CHAPTER 1Methods for research on farmers' knowledge, attitudes,

and practices in pest managementM. M. Escalada and K. L. Heong

AbstractIf researchers are to design appropriate improvements in pest management, they must understand why farmers do the things they do. The most common methods used to obtain this information include rapid rural appraisals, key informant interviews, focus group interviews, and farmer surveys. If properly planned and executed, these methods can be cost-effective ways to obtain data for setting research priorities and designing intervention strategies to improve farmers’ pest management decision making. The key informant interview involves talking to knowledgeable persons to provide background information needed for designing a survey. The focus group interview, a directed group discussion with various sectors of a population, can be used to obtain insights into farmers’ perceptions and concerns and to probe the issues that emerged during a key informant interview. The farmer survey comprises problem identification, questionnaire development, pretesting, sampling, fieldwork, data processing, and analysis. It can be used to improve problem definition, to raise further questions, and to answer others.

Introduction

Research and development in pest management does not always lead to improved practices. In the case of rice, farmers’ practices have changed little during the past three decades, although research advancements have occurred (Brader 1979, Heong and Sogawa 1994, Heong 1996). According to Norton and Mumford (1993), this phenomenon may be attributed to two main problems. First, research and development may be aimed at answering the wrong questions or at developing inappropriate practices: a design problem. Second, research and development may be well targeted, but the results are not getting through to be implemented by farmers: a delivery problem.

Pest organisms are sometimes fascinating subjects that can lead to research driven by scientific curiosity — rather than the quest to solve problems. Although some basic research can result in innovations, they must still be applied within farmers’ contexts. Perhaps the low success rate of efforts to improve farmers’ pest management may be because the problem of implementation is not seen as an integral part of the general research and development agenda of designing appropriate improvements in pest management (Norton and Heong 1988). The need — for both researchers and extension workers — to understand why farmers do the things they do has been translated into several research procedures (Byerlee et al 1980, Collinson 1984, Conway 1985, Norton and Mumford 1993, Merrill-Sands and Collion 1993). These procedures emphasize identifying the key questions by describing major components and relationships involved in the problem.

Farmer surveys are used to improve problem definition, to raise further questions, and to answer others. Other techniques have been used to complement farmer surveys, such as the rapid rural appraisal and historical and seasonal information, as have other participatory approaches, such as problem specification workshops. During these workshops, stakeholders exchange knowledge and experience to determine pest problems, identify areas to work on, and develop action plans for addressing the problems (Bilston et al 1997).

This chapter describes farmer surveys and the various techniques that researchers are using to obtain information about farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and the reasons for not implementing new practices endorsed by research results.A farmer survey is an important data-gathering process for assessing the needs of intended beneficiaries to determine their knowledge and perceptions of a pest problem, their constraints in dealing with the problem, and their attitudes and practices in pest management. The role of such surveys is to determine the nature of farmer practices that can guide both research and extension work. If carefully designed and implemented, farmer surveys can identify gaps in knowledge, misconceptions, or inappropriate practices that need to be addressed by research (Bentley and Andrews 1996). The scope of a farmer survey need not be limited to farmers' pest management knowledge, attitudes, and practices, but it could also cover aspects such as decision-making patterns, agronomic practices, and socioeconomic profiles.

Farmer surveys, also referred to as baseline surveys or knowledge-attitude-practice surveys, have been done in recent years in Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)-supported strategic extension campaigns in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. Topics covered weed management, pest surveillance, rat control, golden snail management, temperate fruit crop cultivation, and maize production (Adhikarya 1994). The data derived from such surveys have been used to define problems, plan programs, design strategic extension messages, and serve as benchmark data for a subsequent summative evaluation. Besides its use in extension planning, the knowledge-attitude-practice survey can serve as a diagnostic tool to identify the real problem and decide whether an extension campaign is a suitable solution. A series of exploratory questions to help in making decisions using knowledge-attitude-practice surveys is provided (Fig. 1).

Methods to solicit farmer information

Surveys tend to generate quantitative information that is only surface-deep; they should therefore be complemented with more sensitive and in-depth methods (Chambers 1983, Bentley and Andrews 1996). Informal qualitative methods, such as diagnostic surveys, focus group interviews, and key informant interviews, have been employed in some of the more innovative and cost-effective farmer surveys. In most cases, a diagnostic survey and key informant interviews often precede a formal baseline survey (Fujisaka 1991). These activities help structure the subsequent formal survey and ensure that it is focused and appropriate in the local context.

