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A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 1
Pennsylvania State University
College of the Liberal Arts
Department of Applied Linguistics
A Critical Discourse Analysis of Travel Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders
A Paper in
Teaching English as a Second Language
By
Erica Stabley
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Master of Arts
December 2014
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 2
The following faculty members approve the MA paper entitled A Critical Discourse Analysis of
Travel Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders written by Erica Stabley:
________________________________ ____________________Susan G. Strauss, Ph.D. DateAssociate Professor of Applied Linguistics, Asian Studies, Education, Linguistics
________________________________ ____________________Deryn P. Verity, Ph.D. DateDirector of ESL/EAP Programs and Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 3
Acknowledgements
I cannot express enough gratitude for my committee who contributed their energy, effort,
and support in helping me accomplish the writing of this paper. Thank you to Dr. Susan P.
Strauss, my advisor, who took the time out of her busy life and schedule to help me complete this
paper in a condensed amount of time and offered her support and encouragement throughout the
process. Also, thank you to Dr. Deryn P. Verity, my committee member, for her advice, support,
and encouragement. I am incredibly grateful to also have had the opportunity to have both Dr.
Strauss and Dr. Verity as professors during my experience in Penn State’s MA TESL program.
Thank you also to my family and friends who pushed me and encouraged me through a stressful
time.
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A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 4
Abstract
This paper explores the persuasive genre of tourism advertising through a critical discourse
analysis approach in order to investigate the online travel brochures of two different travel
companies: STA Travel & Trailfinders. All types of travel brochures aim to persuade or
convince potential travelers to choose the experience or destination being promoted and use
similar strategies to do so; however, in order to be successful in such a competitive tourism
market, travel companies often orient their brochures to target particular social groups. Different
social groups are characterized by specific motivations, desires, beliefs, and choices, which
create and shape identities. Ultimately, people will choose consumption activities that agree
with these identities. Travel brochures use this relationship as a persuasive strategy and align
their discursive features and the particular type of travel being promoted to the identities of
different social groups. A critical discourse analysis revealed that both STA Travel and
Trailfinders discursively frame their services in order to appeal to a specific target groups’
identities, needs, and motivations underlying their desire to travel. In addition, this analysis
revealed different perceptions of experiencing the unknown and the way these perceptions create
distinctions between “travel” and “tourism” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). STA Travel targets
young, adventurous individuals and promotes experiences as a path towards reshaping existing
identities and gaining a new perspective of the world, placing STA experiences in the ‘travel’
category. Trailfinders, on the other hand, promotes experiences as not necessarily reshaping
identities, but being in alignment with existing identities that are attracted to a standard, superior,
risk-free type of experience. Trailfinders experiences, therefore, were found to agree with those
oriented towards ‘tourism.’
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 5
Table of Contents
1. An Analysis of Tourism Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders……………….7
2. Review of Literature……………………………………………………………..............10
2.1 Discourse & Genres……………………………………………………………….....11
2.2 Promotional Genres……………………………………………………………….....11
2.3 Tourism Advertising………………………………………………………………....12
2.4 Travel Brochures………………………………………………………………..........12
2.4 a. Textual elements…………………………………………………………..14
2.5 Identity……………………………………………………………….........................15
2.5 a. Identity: Critical discourse analysis……………………………………….16
2.5 b. Identity: Target group……………………………………………………..17
2.5 c. Identity: Here vs. there…………………………………………………….18
2.5 d. Identity: A new sense of consciousness…………………………………...19
2.5 e. Identity: Travel vs. tourism………………………………………………..20
3. Data & Methodology……………………………………………………………….................23
3.1 Why Travel Brochures? ………………………………………..................................23
3.2 STA Travel & Trailfinders………………………………………………………….. 24
3.3 Critical Discourse Analysis…………………………………………………………..25
3.3 a. Visual Imagery ……………………………………………………………26
3.3 b. Stance of expertise ………………………………………………………..27
3.3 c. Participation framework..……….…………………………………………28
3.3 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………… 29
4. Data Analysis ……….…………………………………………………………….…………..29
4.1 STA Travel ……….………………………………………………………………….29
4.1 a. Visual imagery……….……………………………………………………30
4.1 b. Stance of expertise….……………………………………………………..31
4.1 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you” ……….………………………..34
4.1 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………….38
4.2 Trailfinders ……….………………………………………………………………………… 44
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 6
4.2 a. Visual imagery ……….…………………………………………………………...45
4.2 b. Stance of expertise ……….……………………………………………………….45
4.2 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you” ……….………………………………..48
4.2 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………………….50
5. Findings ……….……………………………………………………………………………...55
5.1 STA & Trailfinders Uncovered ……….…………………………………………….55
5.2 STA Travel ……….………………………………………………………………….55
5.3 Trailfinders Travel ……….………………………………………………………….57
5.4 Travel vs. Tourism ……….………………………………………………………… 58
References ……………………………………………………………………………………….61
Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………65
Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………66
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 7
1. An Analysis of Tourism Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders
Explosions in mass media and advancements in technology have made the world a
communication playground and have enabled constant engagement with other cultures and
societies. In a world where communication is always accessible and where everyone is always
connected, the desire to travel, see, and experience a world other than one’s own has become
increasingly popular. As a result, the tourism industry has seen great expansion which has
created a complex and competitive global market for tourism companies. Within this competitive
market, effective tourism advertising is a critical part of making companies stand out from one
another and have success (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000).
