education may be said to contribute to the development of national feeling and to the integration of the society (Klineberg & Zavalloui as cited in Agyeman, 1986). What specifically do educated people do or contribute to culture? Some of the principal processes through which educated people bring changes into the culture include;

1. Origination – The invention of new things or the discovery of new ideas, techniques and the incorporation of these things into the existing culture or ways of life or cultural heritage of the new people. Because students are exposed to a wide scope of ideas or discipline, they become broad minded and this makes them more creative. Eg if we invent new machine or we discover some new ideas and

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we add these to what we already have in our culture then we say there has been cultural origination.

2. Diffusion – It is the adoption, adaptation or borrowing of elements or things from other culture(s) and adding them to what we have in our own culture. For example, the English language we use in our schools, dressing, wearing of spectacles or wrist watches etc are all borrowed things. So anything which is borrowed from outside our culture or which is not part of our culture is termed as cultural diffusion or cultural borrowing.

3. Re-interpretation – It is the modifications made in an already existing element of culture, making it look as if it was new, that is, something we already know or have but only given a new look. Examples are Royco Dawadawa and Royco shrimps. They are the same dawadawa and shrimps we already know, but they have been modernized to look like something different.All the three processes lead to cultural improvement and change.

Schools of Thought

In discussing the role of education on cultural change three schools of thought can be looked at. These are conservatism, reconstruction and progressivism.

1. Conservativists: - As the name implies they argued that the school has no business trying to change the culture of the society. That is, it is not the prerogative of the school to change the culture. The main function of education is to transmit the cultural heritage from generation to generation. In other words, the role of education is to transmit the culture unadulterated. They argued that to improve society we must improve the individuals who live in it. According to them what is important is that the schools should transmit the perennially worthwhile element of the culture. For example language, that is, teaching the language the people speak. Economic activities like farming, fishing etc. are also important.

Society is improved not by forcing a programme of social reform down the throat of the people through the school but by the improvement of the individuals. The prime purpose of education is to reproduce the type of individuals to transmit the social heritage and to adjust the individual in society.

2. Reconstructionists: - They are the direct opposite of the conservativists. They argue that it is the responsibility of teachers to envisage the kind of society that it will be in the future and prepare students towards that future. For instance teachers in Ghana should determine the kind of future Ghana has to be and produce people with skills and knowledge needed for that society. The teachers must prepare the needed syllabus to that effect. The educational curriculum should use education (school) as an instrument of social engineering.

3. Progressivists – They say that it is not the duty of the school to embark on a deliberate cultural change. The school should teach all that the children are supposed to know so that they can intelligently bring about changes which are

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considered desirable. In other words, students should be exposed to a liberal curriculum to enable them understand the world in which they live. Students should not be water tight specialists. They must not be narrow specialist but must be exposed to wider area – human sciences, social sciences, physical, natural sciences etc in order to fit into the society.This makes the individual intelligent enough to understand the environment he lives in. We cannot change society unless we understand it and how it works. We can understand it when we study it.

Culture as Content of Education

The ultimate aim of education whenever it takes place is the transmission of the patterns of behaviour, the techniques, the values, the beliefs, the ideals and knowledge which a society has accumulated and uses. “These items transmitted through and in the process of education are described as the culture of that society” (Agyeman, 1986). It can therefore be said that culture is the content of education.

Culture is the sum total of a people’s way of life which is transmitted from generation to generation. These include institutions which are rules and norms that govern inter human relationship such as marriage, chieftaincy and activities like, eating, drumming and dancing. There are also ideas which comprise knowledge and beliefs of all kinds and artifacts such as houses, clothes and tools.

There are certain elements in culture which education transmits both formally and informally.

These are:

1. Patterns of behavior such as how to greet at various times of the day or on festive occasions or how to address people in various capacities.

2. Techniques, skills and knowhow of some material culture like building of houses, farming, hunting and the tools that are used in various circumstances are transmitted in the course of education.

3. Education also transmits the values of a society from generation to generation. These include respect for old age, patriotism, religiousity, hard work etc.

Since culture is said to be a universal phenomenon, every society possesses all these components of culture. It should be noted that every society’s culture is peculiar to that society. Therefore educational systems in different societies are different in organization and content. It is significant to note that the education given in any society is dictated by the culture of that society. “consequently, whenever and wherever the content and organization of education are different from the cultural background of the society, that society falters in its progress” (Agyeman, 1986). The reason for this statement is not farfetched because in the opinion of Nyerere (1968) “people find that their education has prepared them for a future which is not open to them”.

It should be noted that the adoption of western culture through formal education has greatly influenced the life style of many Africans especially the educated ones. The western education was introduced to Africa by European merchants, missionaries and the colonial administrations. Therefore the cultural backgrounds of these educational agents influenced

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the educational systems that were established. Thus, the values, attitudes and skills that were taught were based on European culture. In this regard, the more one consumes these educational experiences the less African he becomes in terms of life style, values and aspirations.

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UNIT 6

ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

The economic function of education means what education does for the economy or the contributions of education to the economy. It also means the role of education in the economy or the contribution of education to economic growth. It is recognized in the world over that education makes positive contributions to economic development.

Forojalla (1993) says that the human resources of a nation are more important than the material resources because it is the human being that changes the material resources to usable things. It is humans who use the material resources to produce goods and services. And it is humans who use the material resources with skills and ideas that make them productive. The economic functions of education are in two dimensions – Quantitative and Qualitative

A) The Quantitative Dimension: By this we mean that education produces the quantum of manpower or the right number of labour force to service the economy. It is education that produces the right type of workers for the economy.How does education produce the right quantity of manpower?a) By diversifying the curriculum: that is, introducing many programmes and many

courses so as to train many kinds of manpower.b) By introducing new need-driven courses like computer science that are found to

be very crucial in the economy.c) Through long school years: that is, by keeping students long in school for more

years they acquire enough skills and knowledge to develop the economy.d) Education also produces the right quantity of manpower by increasing enrollment

in areas where there is a crucial need.e) Schools can also award scholarships and bursaries to attract students into areas

where there is crucial need. E.g. introducing allowances into training colleges to encourage and attract people into the teaching profession.

Education produces different types and level of manpower.Types Level1. Technical Engineer

TechnicianMechanicsCraftsmen

2. Administrative Chief Executive/Administrators3. Finance Chief Accountant Assistant Etc

Thus, different levels of education produce different levels of manpower. One of the things that education does in the economy is to stabilize it and provide employment. Unfortunately education can also create unemployment.

Two forms of unemployment common to developing countries: -

1. Structural Unemployment : - When there is technical change, some skills become obsolete, that is, they are no longer in demand. For example, a typewriter skill faces

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structural unemployment with the advent of computers. The technical changes are referred to as techno-economic change/development. It means that there is technological development and economic development hence some skills are no longer in demand.

How to solve the problem of structural unemployment.

I. Workers should be offered in-service and on-the-job training to equip them with the skills for new changes.

II. The schools have to give students general knowledge that will help them adapt to techno-economic changes. The school should not produce water-tight specialists but give students raw knowledge.

III. Also the schools should revise their curricula from time to time to satisfy the economic needs.

IV. Another approach is to introduce new need-driven courses.V. Also the educational institutions should get in touch with industries to forestall

employment bottlenecks that arise from the mismatch between skills acquired and skills demanded.

2. Aggregate Unemployment: In developing countries, educational planners make man- power projections on the basis of the performance of the economy now and in the future. Based on this projection, need-driven courses are introduced. But it so happens that in developing countries the projections do not work. That is, by the end of the target period the right number of the required manpower is produced but the economy does not grow. When the economy fails to grow jobs cannot be created. It is also a situation when job seekers possess the required skills but there are no jobs to absorb them.

The possible causes of aggregate unemployment include:1) Unrealistic high wage – factories can’t produce at profit so they don’t

employ people.2) Lack of investment – when industries do not make profit they can’t save and

there is low investment, low rate of job creation, low employment rate and high unemployment rate.

3) Poor management of the economy – if the economy is not well manage unemployment crops up. If managers of the economy lose their sense of priorities, then the economy can’t grow and so jobs can’t be created.