Table 1 outlines the main features of data collection methods (key informant interview, focus group interview, and formal survey) used to complement a farmer survey according to objectives, sampling procedure, type of instrument, data collection method, and data processing and analysis. Issues that may emerge during a key informant interview can be probed in the focus group interview. While the key informant interview can provide leads, the focus group interview can be used to clarify points raised and explore whether there is a consensus on the concerns voiced by key informants. The research areas can be probed in focus groups to help generate ideas and develop hypotheses that will then be fully assessed in the larger, quantitative study. For example, in planning a major national survey on farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to weed management, separate focus groups might be

conducted with farmers to identify key issues. Focus groups could help researchers generate hypotheses and develop the wording for specific questions to be used in a formal survey.

Key informant interviewsUsed as a tool to explore related issues and problems associated with a given topic, a key informant interview involves talking to persons such as extension workers, key farmers, local government officials, traders, and community leaders who know the area or certain aspects of the problem (Jimenez 1985). From these key informants, researchers can obtain information about the most important production problems, cropping patterns, rainfall distribution, and other relevant topics that can help them make decisions on subsequent activities. Taking an unstructured interview approach, this type of interview enables the researcher to gain new insights, raise questions, and examine phenomena from different perspectives (Bogdan and Taylor 1975, Okamura 1985). These informal interviews are useful for providing background information for defining the issues to be addressed by a formal survey and as a guide for developing a more structured questionnaire (Bryman 1988, Siebert 1973). An interview guide that contains questions to gather information relevant to a certain issue may be used to carry out the key informant interview.

Focus group interviewsThe focus group interview is a qualitative research technique originally developed to give marketing researchers a better understanding of the data from quantitative consumer surveys. As an indispensable tool for marketing researchers (Krueger 1988), the focus group interview has become extremely popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the target audience (Debus 1988, US Department of Health and Human Services 1980). This technique is a rapid assessment, semi-structured, data-gathering method in which a purposively selected set of

participants gathers to discuss issues and concerns based on a list of key themes drawn up by the researcher or facilitator (Kumar 1987). Marketing and media studies have shown that the focus group interview is a cost-effective technique for eliciting views and opinions of prospective clients, customers, and end-users. In agriculture, these interviews have been used to obtain insights into target audience perceptions, needs, problems, beliefs, and reasons for certain practices.The focus group interview guide. To keep the session on track while allowing respondents to talk freely and spontaneously, the facilitator uses an interview guide that lists the main topics or themes to be covered in the session. It serves as a road map that guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics leave enough time for in-depth discussion. It should focus only on relevant research issues. The sequence of topics in the guide usually moves from general to specific.

The following steps are suggested for developing the focus interview guide:1. Specify the objectives and information needs of the focus group interview.ExampleTo determine farmers’ reasons for following certain weed management practices.2. Break down the major topics into discussion points or themes.Example

a) Reasons for using weed management options • chemical• cultural• mechanical• biological

b) Reasons for non-adoption of nonchemical weed management optionsc) Reasons for applying water management at particular crop stages to control weeds

3. Prepare probe questions.Example

a) Let’s talk about the reasons farmers use certain weed management practices in this district. Why do farmers prefer to use herbicides instead of nonchemical options?

b) Do you know of farmers in your area who do not practice weed control? In your opinion, what are the reasons these farmers do not like to control weeds in their rice field?

4. Review the guide and eliminate any irrelevant questions.Asking questions during focus groups. The quality of questions asked in a focus group can make a large difference in the kind of information obtained. Krueger (1988) gives some tips on how to handle open-ended and dichotomous questions in these interviews.

Open-ended questions are most appropriate at the start of the discussion because they allow participants to answer from different angles. As the possible responses are not preconceived, open-ended questions give the participants opportunities to express their thoughts and feelings based on their specific situations. Krueger warns that some questions may appear to be open-ended but are really closed-ended because they include phrases such as “satisfied,” “to what extent,” and “how much.”

Dichotomous questions are ones that can be answered with a “yes” or “no” or other similar two-alternative choice. As yes-no questions are dead ends, they usually do not trigger the desired group discussion. They also tend to elicit vague responses that do not lead to an understanding of the key issues being discussed (Moulton and Roberts 1993).

