Wildlife Dietary Needs: Native Plants and AnimalsMichael Lachance

Virginia Cooperative Extension(434) 263-4036

lachance@vt.edu

I. How to Study Wildlife Nutrition

Wildlife Food Studies startup in 1885 with Federal Wildlife Food habits research Field studies Laboratory work

Wildlife in a changing world

Losers Passenger pigeon Carolina parakeet Bison Beaver Elk

Winners Fox Raccoon Coyotes Robins Bluebirds

Outcome based on food habits. Population increased for species that were able to adapt to a human dominated landscape.

Species Destructive to Crops Farm Crops

o Bobolinko Crowo Ducks

Mallard Pintail Wigeon

o Canada Goose

o Meadowlarko English sparrowo Ring-neck pheasanto Redwingo Deero Raccoono Woodchuck

Orchardso House fincho Purple fincho Blue jayo Robin

o Sapsuckero Starlingo Deero Brown thrasher

o Waxwingo Moles

o Voleso Meadow mouse

Gardenso Deero Crowso Voles

o Sparrowso Rabbito Gray squirrel

Forestso Sapsuckero White-footed mouse

o Rabbito Deer

Food and Wildlife Exponential and Logistic Growth Rates Carrying capacity

Carrying Capacity Examples for Birds Dry western Plains 0.5 – 1 per acre Cultivated eastern farmland 1 - 3 per acre Deciduous eastern forests 1.5 – 10.5 per acre

Vegetation mapping and landscape assessment Virginia Museum of natural History Virginia Natural History Society, “Banisteria” Virginia Academy of Science, Natural History and Diversity Section Junior Virginia Academy of Science, Natural History and Diversity Section

Negative impact of energy production and urban structures

Impact of cultivation Benefit for species that thrive on border Beneficial for species adapted to crops and weed associates

Plants as wildlife foods Fleshy nuts Nuts Seeds Vegetation

Important issue is availability of plant parts in winter when there is snow cover, also importance of cover.

Hedge rows can provide both.

Food Selection by Wildlife Preferred foods Second choice foods Starvation foods

Wildlife Nutrition Emerging field Syllabus for college course: http://users.tamuk.edu/david_hewitt/ Availability of protein a large concern, thus diets switch often to insects in the springtime

Knowledge of nutrition important to know how to enhance or restrict a species Predator – Prey Competition Commensalism, etc

Field Studies How, where, when food is taken % depletion of food supply Stomach contents don’t show environmental impact of animal presence and disturbance

Difficulty of field studies Skill and experience of observers differ Value of “bird in hand” Statistical problems Lack of voucher specimen Stomach content data often needed to exonerate claims of damage

Laboratory studies look at: Crops Stomachs Droppings Caches Cheek pouches Den and nest materials

Curate the collection Reference material useful when identifying fragments Organs removed, wrapped in gauze with water proof label attached Tools

o Sieveso Forcepso Scalpelo Blower

Storage liquidso Formalin (10% formaldehyde)o 70% ethyl alcohol

Bulky contents, soak in formalin and dry out Seeds, dry and add insecticide

Record Keeping; format of data card1. Name of Species2. Specimen Number3. Date4. Where collected5. Where killed6. Hour of death7. Person making dissection and date8. Condition of stomach9. Condition of gullet10. Percentage of:

a. Animal matterb. Vegetable matterc. Gravel, etc.d. Unknown material

11. Contents description area a. Include number of individuals in stomach by species andb. Each percent contribution to the contents

12. Person making the examination and date13. Location of voucher materials

Insure an adequate sample Sample size or number Regional differences Seasonal differences

Data Weight of animal Contents

o Estimated visuallyo Measured volumetricallyo Counted out by kind, especially for predatorso Presence/absence

Best to report by occurrence, numbers, and % of volume

II. 4H Wildlife Habitat Evaluation Program, Learning to Characterize Habitats

A. Wildlife Management ConceptsB. Wildlife Management by RegionsC. Wildlife Management by SpeciesD. Wildlife Management PracticesE. Activities

a. Wildlife Foodsb. Interpreting Wildlife Habitat by Aerial Photographsc. On-Site Habitat Management Recommendationsd. Wildlife Management Plane. Urban Landscape and backyard Habitat Plan

Wildlife Management Concepts1. Habitat Requirements2. Featured Species3. Species Richness4. Plant Succession and Effects on

Wildlife5. Vertical Structure (Layering)6. Arrangement and Interspersion

7. Edges and Contrast8. Area Sensitive Species9. Migration and Home Range10. Carrying capacity11. Pond Dynamics and Balance12. Wildlife Damage Management13. Food Webs

Habitat Requirements Food Water Usable Space Cover (Shelter) Subject to seasonal change

Featured Species Two goals

o What is best for the “species of interest”o Support species richness

Select practices that address what is most lacking for that species

Species Richness

Manage landscape to accomplisho As many species as possibleo Optimal populations within each species