How the school can help in addressing the aggregate unemployment problem

I. We should develop the need for achievement (n Ach) as suggested by David McClellan. That is having the desire to achieve something. Thus, n Ach must be developed in our citizens, so that they will create jobs for themselves without becoming aggregate unemployed.

II. People must accept posting to places where their service are needed mostly.III. Introducing entrepreneurship training in the curriculum so that, students are equipped

with skills to explore unexploited avenues – This will bring about self-employment

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IV. Introducing or adding value to our products. This will make the market to be expanded to employ more skilled people.

V. Need-driven courses: Introducing courses to equip people with the skills needed for a sector. E.g. tourism has been introduced to equip students with skills for the tourism industry. So tourism and family life education are need-driven courses.

VI. By increasing intake of students in crucial areas. For example, the number of teachers should be increased or augmented to handle all schools. Also in Agric, intake should be increased to have more agriculturists to go into the field.

B). The Qualitative Dimension: By qualitative we mean the acquisition of skills as well as the habits and the dispositions that go with the skills (i.e. skills, habits and dispositions determine the productivity of the person). Thus, education equips people with the skills, habits and personal disposition that help to determine ones productivity.

Employers need employees who can contribute to high productivity. To be able to do this, the employee needs certain assets which include technical skill that is desired for performance on the job. Also he needs mental habit and attitudes and behaviours. What education does is to equip future workers that we need with skills – e.g. accounting skills, teaching skills, computing skills, agricultural skills, engineering skills, etc. Employees need to have initiative and drive and respect for authority and must be resourceful, hardworking, and must be able to cooperate with others on the job, be able to work with minimum supervision, and must be regular and punctual at work. The school covertly (subtly) inculcates these qualities into the student. Students are punished when they disobey rules while those who respect them are rewarded.

There is an argument that education produces appropriate manpower for different levels of the occupational ladder. This view is expressed by the Functionalists. They see the economic function as normal. The schools should produce manpower for the economy. They do not only need to give skills but also the qualities the workers would need to function at their work places.

However, the Conflict Sociologists see the function of education differently from the Functionalists. According to them, the schools are being manipulated by the capitalists’ class. That is, the Capitalists want workers of certain caliber. E.g. they want workers who are submissive, respectful, punctual, regular and hardworking so that they can exploit them. That is, the schools are in collaboration with the capitalists to produce people to be exploited.

How does the school equip students with the appropriate qualities for different levels?

By enforcing the various qualities i.e. hardwork, initiative, respect for authority, resourcefulness, cooperation with others on the job, working independently etc. But different levels of manpower require different levels of qualities. For example, at the very low level, the worker takes instruction from superiors. The workers job is to keep the job place tidy and ready for use. Therefore low order qualities such as submissiveness, respect for authority, punctuality, regularity etc are emphasized. The lower levels are occupied by those who are

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not able to go beyond basic education, so in basic education, the low order qualities are emphasized by teachers.

After secondary education one enters the job market as supervisor. They also need certain qualities; that is, some of the low order qualities and some of the high order qualities (i.e. combination of the two) to perform therefore secondary school teachers emphasize on high order qualities.

At the tertiary level the expectation is that the graduate is to occupy a managerial position, as such, higher order qualities are needed such as independency of thought, resourcefulness, initiative and drive, ability to control and some elements of diplomacy.

Economic Benefits of Education

There are two major types of benefits of education. These are: 1) Social/Public Benefits: They are benefits that accrue not only to the individual but also the society at large (Indirect) and 2) Private/ Individual Benefits which accrue directly to the individual (Direct)

Social/Public Benefits of Education. T.W. Shultz (1963) has listed categories of educational benefits that accrue not to the individual but the society at large.These are:

1. Research - Through research new products, new techniques of production new processes and so on are discovered or invented and put to use in the economy to promote development.

2. Production of Human Resources - Through education all types or levels of manpower are produced to service the economy. For example, through education engineers, technicians, craftsmen, agriculturists, teachers, accountants, doctors and so on are produced for the economy.

3. Political Consciousness - Education makes people politically conscious and politically responsible. It makes people confident to participate in the affairs of the community – Education gives knowledge, courage and confidence, skills etc that help people to speak out, and help them to run the affairs of the communities they reside in. Education also enables people to understand the constitution and when they are denied their voting rights, they can seek redress. Education thus, facilitates self-government and democracy.

4. Harmonious Co-existence – Education makes people develop qualities that make harmonious co-existence with neighbours and work mates (co-workers) possible. For example, one co-worker learns from the way one performs on the job, then one’s refined life style has an influence on the less educated neighbours.

5. Education of the next generation - Educated people give their children (next generation) a chance for better education which leads to a better life.

6. Productivity of Labour - Through education individuals acquire specialized skills and as a result quality of labour improves and in the long run it increases productivity of labour (ie. improve skills).

7. Education provides long term cost saving to the community - For example in the USA, about 40% of the people jailed have very low levels of formal education. With

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education the country stands to reduce the probability of high unemployment. It thereby lowers unemployment causes, it increases tax revenues and it also reduces crime and delinquency.

8. Education limits population growth - Research shows that education delays marriage and child bearing, thereby limiting population growth. Also educated elites do not give birth to many children.

9. Education bring about gender balance in employment - Research again shows that education enables women to participate in the labour force, thereby earning income and avoiding dependency.

10. The children of educated women are well fed and thus, become healthier. Also the children become well educated because the parents know the benefits of education unlike their uneducated counterparts who feel reluctant to send their wards to school. Kalmijn (1993) found the effect of mother’s education on their children to be stronger than that of the man on the children. Hence the adage “if you educate a man you educate an individual but if you educate a women you educate a nation” works.

Private/Individual Benefits of EducationThese benefits can be put under two main categories

a. Consumption b. InvestmentConsumption: A product or service is consumption when it yields satisfaction or utility in a single period only. For example, when you attend a film show, you enjoy alone.Investment: It would be called pure investment when it is expected to yield satisfaction or utility in future period only.

Education yields satisfaction to the student at the time it is given. It also provides for increase utility or satisfaction over time in the form of increased productivity and increased earnings.

Specifically, private returns to education or private benefits of education include the following:

1. Education gives psychic satisfaction: This benefit is derived from the possession of knowledge and understanding of one’s world and the ability to rub shoulder high with enlightened people, to interact with the men and women of refined (civilized) culture. For example, an educated person will understand concepts like democracy, disenfranchise, empowerment and freedom which make him satisfied but the uneducated will not understand all these. Education also gives individuals knowledge and ideas, the confidence and the courage to articulate their views and interests.

2. Education offers us the increased capacity to earn more - Marginal productivity theory postulates that schooling and training increase labour productivity and as such in a free market economy, it increases the chance of the educate person to earn higher income (i.e. the additional contribution they make to output is higher than that of the ordinary people and so they are paid higher).

3. Education provides a hedge against unemployment - The individual who obtains a more general education is more flexible in adopting new job opportunity when

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technical change occurs. The flexibility provides the individual a hedge or hedging against unemployment.

4. Education opens new horizons to the student - It introduces individuals to hither to unknown things and thereby enables them to comprehend things which otherwise could not have been comprehended.

5. Education enables individuals to think critically - and so it does not make people fall easy prey to quack charlatans an swindlers (e.g. quack doctors)

Educations opens the eyes of individuals to the principles of

i. Healthy livingii. Personal hygiene – eg taking good care of your hair, body, clothing

iii. Proper resource management – how to manage the few resources you haveiv. Repair of simple household gadgets etc.

6. Education provides the chance for upward social mobility – (ie movement along the social ladder): - if an individual wants to move higher the social ladder it can easily be done through education. For instance, if you are a Cert ‘A’ teacher and you want to become a lecturer you can do it through education.

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UNIT 7

POLITICAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

The political function of education means the role of education in political development. It also means what education does in political development. It is the contribution of education to political development or the consequences of education on political development.

The Role of Education in Political Development

The role of education in political development is political socialization.

What is political socialization? It is the process by which we learn all that we need to know in order to be considered politically competent and politically responsible members of our community. The goal of political socialization is to produce or prepare the person for a responsible citizenship and a responsible leadership.

Who is a politically responsible citizen?