Logistical arrangements

Invitations. Participants are contacted in advance, at least one to two weeks before the session. A letter of invitation may be sent to each participant, depending on the prevailing practices in the area. Participants are reminded about the focus group interview one day before the session.

Group composition. The choice of participants depends on the focus group topic. Often, the people who are included are those knowledgeable about the topic, but it is also wise to gather the views of certain groups within the target population. The optimal number of participants is 8-10. If a group is too small, one person in the group may dominate it; if it is too big, then it may be difficult to control. Group members should be representative of the target population.

Transportation. To ensure attendance, transportation is usually arranged for the participants from their residences to the interview venue and back. In rural areas where farm families may reside in distant villages, participants could be asked to converge at a central location to facilitate pick-up.

Venue. Focus group interviews can be conducted in a place where 8-10 persons can be seated and assured of some privacy. In rural areas, the most readily available sites are school buildings, health and community centers, and churches. An appropriate venue is a neutral place that is free from distractions and where participants can talk openly.

Seating arrangement. Four semicircular seating arrangement facilitates interaction among participants because it allows them to freely see and hear each other.

Timing. The timing of the meeting should be convenient to all participants. While waiting for others to arrive, the focus group interview team can use the time to break the ice by getting information about the participants’ backgrounds. To minimize boredom, focus group interviews are generally not stretched beyond two hours.Name tags. It is best to remember the names of the participants. Often, a seating arrangement will facilitate identifying each one. If the culture permits, providing name tags to participants is useful because it enables facilitators to call on those who may be too shy to express their opinions.

Recording of discussion. A trained rapporteur should be asked to capture the discussion in writing and note the participants’ nonverbal expressions. Situations may occur where the discussion needs to be tape-recorded, but facilitators should weigh the advantages and disadvantages.

Refreshments. When resources permit, serving refreshments after the session is a small gesture of appreciation to the participants for having taken time off from their work to participate.

How to conduct a focus group interviewFacilitator: In selecting a person to moderate a focus group, it is important that this person have these qualities:

• familiarity with the discussion topic• ability to speak the language of the area• cultural sensitivity, including not acting as a judge or a teacher, not looking down on

respondents, not agreeing or disagreeing with what is said, and not putting words in the participants’ mouths

• sensitivity to women• politeness

Steps in conducting the session. Before the focus group interview begins, the facilitator should obtain background information on the participants, such as age, crops grown, and other pertinent items. The type of information to collect depends on the topic. Once this is done, the following sequence of steps is carried out:

1. After a brief introduction, the purpose and scope of the discussion are explained2. Participants are asked to give their names and brief background information about

themselves.3. The discussion is structured around the key themes using the probe questions prepared

in advance4. During the discussion, all participants are given the opportunity to participate.

Data analysisAfter conducting the focus group interview, the key findings are described, analyzed. and written up in a report. See Appendix A for a sample content page. Debus (1988) suggests some useful guidelines for analyzing data:1. Develop a plan for analysis consisting of:

• background of the research• objectives• methods• discussion details• focus group interview guide

2. Analyze the content of the group discussion by:• reviewing the notes from the focus group• listening again to the cassettes from the session (if tape-recorded)• grouping research findings according to key themes• identifying the different positions that emerged under each key theme• summarizing each of the different positions and assessing the extent to which each

position was held by participants• pulling out verbatim phrases that represent each position

3. Synthesize the group discussion by:• reviewing the moderator’s notes of each discussion• identifying the recurrent ideas that came out during each discussion• interpreting these recurrent ideas based on other findings that emerged• identifying the differences expressed for each topic and summarizing the findings and group discussion.

Farmer surveys

In a survey, a researcher collects data from a sample of a population to determine the relative incidence, distribution, and interrelations of variables for the purpose of describing or predicting and as a guide to action (Kerlinger 1986, Oppenheim 1966). Sample surveys focus on people and their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, and behaviors. The goal of survey research is to infer the characteristics of a population from samples drawn from that population.