One of the most prominent forms of tourism advertising includes the use of travel
brochures (Molina & Esteban, 2006; Wicks & Schuett, 1991). Travel brochures are especially
important in tourism consumption because, unlike other goods and services, the tourism product
is intangible (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000). Because of the intangible nature of the tourism
experience, travel brochures employ various strategies that help them attract, persuade, and
convince consumers to ultimately choose the experience they are offering (Salim, Ibrahim, &
Hassan, 2012). One of these persuasive strategies involves targeting particular social groups,
which highlights the role of consumer identity in the realm of tourism consumption.
In order to understand the relationship between self-identity and tourism consumption,
the concept of self-identity first needs to be defined. Bagozzi (2013) defines the self as the “set
of central values, goals, and commitments a person has which are reflected in one’s beliefs,
dispositions, emotions, choices, and personal and group relationships” (p. 255). Bagozzi’s
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 8
(2013) general definition of self can be applied to that of self-identity in regard to tourism
consumption. In general, consumption and self are intertwined because an individual chooses
consumption activities that agree with the self (Bagozzi, 2013). Thus, tourism consumption
constitutes one such activity that is chosen specifically because it agrees with the self, which
portrays the power of identity when it comes to tourism consumption.
Travel brochures constitute a major source of persuasion in tourism consumption and
utilize the relationship between identity and tourism consumption to help them accomplish
persuasion. Particular “subgroups of society” are formed when an individual has similar
commitments to a specific product or consumption and therefore can personally identify with a
source of persuasive communication (Bagozzi, 2013, p. 260). These subgroups are reflective of
individual perspectives and attitudes, which form the foundation of consumer identity (Bagozzi,
2013). By presenting destinations in a particular way that subgroups or target groups will
identify with, travel brochures can better convince their target group to choose the destination
they are promoting. This makes them a powerful, persuasive tool in the promotion of tourism
consumption.
In addition to promoting acts of travel as being in alignment with particular identities, the
consumption of travel and the experience of the ‘other’ is also promoted as means to a new,
reformed identity. Bagozzi (2013) explains that, in general, consumption activities have been
seen to lead to a transformation of self or a shift in attitude. This is possible because individual
attitudes are influenced by the need or desire to gain something, having common values or goals
with a source of persuasive communication, and acting in a way that establishes or maintains a
self-defining relationship with a source of persuasive communication (Bagozzi, 2013, p. 259). In
addition, Galani-Moutafi (2000) argues that when it comes to experiencing the unknown or
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 9
unfamiliar one can reach a self-realization. Travel brochures present their destinations in a way
that outlines shared goals or values of a particular target group which ultimately influences their
desire to take part in that destination. Once potential travelers commit to experiencing the
known, the overall experience is presented as a means to reshaping identities or gaining new
identities.
Although all types of travel are portrayed as a means to a new identity, the extent to
which travel is seen as creating new identities brings up the distinction between “tourism” and
“travel” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). This distinction is a result of the concept of authenticity in
regard to the experience of the unknown. Handler and Saxton (1988) define authentic
experiences as those where the individual encounters both a “real world” and their “real selves”
(p. 243). Although all experiences involve the unknown, ‘tourism’ experiences are often
promoted in a way that agrees with touristic representations and expectations of destinations,
which limits authenticity (Wang, 1999). To avoid the inauthentic nature of tourism experiences,
many experiences are promoted as ‘travel’ experiences, which involves adventure, risk, and
challenge as well as an authentic experience of the unknown (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). ‘Travel’
experiences are viewed as a means of transforming one’s view of the world (Galani-Moutafi,
2000), therefore having greater potential to reform self-identities or gain new identities.