The politically responsible citizen is the one who knows how the constitution works and acts according to the tenets of the constitution.

He/she is loyal to his community. He/she pays his taxes without being forced. He/she offers himself/herself for service to the community. He/she has a sense of care for public properties. Such a citizen participates in decision making in his community. He/she scales society’s welfare over and above parochial interest. The responsible citizen also lends support to the leadership by providing an input for

decision making. He/she does this through interest groups. (ie groups with common interest). Interest groups set demands for their leadership. Interest groups also make criticisms and also offer constructive suggestions to the leadership.

The process through which interest groups make their demands known to their leaders is known as interest articulation. When demands are far more than what the leadership can contain or when demands are too many or unrealistic, then leadership becomes overwhelmed by these demands. When leadership is unable to deal with the demands a crisis situation arises. Such crisis situation is referred to as demand overload. This takes the form of strikes, demonstrations, lock out and lock-ins, sit-in and sit-out. But it is said that well educated citizens make realistic demands and so demand overloads are minimized.

Responsible leadership: A responsible leader is receptive to the views and cries of the people. He also respects the citizens. He has the interest of the community at heart and always plans ahead – for the good of the society. The responsible leader does not seek self interest at the expense of the people. He respects the constitution and the laws of the land.

Lock-out – Refusal of employees to allow workmen to enter the place of work until certain conditions are agreed to or demands given up.

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Sit-in – (of workers, students, etc) is demonstrated by occupying a building (or part of it) and staying there until their grievances are considered or until they are ejected.

Communication gap – It occurs when the government and the masses appear not to be speaking the same language. In other words, when the masses do not understand government policies nor does the government understand the problems and demands of the masses – information does not flow up nor flow down. When this situation occurs it is only educated people who can fill the gap – so it is responsible citizens that are recruited to liaise between the government and the masses. We needed a pool of educated cadres to narrow the communication gap. E.g. Assembly Members, DCEs, MPs.

How does school promote political socialization?

1. The school uses the various subjects in the curriculum to do this. That is, every subject is politically loaded. The various school subjects are the vehicles on which political socialization is convened. Subjects such as literature, religion, and classics teach us about useful and unsuccessful leaders and why they were successful and unsuccessful. Subjects like sociology, political science, and economics also enable us to understand society and its works. E.g. how people behave in groups and how groups behave. Subjects like chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics can also serve as vehicles for conveying political socialization.

2. Clubs and societies are also other vehicles for conveying political socialization. They teach us how to work with constitutions. Members of clubs and societies hold meetings and follow procedures.

3. Games and sports – Tolerance is developed through games and sports. One is bound to win and the other to lose.

4. Prefectorial system – In schools where students are allowed to elect their leaderships, the students are taught how to make and unmake leaders. As students are made to vote, they are prepared to learn democracy. A very good school system inducts students into the right political culture.

National Integration

This means keeping the nations’ people to gather or getting all the heterogeneous entities united into a homogeneous entity.

How does education bring about national integration?

1. A common language – when the educational system uses a common language of instruction, all students get exposed to a common language and this facilitates entire communication among the various linguistic ethnic groups. It also enables citizens to work in any part of the country. It prevents a situation whereby people find themselves as strangers whenever they move out of their own areas.

2. The boarding school system – it is a melting pot or mixing bowl of students from diverse backgrounds. Students are given the opportunity to learn from other people. They thus, understand other people and become tolerant to others. This helps to resolve conflicts because of the understanding each one gets for the other.

Studies have been done in relation to collaborative learning and skills development. Slavin (1993) maintains that there are well established rationale and supporting evidence to suggest that people who learn collaboratively tend to like one another and that students express a

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greater liking for their classmates in general as a result of participation in the collaborative learning process. This also applies to the acceptance of ethnic groups as well as the mainstreaming (inclusion) of disabled students.

Opare (2003) noted that in ethnic conflict prone areas especially, it would be beneficial if teachers made use of collaborative learning strategies in the classroom. He believed that when children from opposing groups are confronted with a problem that must be solved in the collaborative setting, they are likely to respect the abilities and talents of those they are opposed to. The seed of conflict resolution can thus be sowed in the children, the future adults and opinion leaders.

3. A common educational experience – In school, students are exposed to a common curriculum and as they learn common subjects, they develop common understanding and common perceptions. So if students follow a national curriculum then common understanding, common perceptions, common national aspirations and common visions are forged among them.When students attend the same school they are exposed to a common school culture and as they have common school culture a sense of we-feeling or solidarity is established among them.

4. Efforts made at narrowing of vertical and horizontal social gaps: - Measures are put in place to bridge the social differences/gaps.Vertical social gaps are the social gaps between the few Western educated elites and the mass of the population. By making education a mass commodity for the under privileged people to have access (ie by making education universal, free), they can raise their status. Horizontal social gap – This means the differences that exist among people who live in different parts of the country as a result of differences in the availability of natural resources. Some parts of the country are resource rich and others poor. This brings about horizontal social gap. Areas that have rich resources are economically more buoyant than those which do not have, and it affects their lifestyle. It is only formal education that can overcome their disadvantages or at least reduce their problem. For education will give them skills to work and earn income for their survival.

Negative Consequences/Dysfunctions/Negative Externalities

Things, processes, and events that contribute to national disintegration.

1. The content of history textbooks : - This makes students develop negative tendencies. Some history textbooks talk about some bitter pasts. For example, inter-ethnic conflicts, wars, subjugation of one ethnic group against the other and the enmity that existed between one ethnic group and the other. This develops hatred of some students towards others from that group. It also develops animosity among students.

2. Community school idea – These schools are schools built for the communities themselves. This means that the students and pupils must attend the schools in their communities. But it has been observed that when students attend schools at their own area, they develop ethnic particularism; they tend to think their culture

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is the best. They become ethnocentric. They don’t learn and accept others culture as worthwhile.

3. The rise of ethnic associations: - When formal education spreads far and wide, all ethnic groups get their share of the educated elite. These elites form associations to promote their interest, the development and welfare of their people. When these associations promote their noble interest/objectives they are good not only for their locality but for the country at large. But if these associations clash with other ethnic groups then it becomes a threat to national integration. In most cases, these ethnic associations are led by educated elite.

4. Graduate unemployment: - When formal education spreads far and wide, school leavers expect to get jobs in the modern sector of the economy. When the economy does not grow to get them jobs or when their hopes get dashed, they get frustrated.Unemployed graduates are political dynamite/politically dangerous or harmful. They become easy recruits of political demagogues. (ie political leaders who try, by speeches appealing to feelings instead of to reason). Politicians use them to have their selfish aggrandizement achieved. They are at times used in various ways to destabilize the economy.

5. Inter-ethnic rivalry – It is competition between ethnic groups. When formal education spreads far and wide, all the ethnic groups get their own pools of educated elites and when that happens no one ethnic group will like to be submerged by another ethnic group. So there is competition for positions among the ethnic groups. If this rivalry is not controlled it can generate conflicts or threaten national integration.

THE SOCIAL ROLES OF THE TEACHER

A social role is the pattern of behaviour that is expected of all people who fill a certain position in society. Every person fills a whole set of social roles. A teacher assumes the roles of worker, husband or wife, parent, church member, club member and citizen.

The role of a teacher is made up of a cluster of sub-roles, some that refer primarily to the teacher’s behaviour in relation to the wider community, and others that refer primarily to the teacher’s behaviour in relation to pupils. In real life, the sub-roles are neither separate nor distinct.

The teacher in the community

The teacher’s role in the community involves a number of different sub-roles. The following are some: -

1. The participant in community affairs: - Since the teacher is an educated person and posses certain skills that are useful in conducting the affairs of the community, teachers have been in demand for church work (teaching Sunday school classes and singing in the choir), for other volunteer jobs with the red cross and other welfare organizations, and for other useful community services.

2. The teacher is the surrogate of middle class morality. Parents often expect the teacher to be a better model of behavior for their children than they are themselves. Although

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parents may smoke, drink and gamble, they want the teacher to avoid any behavior that they think might be bad for children to imitate. In this respect, parents may be following a sound principle, for the teacher, especially the young teacher dealing with adolescents is often a more effective model for the youth than is the parent. As a consequence, the teacher is expected to practice the personal virtues of the middle class – correct speech, good manners, modesty, prudence, honesty, responsibility, friendliness, and so on.