Limitations of the survey approachChambers (1983) summarizes some of the problems with the survey approach: “...questionnaire surveys often take more time and resources than estimated, enslave researchers, and generate misleading data and unread reports. Some bad questionnaire surveys make rural people appear ignorant when they are not.” Because of the usefulness of surveys in setting the research agenda, designing extension strategies, and evaluating the effectiveness of projects and

development interventions, researchers have often used them to get the information they need which generates quantitative indicators that give the semblance of rigor often desired by donors and practitioners. But surveys can be costly, inefficient, and superficial by donors and practitioners. But surveys can be costly, inefficient, and superficial (Bryman 1988, Chambers 1983, Kearl 1976) unless they are carefully planned and combined with in-depth, more sensitive techniques used by a multidisciplinary team (Yin 1984, Bryman 1988, Gonzalez 1985).

How to conduct a farmer surveyIt is important that surveys be planned and conducted with the utmost care because their cost-effectiveness and opportunity costs are often high (Chambers 1983). The following procedure is recommended:

Identifying the problem. The first step in planning a farmer survey is to identify the problem that needs to be addressed. In pest management, the choice of the specific pest problem on which to focus depends on the research priorities and information needs of a given ministry or plant protection organization. Where these priorities have not been articulated, the farmer survey could also be used to gather information for developing them.

Developing survey objectives. Once a priority problem has been identified, the next step is to develop the survey objectives. A list of the variables that will help find answers to the survey objectives may put the researcher on track. Similarly, specific questions aimed at various aspects of the problem could help clarify the research problem. It is also important to remember that the survey objectives should guide the choice of questions.

Dummy tables for analyzing the data could help clarify the research problem and guide the construction of interview questions. A sample dummy table on farmers’ sources of rice seeds is provided (Table 2).

Developing the survey instrument. In a farmer survey, the instrument used for data collection is a questionnaire that contains a series of questions designed to gather information from the respondents. Depending on the survey objectives, the questions may focus on topics such as farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices for a pest problem, their cropping patterns, and their demographic and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Two types of questionnaire items are commonly used: closed-ended and open-ended. Scale items are a third type.

Closed-ended items. Fixed-alternative or closed-ended items offer the respondent a choice among two or more alternatives. For most items, closed-ended questions are valuable because they provide a frame of reference and help to clarify the meaning of the question. The most

common type of closed-ended question is dichotomous, which uses two-alternative answers, such as yes-no, agree-disagree. Often a third alternative, don’t know or undecided, is added.

An example of one type of closed-ended question isWho is responsible for water management in your rice field?

1) self2) spouse3) hired labor4) other (specify)

With closed-ended items, a researcher can achieve greater uniformity and reliability of measurement by encouraging respondents to answer in a way that fits preset response categories—which facilitates data processing. But their major disadvantage is their superficiality. Without probing questions, they do not ordinarily get beneath the response surface. Probing questions are follow-up items that encourage respondents to clarify their answers, giving more details about thoughts, feelings, and opinions (Moulton and Roberts 1993). If they are mixed with open-ended items and used with probing questions, closed-ended items are useful (Bryman 1988, Kerlinger 1986).

Open-ended items. The second type of item, open-ended questions, supplies a frame of reference for respondents’ answers, but puts a minimum of restraint on answers and their expression. Although their content is dictated by the research problem, they impose no other restrictions on the manner in which respondents answer.

An example is:How should water management be carried out to control weeds?

Open-ended questions are flexible. They provide opportunities for getting in depth information that enable the interviewer to clarify the question, ascertain a respondent’s lack of knowledge, detect ambiguity, encourage cooperation and achieve rapport, or make better estimates of respondents’ attitudes and beliefs (Kerlinger 1986).

Scale items. A scale is a set of verbal items to which an individual responds by expressing degrees of agreement or disagreement or some other mode of response (Kerlinger 1986, Kidder 1981, Becker 1970). Scale items have fixed alternatives and place the responding individual at some point on the scale. Scales often consist of response categories of multiple points, such as 7, 5, or 3. While a 5-point or 7-point scale is generally suggested to minimize a response bias, a 3-point scale has been observed to be more appropriate for rural settings because of differences in vocabulary patterns and education levels. Rural respondents are often unable to put gradations in their own perceptions or feelings, making it difficult to discriminate between “agree” and “strongly agree.” An example of a scale follows:Leaf-feeding insects do not cause yield loss.

1) strongly agree2) agree3) neither agree nor disagree4) disagree5) strongly disagree6) don’t know

For agree-disagree scales such as the one shown, it is important to include a “don’t know” category so that respondents who have no knowledge of an issue can say so. When using a

“don’t know” category, we suggest that the midpoint of the scale become “neither agree nor disagree.”