Overall, the notion of consumer identity becomes particularly salient when it comes to
persuading potential travelers to choose the experiences advertised in travel brochures, and
influences discursive features, the type of travel being promoted, and the precise way that travel
is represented and constructed within brochures (Desforges, 2000; Salim et al., 2012). Desforges
(2000) suggests that the “notion of self-identity… can be used to understand tourism
consumption…and provides a way into addressing many ongoing questions within such studies:
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 10
questions about motivation, practices, destination choice, and the politics of tourism” (p.926).
Delving into the notion of consumer identity within tourism brochures can therefore serve as a
holistic way of revealing specific characteristics about the participants and actions involved in
tourism experiences. I will analyze travel brochures of two tourism companies, which are STA
Travel and Trailfinders, in order to elucidate how travel and tourism companies discursively
frame their products and services to appeal to the various facets of their prospective travelers’
identities, needs, and motivations underlying their desire to travel.
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Discourse & Genres
Language forms the basis of human interaction and plays a major role in making our
interactions have meaning. Language allows people to express, question, learn, understand, think
critically, and see the world through various lenses with various intentions. Language is what
allows us to be social beings and the way we interpret, react to, and perceive language is a result
of the overarching social system of discourse (Strauss & Feiz, 2014). “Discourse is an extremely
complex process, comprised of many interacting components…it arises out of mental constructs
that interact with, for example, the psychological, social, cultural, situational, political, and
personal aspects of life” (Chimombo & Roseberry, 1998, p. x). Discourse is the “social and
cognitive process of putting the world into words, of transforming our perceptions, experiences,
emotions, understandings, and desires into a common medium for expression and
communication, through language and other semiotic media” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.2). Many
types of discourses exist, all of which are socially bound and constructed to have rules,
structures, and expectations.
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All of discourse is organized and structured around the notion of the genre, which allows
people to recognize, organize, and understand the patterns that form the foundation of “putting
the world into words” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.2). Thurlow and Jaworski (2005) implement the
view of Swales (1990) to define and characterize genre by: (a) its central purpose; (b) its content
and form; and (c) the larger discourse community (p. 582). Strauss and Feiz (2014) define genre
as containing “recognizable discursive patterns for the conveyance of essential propositional
context to some form of audience or hearer, within a particular context, with a view to
accomplish a particular communicative purpose” (p.52). Genres, therefore, are socially defined
by their communicative purpose (Askehave, 1999; Halmari & Tuija, 2005; Strauss & Feiz, 2014;
Swales, 1990; Thurlow & Jaworski, 2005).
2.2 Promotional Genres
Promotional genres are a type of genre that have become prominent in today’s
consumeristic society. Bhatia (2005) explains that because society is centered on consumerism,
the concept of promoting has had a major influence on the function of discourse and genres. This
influence is a result of advances in technology and mass communication, an increased focus on
promotional values in business and other areas, and a generally more competitive drive of
professional and academic activities.
One type of promotional genre is that of advertising. The communicative purpose of the
advertising genre is to inform and promote in order to sell ideas, goods and services to a selected
group of people (Bex, 1993; Bhatia, 2005; Halmari & Tuija, 2005; Strauss & Feiz, 2014;
Thurlow & Jaworski, 2005). The advertising genre contains many different text types, making it
difficult to generalize its exact function, however, all of these text types attempt to bring
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 12
attention to and increase consumption of specific goods or services (Bex, 1993). Berger (2004)
describes advertising as a “genre of communication that uses words and images to convince
people exposed to the advertisement to purchase the product or service being promoted” (p. 71).
Thus, advertising informs and persuades in order to accomplish this goal (Salim et al., 2012).
Generally speaking, no matter what the product or service, the underlying objectives of
advertising remain the same.
2.3 Tourism Advertising
In accordance with the general objectives of advertising, the objectives of tourism
advertising attempt to convince people to purchase a specific travel experience or service. More
specifically, tourism advertising attempts to “persuade, attract, encourage, and seduce” potential
tourists to become tourists (Salim et al., 2012, p. 136). In order to convince potential tourists to
become tourists, tourism advertising utilizes persuasive, promotional strategies. Promotional
strategies are especially important when it comes to tourism advertising because tourism is an
intangible product, unlike other goods and services. “Clearly, you cannot test-drive a holiday
beforehand, and thus, promotion becomes critical, having a greater role in establishing the nature
of the product than in most other markets” (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000, p.10). Morgan and
Pritchard (2000) explain how tourism experiences are constructed in our imagination, therefore,
tourism marketing constitutes the selling of dreams or the creation of an “atmosphere” (p. 10).