3. The teacher is also expected to be a person of culture, with more refined tastes than the general population. He is expected to be widely read and widely traveled and to be sophisticated in outlook.

4. The teacher is a pioneer in the world of ideas, the seeker for truth. College professors and school teachers should be explorers in the world of knowledge. They should be leaders in formulating the values and ideals of the society, and should work for the continual improvement of the society.

5. Teachers are expected to be not only fountain – heads of knowledge but also experts in regard to children, a source of information and guidance with respect to the best methods of child rearing and the understanding of child development.

The Teacher in the School

The teacher’s roles can be described as a set of sub-roles within the school setting. We can classify the role of the teacher into (i) his role in relation to other adults in the school system and (ii) his role in relation to pupils.

1. The teacher’s roles in relation to the school system are:

His role as an employee in relation to the school board His role as a subordinate to the principal or headmaster His role as an advisee to the supervisor His role as a colleague to his fellow-teachers In some respect he plays the role of a follower, leader or innovator.

2. The teacher’s role in relation to pupils

Mediator of learning

In this role, the teacher transmits knowledge and directs the learning process. In somewhat different terms, the main role of the teachers is to induce socially valued change in his pupils. This is the crux of the teaching profession and the most important criterion of the teacher’s success.

In contrast to the other roles, it is in the role of mediator of learning that the teacher tends to be most sure of himself. What is to be taught and how it is to be taught is the teacher’s main stock in trade. Most of his professional training has prepared him for this role; his courses in curriculum, in methods and in educational psychology. It is also within this role that the teacher’s behaviour is most highly ritualized and formalized. There are rules to follow and a structure within which to work. For example, subject matter can be defined and divided, and lesson plans can be followed. There are well-defined criteria for measuring success in this role: the child can be tested and graded; and the teacher’s own success is often measured in terms of the pupils progress ( Havighurst & Neugarten, 1967).

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Disciplinarian

It has been said that if the teacher is to be successful in this role of facilitating learning, he must dominate the classroom situation. For example, he must make the students learn, make them pay attention and must know how to quell rebellion.

Domination may or may not be an integral element in the role of mediator of learning; but there is no denying that the teacher must keep some kind of order in the classroom if he is to teach effectively and that a second role that teachers occupy in relation to pupils is the role of disciplinarian.

Parent Substitute

A third role interacting with children is that of parent substitute. This role comes to the foreground especially in the behavior of most primary teachers; helping the child with his clothing, comforting him, showing affection, praising or censuring various types of social and emotional behaviours. The role is also present to greater or lesser degree in dealing with older children and adolescents. The male teacher probably acts much often in the role of a father as does the female teacher in the role of a mother.

Judge

The teacher acts in the role of judge. He has authority and he maintains discipline; he gives out grades and promotes or does not promote the child. The role of judge is never confined, however, to the area of learning and academic progress. It carries over into many aspects of the child’s behavior. The teacher decides what is right and what is wrong, what is good and what is bad in social interaction between child and teacher and between child and child.

Confidant

Somewhat opposed to the roles of disciplinarian and judge is the role of friend and confidant. Teachers are expected to be friends of children; to be so supportive that children will place trust and affection in the relationship; to be so sympathetic that children will confide in them.

Surrogate of middle-class morality

Apart from the teacher playing the role of a surrogate middle-class morality in the community he is also expected to play the role in school particularly in his relations with his students. This role as any other stems not only from the expectations held by parents and other adults in the community, but also from the expectations held by teachers and students themselves.

Individuality in role performance

Any given teacher will fulfill varying role expectations in a unique manner. One teacher will stress the role of disciplinarian above all others; a second will see himself primarily in the role of friend and counsellor to children; a third will attempt to eliminate all but the role of mediator of learning. For every teacher, factors of personality, factors related to social origin, and factors present in the particular school setting will interact to produce comfort in one role and discomfort in another.

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Role performance is as already indicated, greatly influenced by various personality factors. One of these factors is age. The relation between age of teacher and age of pupil is a variable that has diverse ramifications in role performance. On the one hand, the teacher grows older while the ages of his pupils tend to remain the same (as with the teacher who continues to teach in a particular class, year after year). Unlike the family situation, where change goes on in both parent and child simultaneously, the difference in age between teacher and child tends to increase with length of teaching experience. This affects more than one of the teacher’s roles.

UNIT 8

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

What is philosophy?

Over the years philosophers have tried to identify what philosophy is but they have not come out with any universally accepted one.

In Plato’s book “The Republic” he stated that Socrates preferred not to call his students wise men. Rather he called them by a more modest and appropriate title “lovers of wisdom” or philosophers. Philosophy has its root in the ancient Greek words “phillos” (loving) and “Sophia” (wisdom) and means “love of wisdom”. Wisdom is commonly linked with the process of knowing.

To Wiredu (1980), there is basic distinction between intellectuality and wisdom. He contends that the intellectual has knowledge and appreciates its relevance to the broader needs of society but he/she does not necessarily have the skill of ordering personal relations harmoniously. In contrast, the wise man is a master of personal relations but not necessarily a walking encyclopedia of a particular branch of knowledge. Both intellectuals and wise men go beyond mere knowledge of facts. We are all aware of the fact that knowledge can best be obtained through a purposeful search. This can be done by means of questioning. A person who loves wisdom is naturally inclined to asking questions with a view to providing reasons for everyday occurrences.

From this perspective, philosophy can be described as rational investigation into certain fundamental problems about the nature of man and the world he lives in. Gyekye (1987) also defines philosophy as a rational, critical and systematic inquiry into the fundamental ideas underlying human thought, experience and conduct.

It can also be described broadly as a conceptual activity in which a person by proposing relevant questions seeks to clarify meanings of concepts and language, establish rational basis of beliefs and assumptions, thereby leading to an organized and reasoned view of himself/herself and the universe in which he/she lives; and finally seeks to determine standards for assessing values, judging conduct and appraising art.

Bertrand Russel as cited in Schofield (1972) sees philosophy as lying half-way between theology and science. It has characteristics of science as well as theology. It shares some properties with theology because it consists of speculations of matters on which definite knowledge has so far not been proved e.g. what happens to the spirit of man after death? Certain aspects of philosophical enquiry can also be subjected to proof that is why it resembles science. For instance, there are certain propositions and statements that can be proved from a truth table. Bertrand Russel contends that between theology and science there is a no-man’s land which is occupied by philosophy.

The Truth Table

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Conjunction – (^)

A conjunction is true if both its conjuncts are true but false if otherwise

e.g. p – She is a student of UCC

q – She stays in Adehye Hall

p q p. q

T T T

Given any two statements p and q there are four (4) possible sets of truth values they can have and in every case the truth values of their conjunction p and q is uniquely determined. The four possible cases are:

1. If p is true and q is true, p. q is true2. If p is true and q is false, p. q is false3. If p is false and q is true, p. q is false4. If p is false and q is false, p. q is false

These possible ways can be illustrated on the Truth Table as follows:

p q p. q

1. T T T

2. T F F

3. F T F

4. F F F

1 2 3

Note! Other English words such as moreover, furthermore, but, yet still, however, etc may be used to conjoin 2 statements into a single compound statement. These compound statements can always be translated into the dot (.) symbol as far as truth values are concerned.

Characteristics or Nature of Philosophy

a. Philosophical inquiry is an activity that demands critical thinking. A thoughtless person therefore cannot engage in philosophical argument.

b. Philosophy is also methodological because it uses formal methods. The most outstanding method of philosophy is reflection (reflection involves thinking deeply and carefully about issues).

c. There is absolute reliance on the use of logical reasoning as the basis for arriving at conclusions

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d. Whatever conclusions that emerge from philosophical enquiry should be regarded as tentative. The truth is that no conclusions are so absolute and certain as to be immune to further correction by new evidence. Truth is therefore contingent on time, place and circumstance

Philosophy – Popular and Professional Senses

According to Jonas Soltis, philosophy can be seen from (a) Common/Public/Popular or Personal senses and (b) Technical or Professional senses.

a. Common Sense Notion of Philosophy: It is a person’s philosophy or observed worldview which is the sum total of his/her assumptions, attitudes and prejudices. A person’s philosophy of life may be partly inherited and partly acquired in the process of living. It is simply our conceptual responses to environmental problems. For example a person who wants to succeed in life may have ‘success depends on hard work’ as his/her personal philosophy.

b. Technical or Professional Sense of Philosophy: This normally refers to what is taught in institutions of higher learning. Philosophy is seen as an academic discipline. It is characterized by logical consistent and systematic thinking before conclusions are reached. According to F. W. Garforth (1979), to philosophize is to engage in a strenuous activity of thought and to pursue with no other aim than to satisfy the important questioning of the human mind. It is clear that the emphasis here is on the use of reason or logical argument as tool for thinking.