Characteristics of areas with high species richnesso Mixture of different successional stageso Balance of edges with unbroken blocks of vegetation in one successional stageo Unbroken areas of more than 10 to 40 acreso Edges with low contrasto Wide variety of vegetation layers within the area

Plant Succession and effects on wildlife1. Bare Ground2. Annual forbs and/or grasses3. Perennial forbs and grasses4. Shrubs5. Young woodland or trees (<70 yrs)6. Mature woodland or trees

Vertical Structure (Layering)1. Tree Canopy2. Shrub layer3. Herbaceous layer

Arrangement and Interspersion Different successional areas close to each other Corridors to allow for safe travel among them

Edges and Contrast Abrupt or gradual Stage of growth between areas noted by contrast Edge effects can hinder some species

Area Sensitive Species Some species require a great deal of land in one successioal stage May be 100 acre or more than a 1000

Migration and Home Range Migration is seasonal Home range is area of constant use, e.g. 80 acres for northern bobwhite

Carrying capacity Limit to number of animals an area can support Long term increase in population can be accomplished only by increasing the habitat’s

carrying capacity.

Pond Dynamics and Balance Management to improve

o Water qualityo Dissolved oxygeno Alkalinityo Hardnesso pH

Enhance planktono Improve fish populationso Attract wildlife

Balance between predator and prey species

Wildlife Damage Management Health or safety hazard Livestock and crop damage Nuisance Compensation?

Food Webs Trophic levels Relative populations

o Broad at baseo Narrow at the top

Activities: Learning to identify foods

Aquatic Plants: a plant that grows partly or wholly in water, whether rooted in the mud,or floating without anchorage; plants that require constantly moist conditions withoutstanding water are included in this group; for the purpose of this contest, only examplesfrom the following genera will be considered.

Algae, various generaAmerican lotus, NelumboArrowhead/duck potato, SaggitariaBig duckweed, SpirodelaBladderworts, UtriculariaBulrushes, ScirpusBurreeds, Sparganium

Cattails, TyphaCoontail CerratophylumCordgrass, SpartinaDuckweed, LemnaFloating hearts, NymphoidesNaiads, NajasPondweed, PotomagetonRushes, Juncus

Sedges, CarexSmartweed, PolygonumSpikerush, EleocharisWaterlily, NymphaeaWatermeals, WolffiaWatermilfoil, MyriophyllumWaterprimrose, LudwigiaWaterweed, Elodea

Bark: tough outer covering of trees and shrubs

Birds: may be represented by feathers, bones, skulls, feet or any part that distinguishes theClass

Buds: a small protuberance on a stem or branch, sometimes enclosed in protectivescales and containing an undeveloped shoot, leaf or flower; the bud may be representedon the branch or stem, or removed from the branch or stem

Carrion: stinking, rotting flesh; to be considered in this group, the item must have a definiteodor of decomposition, be presented in a plastic bag or have the words “this stinks” on the display; a dry bone, a dry skin, or other body part does not represent carrion, butwill represent other food groups; maggots are a natural occurrence with decompositionand may be present on the carrion, but they should not be considered in groupingthe specimen as carrion

Centipedes and Millipedes: elongated arthropods having many body segments; millipedeshave pairs of legs

Crayfish: small freshwater decapod crustacean that resembles a lobster; regionally, theyhave many names including crawdads and crawdaddys

Earthworms: terrestrial worm that burrows into and helps aerate soil; often surfaces whenthe ground is cool or wet; used as bait by those who fish

Eggs: only the eggs of vertebrate species (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish)are considered in this category; invertebrate eggs (insect and spider) represent thegroup of the adult invertebrate

Ferns: flowerless, seedless vascular plants with roots, stems and fronds; reproduce byspores; may be represented by the whole plant or a part of the plant that defines it

Fish: a poikilothermic (cold-blooded) waterdwelling vertebrate with gills

Forbs: broad-leaved herbaceous plant, not including grasses, sedges, rushes or ferns;

forbs may be represented by a single leaf or by the entire plant including the flower

Frogs and Salamanders: may be represented by the organism in any life stage except theegg

Fruit and Berries: display must include the soft, fleshy, pulp-covered seed

Fungi: kingdom of plantlike spore-forming organisms that grow in irregular masses withoutroots, stems, leaves and that lack chlorophyll

Grains: will include only wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice and corn; may be represented bythe seed, seed head or entire plant including the seedhead

Grass: leaves of grasses are usually tall and thin with a mid-rib and parallel veins; grassesmay be represented by the entire plant including the seedhead, or by a single leaf or group of leaves

Hard mast: includes nuts from walnut, hickory, oak, beech, pecan, almond, and commonhazel; may be shown with or without the husk

Insects: small invertebrate (without a backbone) animals, except for spiders, centipedes andmillipedes, which are segmented

Leaves and Twigs: this food group is represented by leaves and/or twigs of woody speciesonly; not forbs, grasses or other herbaceous plants

Lichens: a fungus that grows symbiotically with algae, resulting in a composite organism that characteristically forms a crust-like or branching growth on rocks or tree trunks; lichens may be shown with a rock or branch or without