These promotional strategies aim to make the travel experience appear more tangible and within
the potential traveler’s reach.
2.4 Travel Brochures
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To create this atmosphere and persuade people to choose the intangible product, tourism
advertising utilizes various types of promotional media. These types of media include brochures,
websites, posters, and other media advertising (Berger, 2004). Travel brochures constitute one of
the most important and widely used types of promotional media. When people are searching for
a potential vacation or trip, the sources of information they find will ultimately influence the
decision making process, which increases the significance of travel brochures (Molina &
Esteban, 2006; Wicks & Schuett, 1991). Thus, in order to play an active role in the decision
making process, travel brochures must be able to successfully persuade readers of the destination
they are promoting.
To achieve the act of persuasion, travel brochures utilize both images and words,
therefore making them multimodal (Francesconi, 2014; Salim et al., 2012). Kress (2010)
explains how “multimodality” has become the “normal state of communication,” which is the
result of social, economic, cultural, and technological influences on the dynamic world of
communication (p.2). Multimodality includes using images, writing, and color to convey
meaning and messages (Kress, 2010). Francesconi (2014) defines multimodality as involving
written language, typography, images, graphic design, and a specific layout to present a
destination. Van Leeuwen (2005) has also made important contributions to the concept of
multimodality and explains that “images are also used to do things to or for or with people: to
persuade (advertisements), instruct (patterns for dress making), explain (diagrams in textbooks),
warn (image of skull and crossbones on a door), and so on” (p.120). In regard to travel
brochures, images are used to persuade people of a specific destination or experience and make it
seems like the experience is within the reader’s grasp. “The primary role of the image in these
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 14
texts is undeniable and the multimodal generic structures contribute to attract the attention,
stimulate interest, seduce and above all, convince” (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008, p.453).
The multimodal characteristic of travel brochures makes them that much more influential
because multimodality “fulfills a plurality of semiotic, cognitive, and emotional functions: it
captures the reader’s attention and engenders a positive mood and a pleasant psychological
attitude” (Francesconi, 2014, p. 6). These multimodal, persuasive strategies, where images
interact with “euphoric and laudatory language,” are especially powerful in tourism brochures
because the reader is able to visualize the destination (Francesconi, 2012, p. 35). In addition,
because of advances in technology, travel brochures can easily utilize multimodal strategies,
resulting in a shift towards web-based brochures. This is especially advantageous in a society
that is highly dependent on and influenced by the visual. Online brochures create an interactive
experience through a visual focus which includes pictures, maps, and images (Francesconi,
2014). Multimodal strategies allow online brochures to holistically represent the destination they
are promoting, which ultimately creates a more remembered reading experience for the potential
tourist and gives the destination an attractive force.
Salim et al., (2012) show that although the visual has been seen as an important aspect of
tourism media, the best way to analyze the effects of tourism brochures is to take into account
both language and multimodal elements of communication.
2.4 a. Textual elements
The overall goal of tourism brochures is to accomplish persuasion, thus, in addition to
visual features, discursive features also point towards this goal. Travel brochure writers use
certain linguistic techniques and consciously choose language that will attract and convince
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 15
potential tourists. As cited by Hassan, Habil, and Nassir (2008), Stamous and Paraskevopoulous
(2004) found that the concepts of “pleasure, impressiveness, and recreational” shape tourism
discourse (p. 6). Dann (1996) states that, in regard to tourism brochures, “we never come across
what is average or normal. The discourse of tourism is a form of extreme language” (p.65). The
language of tourism brochures attempts to paint a vivid picture for the reader and specific
techniques are employed in order to make this picture seem realistic and desirable.
Some of these discursive techniques include the use of adjectives, emphatic choices of
words and sentences, metaphors, epithets, hyperboles and other stylistic devices (Dann, 1996).
Various studies focus on the different ways travel brochures use linguistic strategies to
accomplish persuasion. For example, Mocini (2005) highlights how colorful verbal descriptions
and alluring expressions are specifically used to create a “highly emotive experience” and make
the reader feel as though they are part of the world represented in the brochure (p. 157).