The three most important components of philosophy

Today, we think of philosophy in a more general sense as man’s attempts to give meaning to his existence through the continued search for comprehensive and consistent answers to basic problems and not just to love wisdom. Problems in the philosophical sense can be put under three broad categories – problems of being (Ontology), problems of knowing (Epistemology), and problems of values (Axiology).1. Metaphysics - Ontology

- Cosmology

2. Epistemology (Gnosiology) i.e. Theory of knowledge

3. Axiology (Values) - Ethics

- Aesthetics

Metaphysics:

The word ‘metaphysics’ comes from the Greek expression ‘ta meta physica’ ‘things beyond the physical realm.’ Metaphysics comprises all those theories, which purport to set down the nature of existing things. It also deals with the nature of man and the nature of the world he/she lives in. It deals with the questions of what man really is (e.g. who am I? what am I?) from where man had his origin and to what place he/she goes after death. It deals with how

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human beings behave and why they behave the way they do. Metaphysics also at times goes beyond the above questions to discuss abstract and hidden topics. Such questions include the nature of the soul or the mind. Whether man has a soul or mind. Other questions include whether God exists and if he does, how we can know him. Human predestination, fate and free-will are also discussed under metaphysics.

Metaphysics has two sub-divisions namely ontology and cosmology.

- Ontology is a branch of philosophy which deals with existence and the relations between things. E.g. human beings, plants, water etc.

- Cosmology is concerned with the origin and arrangement of the universe .E.g. planets, stars etc.

Epistemology (also called Gnosiology)

Epistemology is derived from the Greek word ‘episteme’ which means knowledge. It is that branch of philosophy that attempts to examine critically the nature, the scope, the limits and criteria of human knowledge. It asks questions like what do we mean by knowledge itself and what it is to know something? What are the sources of knowledge? etc.

Types of knowledge

Types of knowledge vary with their sources and method of acquisition and validation.

i. Revealed knowledge. It may be described as knowledge that God has made available to man. This is normally revealed by the Omnipotent God to men who are inspired.

ii. Empirical/Scientific knowledge. This is the type of knowledge we obtain through observation of the things around us through our senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting) and also through personal experiences from various actions in which we are involved. It is an empirical type of knowledge, which means it can be verified for its truth, at least by those who have the expertise to do so.

iii. Rational knowledge. It is the knowledge we derive by reasoning, that is, not by observation but by inferring new knowledge from what we know already. The mathematical subjects are good examples of rational knowledge, so also is a subject as philosophy. Given some hypothesis or premise we can go on to deduce a number of conclusions that must necessarily follow. For example, given the premise that Nkrumah is a man, and all men are mortals then it follows that Nkrumah is mortal

iv. Intuitive knowledge

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It is that type of knowledge that a person finds within himself in a moment of insight. Insight or intuition is the sudden discovery of a solution to a problem with which our unconscious mind has been gripped for a long time. There are two kinds of intuition.

The first kind involves a solution arrived at by an individual who may have been working on a problem for days without arriving at the solution. Then all of a sudden he arrives at the solution, assisted by his earlier effort to reach the solution to the problem, and then he says, ‘Aha! that is it: Remember the story of Archimedes.

The second kind occurs when others come to an individual with a problem and he makes a quick guess of the solution which leads to the confirmation of the solution. The rightness or wrongness of an intuitive solution is finally decided by rational means of knowing. Knowledge acquired solely by intuition cannot therefore be said to be a final knowledge. Even though the solution may be right the individual has no explanation as to how he arrives at the solution. Intuition is probably not a reliable source of knowledge, reasoning and the use of the senses must check it. Our schools tend to deemphasize intuition because it is unpredictable and highly personal knowledge. Teachers have to help students to develop their intuition and reflective powers so that they can become more creative members in the society.

v. Authoritative Knowledge: This is the type of knowledge that is characterized by dependence on what someone known to be a specialist in any field of knowledge has said or written without verification. We derive knowledge from Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and other documents without taking the trouble to check them. These pieces of information are taken to be true because authorities in various fields have written them.

Axiology or Theory of Values

Axiology is the study of the general theory of value or a study of those things that have value. It concerns itself with good and bad, right and wrong, means and ends. Axiology has two branches namely:

a) Ethics: It is the study of moral conduct. The term may be applied to the system of code followed.

b) Aesthetics: It is that branch of philosophy concerned with art, sculpture, painting, balance, form, style, taste, etc. It also has to do with experience and values.

Some Definitions of Philosophy of Education

George Newsome Jr. defines philosophy of education as the application of philosophy to education. To Dewey, education and philosophy are the obverse and reverse of the same coin. They are both the same things only looked at from different angles.

He argues that they are the same because:

i. They both seek to solve the problem of living.ii. Both deal with problems of values i.e. they all deal with what is bad and what

is good. Both find out truth.

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Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of education can be described from two perspectives:

i. Common sense notion (philosophy as opinion)ii. Professional or Technical Sense (Philosophy as a discipline)

Common Sense Notion: Personal or Public

In ordinary discussion, people take their philosophy of education to mean their personal view of what the school should be doing or their attitude to the educational system. There can be many philosophies of education as there are individuals who care to express their opinions. For example, when politicians refer to their philosophy of education they mean programmes of education, which they are going to follow when voted into power. They only indicate the trends or orientation. There is no systematically thought out, profound, or comprehensive view. They usually make use of catchy phrases like our philosophy of qualitative education or pragmatic and functional education or ‘Education from the grassroots’ to catch the attention of voters to vote for them.

In the public sense, philosophy of education is associated with the public expressions of opinions in educational matters. It includes what the public appraise as good and right to be done in education as well as the public’s evaluation of teachers and educational programmes. For example, if enlightened citizens who are mostly educators ask the headmaster of a secondary school about the school’s philosophy they mean the objectives or goals the school is trying to achieve. The headmaster’s response will be in the school’s motto. That of UCC is ‘Veritas Nobis Lumen’ “Truth our Guide”. What is the motto of your school or college?

The personal and the public sense of philosophy of education can also be described as the common sense notion of philosophy of education. Some observations that can be made about the personal and public sense of philosophy of education are that:

i. They are generally vague and are not based on any systematic thought about what type of man/woman they want to produce.

ii. They are also silent on the type of values their educated man/woman would cherish.

iii. No mention is also made of the type of society in which the scholar would be educated.

Although these ideas may exist at the back of their minds they are not subject to scrutiny and analysis.

The Professional or Technical Sense (Philosophy of Education as a Discipline)

Philosophy of education as a discipline deals with the accumulated wisdom expressed by educational theorists who have received professional training in philosophy. Professional philosophers of education have provided direction to philosophy since the mid 20 th century. They have provided professional educators with copious philosophical literature relevant to the context, design and activities of education. Professional philosophers of education usually

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conduct in-depth studies of educational systems and analyze them after deep reflection and produce alternative systems.

Importance of Philosophy of education in Teacher education

With regard to the importance of Philosophy, the following summary statement derives from Bertrand Russel becomes relevant: “Man suffers from inherent imprisonment in prejudices, and philosophy, with it‘s methods of probing questions, provides avenue of freedom from such imprisonment.”