Assessing farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices. In farmer surveys, some questions seek to establish which particular technique or concept respondents know about, how they feel about it, and whether they practice it. An objective norm is provided against which to compare respondents’ knowledge and practices, and an objective standard is given against which to rate the extent of their knowledge and practices, and the direction of their attitudes. The assumption behind measuring the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of respondents is that differences exist between what people know (knowledge), how they feel (attitude), and what they do (practice).

Using the information gleaned, a researcher can identify gaps in knowledge, attitudes, and practices for a specific problem, which may have implications for designing future research and for implementing interventions. In a survey of farmers’ weed management practices, for example, we found that most farmers relied on their own seed or that of a neighbor for transplanting or broadcasting in their fields. Most believed that seeds from private seed growers do not require additional cleaning, and that neighbors and friends should exchange seeds among themselves. The farmers said they preferred their own or their neighbors’ unprocessed seeds because a supply is always available and accessible, and the cost is low. Information like this about farmers’ knowledge can be transformed into researchable problems, with the research results eventually communicated back to the farmers.

Appendix B provides a sample survey questionnaire containing questions on knowledge, attitudes, and practices.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice questions defined. Knowledge questions are constructed to test a respondent’s comprehension and awareness of the subject matter of the survey. Attitude questions measure how respondents feel about a particular subject. These questions use scales to ask respondents to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with certain statements. An example of an attitude scale is the following:

Direct seeding or broadcasting can increase the weed population._____1) agree_____2) no opinion_____3) disagree

Questions on practices measure the action component of a survey by asking respondents how they behave or would behave in a particular situation. Although observation is a more reliable method for determining a practice, farmer surveys often measure a practice through verbal reports of a respondent’s use of a particular technique or a set of recommended procedures. In asking about a respondent’s present behavior or practice, specific—rather than general—questions are asked about what the person is actually doing. In a survey on farmers’ pesticide use, for example, it is preferable to ask, “Which pesticide do you currently use? May I see the container?’ rather than merely asking, “Which chemicals do you use?”

Question wording. Often the validity and reliability of survey data depend on the quality of the wording of the questions. Appropriateness and preciseness of the wording are desirable attributes for generating reliable answers. To elicit accurate responses, sensitivity must be given to cultural differences in linguistic patterns. For instance, in pretesting of the survey instrument

to determine message reach and use in Vietnam, the following survey questions were found to be difficult to interpret:1. IF NO, why did you decide not to do the experiment?2. Have you stopped early spraying for leaf folder control?

1) Yes2) No

In this case, respondents perceived the use of negative words in a question to imply a negative meaning (stopped the early spray for leaf folder control), so they were considered inappropriate and culturally unacceptable. The questions were modified to interpret:

1. Did you carry out the experiment?2. Did you spray insecticides in the early season for leaf folder control?If not, why not?

When researchers work in cross-cultural survey settings, it is essential to exercise care in the choice of words and syntax of survey questions. It is thus important to pretest all questions before using them.

Being aware of the common errors in constructing questionnaires can help prevent problems that threaten the validity of data:1. Leading questions that suggest answers or force respondents to answer in the direction desired by the researcher.ExampleDo you think using IPM is a waste of time?1) Yes2) NoAn improvement: What do you think of IPM?

2. Double-barreled items that ask two questions simultaneouslyExampleWhat major pests did you have last season, and how did you control them?An improvement:a) What major pests did you have last season?b) For each of the above, how did you control it?

3. Vague references to timeExampleUsually, what is your most important rice pest?An improvement:Last season, which pest did you consider to be the most important?4. Subjective qualifiersExampleNormally, how many times do you spray chemicals on your rice crop?An improvement:Last season, how many times did you spray chemicals on your rice crop?5. Very long questions that tax the memory of a respondentExampleFor your last rice crop, could you tell me the dosage or number of tablespoons per load, number of sprayer loads per hectare, time of application, and number of applications of insecticides?An improvement: Break this up into several questions:

In your last rice crop,a) how many chemical applications did you use?b) how many of these were insecticides?c) how many sprayer loads per hectare did you use?d) what was the dosage or number of tablespoons of insecticides used in each load?