All travel brochures employ similar multimodal and linguistic strategies to accomplish
the act of persuasion and convince readers to become tourists. The existence of a vast amount of
travel companies, types of travel experiences, and types of destinations, however, makes for an
incredibly competitive tourism market. In order to situate themselves in a niche and thrive in
such a competitive market, travel brochures often target specific groups of people, which is also
represented within the linguistic and visual features.
2.5 Identity
To help them accomplish persuasion, travel brochures target specific groups of people,
which is possible because of the concept of consumer identity in regard to tourism consumption.
Bagozzi’s (2013) definition of the self is applicable to the concept of identity for the purpose of
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 16
this analysis. Bagozzi (2013) defines the self as the “set of central values, goals, and
commitments a person has which are reflected in one’s beliefs, dispositions, emotions, choices,
and personal and group relationships” (p. 255). Consumption and self are intertwined consumer
identity is salient when it comes to travel consumption because of “consumption begins and ends
with the self” (Bagozzi, 2013). The act of travel is a consumption activity and specific acts of
travel are chosen by travelers because they align with the self and identity, which brings travelers
closer to the experience within travel brochure. As a result of being able to personally identify
with travel brochures, which are a source of persuasive communication, and also having similar
commitments to the specific act of travel, particular “subgroups” or target groups are formed
(Bagozzi, 2013, p. 260). These target groups are reflective of individual perspectives and
attitudes, which form the foundation of traveler identity. By presenting destinations in a
particular way that subgroups or target groups will identify with, tourism brochures become a
persuasive, powerful tool in tourism consumption.
Salim et al., (2012) explain that various studies on tourism advertising have highlighted
specific advertising strategies that are used within language, visual image, representation and
identity. Identity is particular important because it can be used to understand tourism
consumption, including the reasons behind the act of travel (Desforges, 2000). Desforges (2000)
suggests “thinking and talking about self-identity provides a way into addressing many ongoing
questions within such studies: questions about motivation, practices, destination choice, and the
politics of tourism” (p.926). Identity, therefore, is especially important when it comes to tourism
advertising and an analysis of the way that travel brochures use identity to attract specific groups
of people can reveal the reasons behind destination choice, motivation, and the desire to travel.
2.5 a. Identity: Critical discourse analysis
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The relationship between tourism consumption and identity highlights the social
influence on discourse and genres. In order to better understand the social relationship between
tourism consumption and identity, a critical discourse analysis approach will be implemented.
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an analysis approach that centers on discourse as social
practice and accounts the relationships between text, talk, social cognition, power, society and
culture (Van Dijk, 1993, p. 253). It highlights the fact that certain forms of discourse and
meanings may have more influence on people and their mental representations (Van Dijk, 1993).
This approach is applicable to an analysis of tourism brochures because of the way that travel
relates to the overarching issue of identity, which is socially driven concept. CDA is an approach
that takes into account the stances and identities that are underlying in the discourse (Strauss &
Feiz, 2014). Thus, a CDA approach will lead to a more thorough understanding of the semiotics
within tourism brochures and how they are inextricably linked to the social world.
Identity is a constant theme throughout travel brochures and is built upon as the reader
connects with the text. The overarching issue of identity is used to accomplish the act of
persuasion in various ways: 1. by initially attracting a target group using specific linguistic and
visual features that the target group can identify with (Hiippala, 2007); 2. in distinguishing
between the “self” and the “other” and the “here” and the “there” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 205);
and 3. in illustrating that by way of travel and experiencing the ‘other’ and the ‘there,’ new,
reformed identities are created (Galani-Moutafi, 2000).
2.5 b. Identity: Target group
Part of the persuasion process involves establishing connections with individuals in order
to bring them closer to the text and visual. In order to make this persuasive element even more
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 18
powerful, different brochure companies attempt to attract specific social groups of people, which
allows travel brochures to more accurately meet the individual’s needs (Hiippala, 2007). This is
possible because discourses are inextricably linked to the social world and texts have an effect on
people’s beliefs, attitudes, actions and social relations (Fairclough, 2003). According to
Fairclough (2003), “different discourses are different perspectives on the world and they are
associated with different relations people have to the world, which in turn depends on their
positions to the world, their social and personal identities, and the social relationships in which
they stand to other people” (p. 124). In this sense, particular types off travel brochures attempt to
persuade different socio-cultural groups, which are characterized by identity.