Philosophy of Education is Important because:

i. It enables the teacher to help children to develop a high sense of rationality and reasonableness.

ii. Knowledge of philosophy will also enhance the efficiency of the teacher in the teaching of his subjects. Armed with knowledge of philosophy a teacher will ask fundamental philosophical questions about his/her areas of specialization. Questions like – What is the nature of the subject? What is its basic structure? What is its purpose? Has it any value? And so on.

iii. The educational enterprise is replete with accumulated knowledge from the time of Socrates and Plato down to the present era. More and more concepts have been discussed and analyzed by philosophers of education. These include values, indoctrination, freedom, discipline, training and others, which are crucially important to education. Knowledge of these concepts will help the teacher to operate better.

iv. Philosophy, it is claimed, has a humbling effect on those who pursue it because it forces one to keep an open mind on any subject since new evidence may render one’s previous ideas and opinions less tenable. Most teachers are generally described as conservative, rigid and dogmatic, a knowledge of philosophy will therefore, help to reverse this notion and make them critical and more objective about issues

v. Through the study of philosophy a teacher can also influence educational policies under which he/she operates. He/she can do this by engaging in a theoretical discussion of educational policies with his/her colleagues and can also co-operate with others to formulate workable policies, which can be implemented in the classroom.

vi. Philosophy of education helps to sharpen the moral consciousness of the teacher trainee. Teachers in training are exposed to concepts like honesty, right, duties, obligations, virtue and vices. They also discuss code of ethics of their profession.

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UNIT 9

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT OF PHILOSOPHY

The main schools of thought of philosophy are Idealism; Realism; and Pragmatism

IDEALISM

Idealism is a philosophical position which adheres to the view that nothing exists except in the mind of man, the mind of God or in a super or supra natural realm. The idealist believes that the universe has intelligence and a will; that all material things are explainable in terms of a mind standing behind them. Thus, it is believed basic reality is closely related to the mind, ideas or thoughts. The idealists hold that ultimate reality is spiritual in nature rather than physical, mental rather than material.

To the idealist the nature of the universe is the mind. To them the universe has two aspects: the first is the Sensory Aspect ie the part of the life open to empirical or sensory exploration and verification, which they call the world of illusionary and which is temporary or just a reflection.

The second aspect is the Real World which to them lies beyond the sensory world and can only be reached through the intellect. They believe that the world of ideas is real and permanent. Plato explained this in his “Allegory of the cave”

Idealist View on Education

To the idealist the aim of education is to bring the child as close as possible to the Absolute Truth. In this sense education is to help the child develop his conscious or spiritual self. It is also to develop the morality of the child and to train future leaders. They also believe that education should be based on the established values of the past (culture). Hence once it has been established that something is good, or true, or beautiful, it is the responsibility of the school to pass it on to succeeding generations. Education is also expected to make the individual subservient to the state.

Idealists View of the Students

They see the student as a spiritual being in the process of becoming like the ideal or the Absolute. They claim that with a proper moulding, the student can become the ideal type or the absolute; that the student must constantly strive towards perfection. The student is also expected to imitate the exemplar (i.e. the teacher) in order to achieve perfection. They however, do not regard the student as ‘tabula rasa’ and therefore the teacher is to help him to develop capacities already in him. Self-learning activities are also recommended for the student.

The Idealist View of the Teacher

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To them the teacher plays the most important role in the education process. He serves as a living model or ideal for the student. The teacher is thus, regarded as the repository of all knowledge.

The Idealist View of the Curriculum (Subject Matter)

The curriculum is structured to actually emphasize the subjects that will promote the understanding and intelligence of the students to enable them realize their spiritual self. That we need to study the past especially about the lives of great men to enable us model our lives along theirs. History, biography and the humanities in general become important here.

They place less value on vocational studies and emphasize liberal courses to enable the student develop the spiritual self. Religion is also stressed so that individuals relate to God. Their curriculum has little contact with the experiential world because of their reliance on the world of the mind. The idealist educator therefore has little place in his curriculum for field trip, psychomotor skills, and empirical or sensory data. They place so much emphasis on books or the pure academic type of education (Liberal education). Emphasis is also placed on the study of language to introduce the student to his culture.

They place less emphasis on science but believe it should be studied so that we can appreciate nature.

Idealist Methodology

The idealist methods consist of lectures, discussion, and imitation. To them learning is the exercise of the mind. The mind should be stretched to its fullest so that it can absorb and handle ideas. Imitation should be of some exemplary person or persons who by their behavior give evidence that they are close to the nature of reality. All the three methods employed by the idealists rely on ideas that are already known and so allow little or no opportunity for the student to explore new ideas and new areas of interest.

One important method used by the idealist is the dialectical or Socratic method (The method of questions and answers in which the mind of the child is exercised). Socrates used such a method to teach slaves mathematics.

REALISM

The fundamental and underlying philosophical assumption of the realist is that reality exists and is totally independent of any knowledge of it. In other words, things or objects are believed to exist in themselves, independent of the mind. Realism was a revolt against the idealist doctrine that things that are in the experiential universe are dependent upon a mind perceiving them or a knower for their existence. The realists believe things of human experience or things of the material world have real existence and their existence are true and objective.

Realists view on education:

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The primary aim of education is to teach the child the natural and moral laws so that his generation may lead the right kind of life; one in tune with the laws of the universe. Thus, education involves close study of the world around. Education is also seen, as a process of developing the capacity of man to enable him know the truth as it is. Moreover it is to extend and integrate such truth as is known, i.e. develop, enjoy and use it in every aspect of life. Again the aim of education is to gain practical knowledge of life. Finally as the truths are the accumulated wisdom of past generations and therefore contained in the culture of the society, education should be essentially the transmission of inherited culture from generation to generation.

The student:

The realists see the student as a functional organism, which through sensory experience can perceive the natural order of the world. It is believed the student must be disciplined until he has learned to make the proper response. He must also learn the habit of self-discipline so as to be able to master the subjects.

The teacher:

The teacher to the realist is simply a guide who plays a crucial role. The real world exists and the teacher is responsible for introducing the student to it. The teacher is supposed to know the basic truths or culture and therefore a repository of knowledge and wisdom. He is expected to be loyal to his discipline and to present the truths as faithfully as possible devoid of all forms of biases.

The Subject Matter (Curriculum)

The subject matter is the matter of the physical universe in the Real World. It should be tangible in such a way as to show the laws of nature or the orderliness underlying the universe. The law of nature it is believed to be readily understood through the study of virtually every subject i.e. the physical and social sciences as well as the arts. The curriculum should consist essentially of the whole spectrum of the culture of the society expressed in the different disciplines and subject matters. The curriculum content should consist of the basic principles of the sciences, which will reveal to men the laws of nature and to develop one’s ability to enter into nature. There is a particular emphasis on mathematics, which is a precise, abstract symbolic system for describing the laws of nature. Aesthetic subjects’ like drama, painting and sculpture reveal the objective beauty of nature and develop the child’s refined taste and appreciation. Religion should also be taught for students to know about moral laws; then the humanities particularly classical literature which are products of great minds and contains a lot of ideas and wisdom. There is much emphasis on liberal and general education. Vocational education is only supplementary. The realists call for a basic curriculum, which contains the essential truths to which every child should be exposed in the culture of his school education.

Method

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The method involves teaching for the mastery of facts in order to develop an understanding of natural laws. This is achieved through teaching both the materials and their application. It involves learning through sensory experience whether direct or indirect. Thus, it involves the use of field trips, films, television and other audio-visual aids. Insightful learning is also encouraged to enable students better understand the laws of nature. The teacher is also expected to use lectures and demonstrations. It is discipline-centred as well as teacher-centred.

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism was developed in America and is perhaps America’s major contribution to modern philosophy and philosophy of education. Its greatest exponent was John Dewey, a man who best combined the roles of educator and philosopher.

Pragmatism as a philosophy of education emerged in the very late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This is largely due to the work of a number of educational philosophers such as William Heard Kilpatrick, Boyd Bode and Gorge Counts. These men built an educational structure on a philosophical foundation initiated by such philosophers as Chauncey Wright, William James, Charles S. Peirce and John Dewey. Pragmatism is also variously referred to as Instrumentalism, Empiricism and Experimentalism.