6. Jargon that confuses respondentsExample:Which of the following is the best way to conserve natural enemies?_____1) spray on a fixed calendar schedule_____2) spray at the first appearance of the pest_____3) follow the economic threshold level methodAn improvement:Which of the following is the best way to conserve spiders (or use words farmers normally use)?_____1) spray on a calendar schedule_____2) spray when the pest first appears_____3) spray when the pest reaches a certain number.

Pretesting the questionnaire. After a researcher completes the draft of the prototype questionnaire, it is pretested on a small representative sample of the population. The pretest is a screening of the questionnaire to see how it works and whether changes are necessary before the actual survey is started. About 15 to 25 respondents are adequate for a pretest. Based on the pretest results, the questionnaire is modified and then finalized.Rationale for pretesting. The pretest provides a means of catching and solving unforeseen problems in using the questionnaire, such as in the phrasing and sequencing of questions. Linguistic and cultural differences often complicate the task of developing a questionnaire—making pretesting indispensable.

The pretest enables a researcher to • improve the wording of the questionnaire;• correct and improve the translation of technical terms;• check the accuracy and adequacy of the questionnaire's instructions, such as skip and

go to;• eliminate unnecessary questions and add necessary ones; and• estimate the time needed to conduct the interview.

Excerpts of pretest results are given in the box on the following page to illustrate how pretesting yielded constructive suggestions that served as the basis for improving a questionnaire.

Sampling techniques for choosing respondents. Deciding how many respondents to include is an important concern in survey research. Standard social science methods are used in selecting the sample for a farmer survey: cluster/multistage sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, and simple random sampling. The choice of sampling technique depends primarily on the nature of the problem, the cost and time factors involved, and the desired precision or reliability of the results (Parel et al 1978, Casley and Lury 1982).

Decisions on sample size depend on the degree of accuracy required, the degree of variability in the population, and the kind of data analysis being planned. Sample size can be estimated statistically or by following certain rules. The statistical method requires some assumptions about the population and uses statistical equations for random sampling processes. These procedures can be found in books on social science research methods (Neuman 1997, Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 1996).

Rules for determining sample size are based on past experience with samples drawn from statistical methods, and they are commonly used when studying large populations. According to Neuman (1997), these rules are:

• A small population needs a larger sampling ratio to have an accurate sample.For instance, a population of below 1,000 requires a sampling ratio of 30% to achieve a high level of accuracy. For large populations (above 150,000), smaller sampling ratios (1%) are often sufficient. In general, practical considerations, such as costs and logistics, are the most important deciding factors.• For small samples, small increases in sample size can produce larger gains in accuracy than for large samples.

The following are descriptions of some of the commonly used sampling methods:

Cluster/multistage sampling. Most knowledge, attitude, and practice surveys use the cluster or multistage sampling procedure to select respondents. This technique is recommended when a complete list of persons in the population is not available and if the population covers a large area. In this technique, the researcher comes up with the desired sample by first selecting large groupings (clusters) within the population (Kidder 1981). Sampling is done successively in stages. Through simple or stratified sampling, one chooses the clusters and then the units within each cluster. For example, a survey of farming households may take a sample of regions; within each region, a sample of provinces; within each province selected, a sample of districts; and within each district selected, a sample of households (Parel et al 1966, Kidder1981).

Stratified sampling. Sometimes, the population under study is large and made up of diverse groups. Within the subset of rice farmers. Further groupings exist, such as irrigated, rainfed upland, and rainfed lowland. In such cases, stratified sampling is suggested. When the composition of each group is not equal, the number of farmers selected to be respondents should be proportional to the total number of farmers in each of the three strata.

Systematic sampling. If the population units are within a limited area, a sample of respondents may be selected systematically (Casley and Lury 1982). In systematic sampling, the persons in the population from which the sample will be drawn are numbered consecutively on a list. Then we determine the sampling interval by dividing the sampling population by the desired sample size (N/n). We select the first sample unit at random and choose the succeeding units according to the sampling interval.

Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is done if there is a list of persons to be included in the survey, if these persons are not widely spread out geographically, and if they have similar characteristics. For instance, if a researcher is doing a survey of fruit growers in the northern highlands of a province, he or she needs a list of fruit tree growers in those communities. To select respondents through simple random sampling, various techniques are suggested, such as drawing lots or using random numbers (Parel et al 1966, Kidder 1981).