Lizards: lizards are reptiles of the order Squamata, which they share with the snakes(Ophidians); they are usually four-legged, with external ear openings and movableeyelids

Mammals: any mammal regardless of size fits in this category; may be represented by aphotograph, live animal, museum mount or any part of the mammal representative of theclass, such as teeth or hair

Mussels: freshwater mollusks that may be represented by the whole organism or just asingle shell or group of shells

Nectar from flowers: represented by the flower with no other plant parts present

Scorpions: arachnid having a long segmented tail ending in a venomous stinger

Seeds: a fertilized ovule containing an embryo, which forms a new plant upon germination

Snails: applies to most members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have coiledshells

Snakes: cold-blooded legless reptiles, which share the order Squamata with lizards

Spiders: arachnid that usually has silk-spinning organs at the back end of the body; theyspin silk to make cocoons for eggs or traps for prey

Tubers: represented by either the nutlet of the yellow nutsedge (chufa) or by potato

Turtle and Tortoise: animals with a special bony shell developed from their ribs; “turtle”is often used for aquatic species, but aquatic freshwater turtles are also often called“terrapins;” in North America, “turtle” is usually used to refer to all members of the order,including tortoises, which are predominantly land based

F. Wildlife Management Practices to Enhance G. Interpretation of Aerial Images

Activities: Evaluating Habitats from Aerial Photographs

Bibliography of Presentation

1. Janine M. Benyus. 1989. Field Guide to Wildlife Habitats of the Eastern USA. Fireside Press. 336 pp. $15. A noted outdoors expert and an acclaimed illustrator create a stunning picture of the wildlife in the eastern half of the United States. Complete with observation tips. 75 illustrations. Especially good for characteristic plants of different habitats.

2. Eastman, 4. John 8. and Amelia Hansen. Stackpole Books.

a. The Book of Forest and Thicket: Trees, Shrubs, and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. 1993. $17

b. The Book of Swamp and Bog: Trees, Shrubs, and Wildflowers of the Eastern Freshwater Wetlands. 1995. $17

c. The Book of Field and Roadside: Open-Country Weeds, Trees, and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. 2003. $19

References take an ecological approach, providing complete descriptions of plants found in diverse communities as well as wildlife communities associated with them. Books help readers identify plants as well as what other organisms, plant and animal, might be found in the same area, and explains why. Plant lore also provided.

3 David W. Ehrenfeld . The Arrogance of Humanism. Oxford University Press. 1981. 304 pages. $20.

Reviews: "An outstanding source of ideas for those interested in systematically thinking through the issues surrounding the increasing rate of the distintegration of social and physical organizations and the destruction of nature in the world today." –Choice "Ehrenfeld provides a fascinating and extraordinarily topical tour de force on the present discrepancy between the worldwide humanistic faith in reason, science, and technology and the living reality of the human condition." --American Scientist Product Description: Attacks nothing less than the currently prevailing world philosophy--humanism, which the author feels is exceedingly dangerous in its hidden assumptions.

4. Godfrey, Michael A. 1997. Field Guide to the Piedmont: The Natural Habitats of America’s Most Lived-in Region, From New York City to Montgomery, Alabama. 2nd edition, Chapel Hill Books. 536pp. $19.

Focusing on plant succession, geology, soils, climate, and the plants and animals with which we share the land, this book is an informative guide to the region's habitats, ecosytems, and rich botanical communities. It features 180 illustrations identifying principal flora and fauna of mesoseres, xeroseres, and hydroseres. Book is recommended for discussion of role of succession in Piedmont landscape and ecology of cultivated areas. Also has inventories of Lepidoptera, reptiles, amphibians, birds (incomplete), and mammals. Discusses food choices only in general terms.

5. Martin, Alexander C. et al. 1951. American Wildlife and Plants: A Guide To Wildlife Food Habits. Dover Press. 500 pp. $20. Food habits of more than 1,000 species of mammals, birds, fish, plus important plants as food researched by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 300 illustrations, maps.

6, Young, James A. and C. G. Young 2009. Seeds of Woody Plants in North America: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Timber Press. 416 pp. $50. A greatly revised edition of Agriculture Handbook 450 issued by the US Forest Service in 1974, this A–Z encyclopedia of woody plant seeds covers 386 genera, adds more than 1,000 literature citations to the original, and treats all aspects of collection, storage, and germination.

Electronic Resources

1. Humboldt Field Research Institute and Eagle Hill Foundation , “Northeastern (& Southeastern) Naturalist”: http://www.eaglehill.us/programs/journals/nena/northeastern-naturalist.shtml

2. Natural Resources Conservation Services Programs for wildlife conservation: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

3. Natural Resources Conservation Services Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP): http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/whip/

4. Natural Resources Conservation Services Pollinator Enhancement Activity (PLT01): http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/new_csp/2010/ranking_period_two/jobsheet_pdfs/plt/10_R2_PLT01_Pollinator_Habitat_Establishment.pdf

5. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov6. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/aboutus/7. 4-H Wildlife Habitat Evaluation Program: http://www.whep.org/