Pragmatism has had the greatest influence on educational theory and practice in the twentieth century due to the following reasons:

i. The twentieth century is pre-eminently the age of science and technology, and these two forms the solid foundation on which the philosophy of pragmatism is built.

ii. Another possible reason is that our age is one in which people are interested more in the material benefit or practical usefulness of any activity that is undertaken. The consequences or the utility of ideas, the ‘cash value’ of ideas as some of them put it, are what pragmatic philosophy is pre-occupied with.

Definition:

The term pragmatism is derived from the same Greek word meaning action from which words ‘practical and practice’ have come.

Pragmatism is basically an epistemological undertaking, which is based on its theory of truth and meaning. This theory states that truth can be known only through its practical consequences and is thus, an individual or a social matter rather than an absolute. Pragmatism sees thought as intrinsically connected with action. The value of an idea is measured by the consequences produced when it is translated into action.

Pragmatists Views on Education

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Perhaps the best state of what might be called the pragmatists educational aim can be found in the writing of John Dewey. He wrote that education is reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increase ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. This means helping the child to develop in such a way as to contribute to his continued growth. In short, the aim of education is to provide the conditions that make growth possible.

Education is also seen as life and not a preparation for life. This means education should be related to the experience, interest and aspiration of the learner.

The Student

The student is seen as an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its problems. It is also believed he learns as he experiences, as he does and as he undergoes. The student is also seen as a whole organism constantly interacting with the environment. And his experience helps him to determine his likes, dislikes and the future direction of his learning. The child or student is also seen as a biological, psychological and social child who brings to the school, values and experiences that constitute his personality and therefore makes him unique and should be treated as such.

The teacher

To the pragmatist, the teacher should not be the authoritarian type who is seen as the embodiment of all wisdom, and the custodian of knowledge. He should also not be the spectator or the laissez faire type as suggested in Rousseau’s or the progressive’s type of child-centered education. The teacher, for the pragmatist, is a member of the learning group (participant) who serves in the capacity of a helper, guide, and arranger of experience or the organizer and moderator of the child’s learning. The teacher should know the psychological development, needs and interest of the individuals in order to select appropriate learning activities for them. He should also arrange the learning tasks according to the students’ developing ability. He is also to serve as a resource person to whom the child refers those problems, which he could not tackle personally. He should also arrange the social and group learning and moderate the interaction between members of the group as well as encouraging and sharing experiences with his students.

Curriculum (Subject Matter)

Any educative experience contributing to growth is the subject matter of the pragmatist curriculum. The sciences should be taught not just by merely learning laws and theories but in such a way that the child could be helped to explore and discover knowledge for himself. Social sciences are also important as they represent the social environment and the factors that affect human behavior in his community. The humanities are also not left out as they deal with our cultural heritage. Language should also be taught as instrument of communication. Aesthetic subjects like art, drama, literature and music should also be taught to help develop the child’s creative ability. In all cases what is important is that the subject should be taught with a view to helping the child solve his problems. The subject matter must be related to the child’s needs, capacity and concerns. The curriculum is learner-centred and changes and shifts as the needs of the learner vary. To the pragmatists the curriculum should

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not be hindered by subject matter lines but rather should be divided into units which grow out of the questions and experience of learners. Much emphasis is placed on vocational education.

Method

The first principle is that the teaching must be child-centred i.e. it must take into consideration the needs, interests and ability of the child. Secondly, it must involve activity or learning by doing which normally involves the use of more than one of the senses. Thirdly, group method or co-operative learning is highly recommended. Also some kind of freedom is encouraged to enable students use their intelligence and initiative. The project method or problem solving method is therefore encouraged to enable students use their intelligence and initiative. There is also emphasis on experimentation and the use of scientific method. Classroom discussion in a free and open atmosphere is also encouraged.

UNIT 10

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SOME GREAT PIONEER EDUCATORS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON MODERN EDUCATION

As students of education it is important for us to learn about some great educators whose educational philosophies, ideas and thoughts have had profound influence on contemporary education the world over. Some of these educators include Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori.

John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 – 4 November 1670)

Background:

He was a Czech teacher, educator, and writer. He was born in the Moravian town of Nivnitz and lived during Europe’s post-Reformation era which was characterized by religious violence between Catholics and Protestants. Hoping to end religious intolerance, he constructed a new educational philosophy “pansophism” to cultivate universal understanding. As a pioneer peace educator, he believed that universally shared knowledge would generate a love of wisdom that would overcome ethnic and religious hatred and create a peaceful world order.

Education and schooling

Comenius honored multicultural principles that respected religious and cultural diversity. He believed that schooling, by cultivating universal knowledge and values could promote international understanding and peace

Principles of teaching and learning

Comenius formulated the idea of “education according to nature. He respected children’s natural needs and interests and strongly opposed the conventional wisdom that children were inherently bad and that teachers needed corporal punishment to discipline them. Instead, Comenius wanted teachers to be gentle and loving persons who create joyful and pleasant classrooms.

He urged teachers to make their lessons and materials appropriate to children’s natural stages of growth and development. He also advised teachers to organize lessons into easily assimilated small steps that made learning gradual, cumulative and pleasant

Comenius emphasized the following principles

1. Use objects or pictures to illustrate concepts (obtaining ideas through objects rather than words)

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2. Apply lessons to students practical lives (giving the child a comprehensive knowledge of his environment, physical and social, as well as instruction in religious, moral, and classical subjects)

3. Present lessons directly and simply 4. Emphasize general principles before details5. Emphasize that all creatures and objects are part of a whole universe6. Present lessons in sequence stressing one thing at a time 7. Not leaving specific subject until students understand it completely8. Starting with objects most familiar to the child to introduce him to both the new

language and the more remote world of objects9. Learning foreign languages through the vernacular10. Making this acquisition of a compendium of knowledge a pleasure rather than a task11. Making instruction universal

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Comenius’s use of education to promote ethnic and religious tolerance remains important to us today, especially a world torn by violence and terror. He outlined a system of schools that is the exact counterpart of the existing system of kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, college, and university. His encouragement of children’s active and engaged learning promoted child- centered education. In terms of “education according to nature” he served as the forerunner of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, etc.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778)

BackgroundRousseau was a Swiss-born French theorist, philosopher, writer, and composer. He believed in educating the natural person and emphasized respecting children’s freedom.

Education and schooling

The basic philosophy of education of Rousseau is rooted in the notion that human beings are good by nature. Rousseau sought to claim that the goal of education should be to cultivate our natural tendencies. He minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be educated before his reason.

Rousseau conveyed his educational philosophy through his famous 1762 novel, Emile, which tells the story of a boy’s education from infancy to adulthood. The novel attacks the child depravity theory and an exclusively verbal and literary education, which Rousseau believed ignored the child’s natural interests and inclinations. He also believed that the child must be freed from society’s imprisoning institutions, of which the school was one of the most

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coercive. He believed children needed freedom to explore their environment and his emphasis on learning from direct experience with the environment was endorsed by progressive educators later.

Rousseau preferred the natural to the social and emphasized human instincts as the initial means of knowledge.In formulating his personal philosophy of education, Rousseau used the following key ideas

1. Childhood is an important foundation of human development 2. Children’s natural interests and instincts are valuable beginnings of a more thorough

exploration of the environment3. Human beings in their life cycles, go through necessary stages of development4. Adult coercion has a negative impact on children’s development

Principles of Teaching and Learning

Like Comenius, Rousseau recognized the crucial importance of stages of human development. In Emile, Rousseau identified five developmental stages: Infancy; Childhood; Boyhood: Adolescence; and Youth. Rousseau insisted that the early formative stages be free from society’s corruption. Thus, Emile was to be educated by a tutor on a country estate away from the temptations of a ruinous society.

Infancy (birth to age 5) – The child makes his first contact with objects in the environment and learns directly from his senses

Childhood (ages 5 to 12) – The child constructs his personality as he becomes aware that his actions cause either painful or pleasurable consequences.

Motivated by curiosity, he actively explores his environment, learning more about the world through his senses. Rousseau called the eyes, ears, hands and feet the first teachers and considered the senses better and more efficient than the schoolmaster who teaches words the learner does not understand.

Emile’s tutor deliberately refrained from introducing books at this stage to avoid substituting reading for the child’s direct interaction with nature.