Implementing the field survey. Once the questionnaire has been pretested, finalized, and reproduced, the next step is to implement the field survey. Resources needed for the fieldwork include personnel, money, and time. A survey coordinator, a supervisor, and interviewers often make up a field survey team. The survey coordinator is responsible for all aspects of the fieldwork, including selecting, training, and deploying interviewers. The supervisor assists the survey coordinator in spot-checking and monitoring the field interviews. Before they begin

conducting the survey, interviewers are oriented on the purpose of the survey and trained on interviewing skills and on how to conduct the interviews. Guided by the sampling plan and respondent list, the interviewers locate the respondents, conduct the interviews, and check the completed questionnaires after the interview.

Choosing a field interviewer: Interviewers are important links in the survey chain, so those who are selected must be honest and objective. We have found that college students tend to be more objective interviewers because they do not have the inherent bias that professional agency staff members often have. In a survey of rice farmers’ pest management perceptions and practices, for example, we observed that the plant protection officers who had done the interviews tended to unnecessarily interpret farmers’ responses. Although many farmers reported that “green worm” was their most important pest, interviewers recorded the pest as either armyworm or rice bug based on their perception of what “green worm” implied. Green worm could have referred to a variety of leaf feeders, such as rice leaf folders, cutworms, caseworms, and thrips.

Guidelines for interviewers when implementing the field survey. To ensure efficient implementation of the survey and to minimize errors, the following guidelines for interviewers are suggested:

Selecting respondents. Only those farmers who are on the respondent or replacement list should be interviewed. If the designated farmer is temporarily not available at the time of the interview, schedule a return visit. If the person will not be available for a long time, choose a name from the list of replacements.

Materials. Advise interviewers to obtain the following before fieldwork: specific area of assignment, list of rice farmers to be interviewed, questionnaires, a map, and pencils.

Establish rapport with the respondent. As a quick approach for obtaining information, a survey often relies on interviewers who are unknown to the respondents. Being a stranger can pose difficulties—respondents often hesitate to give accurate information because of an implicit mistrust of outsiders. When conducting field interviews, a first step would be to establish rapport with respondents by setting the proper atmosphere. To achieve this, the following steps are suggested:1. Introduce yourself.2. Ask the respondent’s permission for the interview.3. Inform the respondent of these important points:

• description of the study• purpose• benefits that can be derived from the study

4. The following is an example of an introduction:“Good morning, I am (insert name), a student at Long An University. The Plant Protection Department (PPD) is currently doing a survey of farmers in Long An Province with regard to the recent multimedia campaign on pest management. We would like to find out what you heard from the campaign and whether you told others about it. Your feedback will help PPD and the People’s Committee make plans on how to better respond to your information needs on pest management. May we please interview you?”

How to conduct the field interview

1. Create a friendly atmosphere by being courteous, conversational, and unbiased. When a respondent gives an answer that indicates a knowledge gap, never show surprise or disapproval.2. Ask each question exactly as it is worded in the questionnaire. If the respondent has difficulty in understanding the question, however, either repeat the question or try to adjust it slightly to facilitate understanding.3. Ask questions in the order they appear on the questionnaire. Jumping from question 1 to question 6 then back to question 2 will confuse the respondent and affect the answers given.4. Ask every question, unless the directions on the questionnaire specifically state to skip certain ones. It is important that the questionnaire be filled out completely. Record responses as they are reported to you. Do not give a personal interpretation of a respondent’s answers.5. Be extremely careful not to suggest a possible reply. When the respondent does not give a quick answer, be patient and wait for the response.6. Do not read aloud the response categories unless instructed to because they will lead the respondent. Simply read the questions and wait for the respondent to answer. If the person is having problems, the interviewer may encourage him or her by saying, “Is there anything else?” or “What else did you do?”7. When a respondent answers “I don’t know,” misinterprets the meaning of a question, or contradicts himself/herself, repeat the question or probe by saying, “Is that all?” or “Could there be other reasons?” or “Could you tell me some more?”8. Where it is indicated “Go to question ...”, follow the instruction carefully.9. Never show that the respondent is wrong when asking questions about his/ her knowledge. Take down answers as given. If the response given indicates that the person misunderstood, however, repeat the question to clarify.10. Do not let the respondent go off on a tangent. If he/she talks too long on one topic, listen for a polite time and then proceed with the interview.