Boyhood (ages 12 to 15) – Emile learned natural science by observing the cycles of growth of plants and animals. By exploring his surroundings, he learned geography far more realistically than from studying maps. In addition, Emile also learned a manual trade, carpentry to make the connection between mental and physical work

Adolescence (ages 15 to 18) – Emile was now ready to cope with the outside world and to learn about society, government, economics and business. His aesthetic tastes were to be cultivated by visits to museums, art galleries, libraries, and theatres.

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Youth (ages 18 to 20) – During this last stage, Emile travelled to Paris and to foreign countries to visit different peoples and societies. The book ends with his marriage and telling his tutor that he would give his children the same natural education that he had received.

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Rousseau’s idea that the curriculum should reflect children’s interests and needs and not just conform to adult prescriptions deeply influenced child-centered education

Rousseau’s ideas also anticipated the constructivist view of child development in which children interpret their own reality rather than learn information from indirect sources.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (12 January 1746 – 17 February 1827)

Background

He was a Swiss educator. He lived during the early period of the industrial revolution. Concerned about the impact of this economic change on families and children, Pestalozzi sought to develop schools that like loving families would nurture children’s development.

He was an avid reader of Rousseau’s Emile and agreed with Rousseau that humans were naturally good but spoiled by a corrupt society that traditional schooling was a dull mess of deadening memorization and recitation, and that pedagogical reform could generate social reform. Pestalozzi, as a Swiss educational reformer, put Rousseau's theories into practice and thus became the first applied educational psychologist.

He established schools at Burgdorf and Yverdon to educate children and prepare teachers. Here he devised an efficient method of group instruction by which children learned in a loving and unhurried manner. The success of his schools attracted educators from all over the world who paid visits to the schools.

Education and Schooling

Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi based learning on natural principles and stressed the importance of human emotions. Unlike Rousseau, however, he relied not on individual tutoring but on group instruction.

Both Rousseau and Pestalozzi defined “Knowing” as understanding nature, its patterns, and its laws. He also stressed empirical learning, through which people learn about their environment by carefully observing natural phenomena.

Like Comenius, Pestalozzi believed children should learn slowly and understand thoroughly what they were studying. He was especially dedicated to children who were poor, hungry, and socially or psychologically handicapped. He fed them if they were hungry, comforted them if they were frightened before he attempted to teach them. He believed that love of humankind was necessary for successful teaching.

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Principles of teaching and learning

Pestalozzi’s approach to teaching can be organized into “general” and “special” methods. The general method created a permissive and emotionally healthy homelike learning environment that had to be in place before specific instruction occurred.

Once the general method was in place, Pestalozzi implanted his special method. Believing that thinking began with the senses, he developed his object lesson; which stressed sensory learning. In this approach, children studied the common objects in their environment – plants, rocks, artifacts, and other objects encountered in daily experience. To determine the form of an object, they drew and traced it. They also counted and named objects.

Thus, they learned the form, number and name or sound related to objects. From these lessons grew exercises in drawing, writing, counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing and reading. The first writing exercises consisted of drawing lessons in which the children made a series of rising and falling strokes and open and close curves. These exercises developed the hand muscles and prepared children for writing.

Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching (viewed as correct even today):

Begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts Begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote begin with easy exercises or activities before introducing complex ones Always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly

Influence on educational practices today

His belief that education should be directed to both the mind and the emotions stimulated educators to develop instruction to encourage both cognitive and affective learning. His assertion that emotional security is a necessary precondition for skill and subject learning strongly parallels the contemporary emphasis on supportive home-school partnerships. His feeding of the poor can be related to the school feeding programme in Ghana. Pestalozzi’s principles in teaching are very much relevant today.

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (April 21, 1782 – June 21, 1852)

Background

Froebel a German educator was a student of Pestalozzi and is renowned for his pioneering work in developing a school for early childhood education- the kindergarten, or children’s garden. He developed the concept of the “kindergarten”, and also coined the word now used in German and English.

The name Kindergarten signifies both a garden for children, a location where they can observe and interact with nature, and also a garden of children, where they themselves can grow and develop in freedom from arbitrary political and social imperatives.

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Education and Schooling

Many of us form our first impressions of schools and teachers in kindergarten. Froebel considered the kindergarten teachers personality of paramount importance. The kindergarten teacher should respect the dignity of human personality and personify the highest cultural values so that children could imitate those values. Above all, the kindergarten teacher should be sensitive, approachable, and open.

Principles of Teaching and Learning:

A philosophical idealist, Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence that stimulated self-active learning. He therefore designed a kindergarten that would be a “prepared environment” designed to externalize children’s interior spirituality through self-activity.

Froebel’s kindergarten, founded in 1837 in Blankenburg, was a permissive environment featuring games, play, songs, stories, and crafts. The kindergarten’s songs, stories, and games, now a standard part of early childhood education, stimulated children’s imaginations and introduced them to the culture’s folk heroes and heroines and values. The games socialized children and developed their physical and motor skills. As the boys and girls played with other children, they became part of the group and were prepared for further socialized learning activities. The curriculum also included “gifts”, objects with fixed form, such as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, which were intended to bring to full consciousness the underlying concept represented by the object. In addition, Froebel’s kindergarten featured “occupations,” which consisted of materials children could shape and use in design and construction activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be manipulated and shaped into castles, cities, and mountains.

The kindergarten was essentially tri-partite:

toys for sedentary creative play (these Froebel called gifts and occupations) games and dances for healthy activity observing and nurturing plants in a garden for stimulating awareness of the natural

world

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Froebelianism soon grew into an international education movement and kindergarten has become part of the many school systems throughout the world. Also the play method and the use of toys have been influenced by Froebel.

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Maria Montessori (1870–1952)

She was an Italian physician and educator who devised an internationally popular method of early childhood education. Montessori was admitted to the University of Rome and was the first woman in Italy to be awarded the degree of doctor of medicine.

Like Pestalozzi and Froebel, Montessori recognized that children’s early experiences have an important influence on their later lives. As a physician, Montessori worked with children regarded as mentally handicapped and psychologically impaired. Her methods with these children were so effective that she concluded they were useful for all children.

Education and schooling

Montessori’s curriculum included three major types of activity and experience: practical, sensory, and formal skills and studies. It was designed to introduce children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic manners and social etiquette. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Children were introduced to the alphabet by tracing movable sandpaper letters. Reading was taught after writing. Coloured rods of various sizes were used to teach measuring and counting.

Because they direct learning in the prepared environment, Montessori educators are called directresses rather than teachers. Under the guidance of the directress, children use materials in a prescribed way to acquire the desired skill mastery, sensory experience, or intellectual outcome.

Montessori education is characterized by an emphasis on independence, freedom within limits, and respect for a child’s natural psychological development. The essential elements of Montessori classroom are:

mixed age classrooms, with classrooms for children aged 2½ or 3 to 6 years old by far the most common

student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of options uninterrupted blocks of work time a constructivist or "discovery" model, where students learn concepts from

working with materials, rather than by direct instruction specialized educational materials developed by Montessori and her

collaborators

Montessori education theory was based on self-construction, liberty, and spontaneous activity

Principles of teaching and learning

Montessori argued that children, contrary to the assumptions of conventional schooling, have an inner need to work at what interests them without the prodding of teachers and without being motivated by external rewards and punishments. Children, she found, are capable of sustained concentration and work. Enjoying structure and preferring work to play, they like

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to repeat actions until they master a given activity. In fact, children’s capacity for spontaneous learning leads them to begin reading and writing.

Influence on Educational Practices Today

Montessori’s pioneering contribution to education was her emphasis on the formative significance the early childhood years have for later development. Her other important educational contributions were her:

1. Concept of sensitive periods, phases of development, when certain activities and materials are especially useful in sensory, motor, and cognitive learning

2. Recognition that learning is complex and involves a variety of experiences3. Emphasis on the school as part of the community and the need for parent participation

and support. 4. The discovery that all children, no matter what privations they had previously

suffered, were capable of achieving great things when simply given what they needed5. Recognition that children fail, not because they have some innate deficiency, but

because adults (schools, and their staff) have failed to give them the right conditions in which to prosper and that all children are capable of achieving success if given the right conditions. 

There are many schools in the world now modeled on Montessori’s concept of education.

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