Probing questions. In many interview situations, some respondents tend to give vague replies such as “okay” or “good,” which can mean different things. When this happens, try to have the person express himself/herself better by asking why it is “okay” or “good” and encourage the person to give more specific answers. If a respondent’s answer belongs to the “other” category of responses in the questionnaire, ask him/her to specify the response. These follow-up questions are referred to as probes, which are often used to elicit additional information, expand an idea already expressed by the respondent, or clarify the respondent’s response (Sedlack and Stanley 1992).

Usually, open-ended probing questions ask for more than a yes or no answer and provide the respondent the leeway to respond to a question from his/her own perspective. These generic follow-up questions are suggested to elicit more precise information (Kidder 1981, Krueger 1988):“Could you give an example?’“In what way?”“What do you mean?”“Would you explain further?”“Tell me a little more about it.”“What do you mean when you said...”“Tell me how it is so...”

Open-ended survey questions usually provide opportunities for probing, but the sequence of probe questions to ask depends on the respondent’s initial response (see the example in the box).

Check the responses1. After an answer is given, check it to make certain it is complete.2. Review the responses immediately upon completing the interview to check for any unclear information; if found, clear up the problem with the respondent before leaving.3. Correct inconsistent answers by asking the respondent to clarify answers.Close the interview. After checking your interview schedule for completeness, briefly thank your respondent for his/her cooperation.Specific instructions on using the questionnaire. Every questionnaire should have a set of instructions to guide the interviewer on how certain questions should be asked to elicit the needed information. Interviewers should be provided with written instructions on how to use the questionnaire during their training (see sample below).Encoding and analyzing survey data. Once the completed questionnaires have been checked, the data are coded, processed, and analyzed by hand or by using a statistical package for a computer. Ease of use, power, and cost are some of the important considerations when choosing computer software for data analysis. Translating question responses and respondent information into specific categories for analysis is called encoding the data. The first step of encoding information involves constructing a code book, which is a set of rules used to classify observations of variables into values that are transformed into numbers (see the sample code book below).

The numbers of responses in different categories are tabulated and then statistical analysis is done, including calculating percentages and averages and doing appropriate tests of significance. The data analyses are then interpreted and the results organized into a coherent report that explains the research problem, data collection methods used, findings, and conclusions. Like other research papers, the survey report should consist of an abstract or executive summary, introduction, methods, results and discussion, and conclusions. The abstract, which is a succinct summary of the work, should describe the survey objectives, methods, summary of the results, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.

Conclusions

In this chapter, we discussed various methods for determining farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices in pest management. These methods—rapid rural appraisal, key informant interview, focus group interview, and formal survey—have been used by many authors for various purposes to obtain data from the field. The methods are instruments to gather data and, for the research to provide meaningful descriptions and analyses, it is important to begin by defining the problem. At the outset, the research problem has to be defined so that the appropriate variables can be carefully selected to test the hypotheses; the corresponding instruments can then be developed to address the problem. Each method has its own strengths and limitations. Thus, authors often use a combination of methods in their research program.

Because data from surveys and related methods depend on respondents’ self-reports, they may contain errors that weaken their reliability and validity. Such errors may arise from the use of inappropriate variables, biased sampling procedures, wording of questionnaires, linguistic and cultural nuances, interviewer inadequacies, and data-encoding mistakes. To minimize such sources of error, special emphasis must be placed on instrument design and implementation of surveys. It is useful to conduct several pretests before finalizing the instruments, especially to prevent misunderstandings caused by linguistic differences. In implementation, it is useful to adopt a quality assurance procedure to minimize interviewer inadequacies and data encoding.

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Notes

Authors’ addresses: M.M. Escalada, Department of Development Communication, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines; K.L. Heong, Entomology and Plant Pathology Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), through the Rice IPM Network based at IRRI, for funding the farmer surveys and focus group interviews from which we have drawn the content for this chapter, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for allowing us to cite some of its processes and results, and our research collaborators in the national agricultural research systems in the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Citation: Escalada MM, KL Heong. 1997. Methods for research on farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices in pest management. p. 1-34. In: Heong KL, Escalada MM (editors). 1997. Pest management of rice farmers in Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute, 245 p..

Appendix A

Appendix B

Escalada MM, KL Heong. 1997. Methods for research on farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices in pest management. p. 1-34. In: Heong KL, Escalada MM (editors). 1997. Pest management of rice farmers in Asia. Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 245 p.

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