Discursive and visual elements of travel brochures are used to align the identity of the
targeted social group with the act of travel that is being presented. On the surface, travel
brochures use similar elements to align identities; however, a deeper analysis shows that these
elements are adapted according to the target group (Hiippala, 2007). For example, Hiippala
(2007) explains that a brochure intended for young backpackers would tailor the content
according to “youth culture,” which may involve highlighting night clubs or an affordable
experience (p. 5). Linguistic strategies, therefore, are used as a way to “project a particular
lifestyle associated with a particular social identity that has particular values” (Caldas-Coulthard,
2008, p. 454). In addition, the multimodal structure of travel brochures allows them to be more
persuasive because images are intentionally chosen for a particular target group. As a result,
travel brochures become even more influential because the target group’s identity is represented
and those in the target group can visualize themselves as a part of the images being represented
(Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Molina & Esteban, 2006).
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 19
Once travel brochure establish the initial connection with potential travelers by way of
identity, they can successfully advertise the experience or destination as a means of escape from
the potential traveler’s daily routine.
2.5 c. Identity: Here vs. there
Once an individual feels connected with the text, they begin to visualize themselves as
being part of the promoted experience. Travel brochures can then successfully provide a contrast
between the potential traveler’s current world and that of a travel world. Travel brochures show
the reader how “ordinary places” can be remade into “extraordinary tourist worlds” (Hummon,
1988, p. 181). Thus, identity is used as a way to distinguish between an individual’s current
world and that of a travel world.
For a place to be considered even more worthwhile to travel to, it must be presented in a
way that differs from the familiar. To persuade potential travelers that this is the case, travel
brochures present destinations as being different from the familiar in every way, which creates a
distinction between what Galani-Moutafi (2000) refers to as the “here” and the “there” (p. 205).
Tourism brochures advertise the “there” as an “exotic” world that contains what is missing in
one’s everyday life and it is through this exotic world that potential travelers will realize their
“imaginative journey” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 212).
The ‘there’ is an opportunity for potential travelers to step outside of the life that they are
accustomed to, which becomes an alluring, attractive force and helps travel brochures
accomplish the act of persuasion. Travel brochures use specific linguistic features to create an
image in the reader’s mind; one that is undeniable and necessary for the distinction between the
‘here’ and the ‘there’. Since travel brochures target different groups of people, the ‘there’ is
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 20
promoted in a way that agrees with the identity of the target group. Once again, when the reader
can see themselves as part of the image of the ‘there,’ it makes travel brochures that much more
persuasive (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Molina & Esteban, 2006).
2.5 d. Identity: A new sense of consciousness
Because of the distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there,’ travel provides people with
an experience that contrasts that of the familiar, which may potentially result in a reformation of
self or consciousness. Once travel brochures connect with an individual’s current identity, they
can show how experiencing the unfamiliar has the potential to give travelers a new way of
looking at the world. Thus, the reader not only connects with the ‘there’ that is being presented,
but can visualize themselves gaining a new, reformed identity as a result of travel. The
distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ becomes a way for the potential traveler to begin to
re-imagine the self (Desforges, 2000, p. 932).
Desforges (2000) describes how the idea of “personhood” indicates the type of person
tourists want to become and the act of travel will lead tourists to this. Thus, travel is presented as
a way to transform the self into the type of person tourists want to become (Desforges, 2000;
Galani-Moutafi, 2000). This process of self-transformation or self-discovery results from “gazing
into the elsewhere and the other” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 203). That is, new identities are
formed in relation to the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ and the “self” and the “other” (Galani-Moutafi,
2000, p. 203). By experiencing something that is different or unfamiliar in relation to what is
known, Galani-Moutafi, (2000) argues that one can reach a self-realization. Travel brochures
promote the travel experience as a way for potential travelers to reach this self-realization, which
makes them that much more persuasive.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 21
2.5 e. Identity: Travel vs. tourism
Experiencing the ‘there’ and the ‘other’ is promoted as having the potential to reshape
individual identities, however, the particular way these concepts are viewed and situated yields
different representations of these identities. This brings up the significance of distinguishing
between “travel” and “tourism” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). Galani-Moutafi, (2000)
describes travel as a way to re-imagine the self and being associated with the “values of
discernment, respect and taste,” while tourism may be seen as “unadventurous and lacking” (p.
210). The differences between tourism and travel are a result of the way the ‘there’ and the
‘other’ is represented and constructed. Tourism acts are meant to stimulate the senses of the
reader in every possible way and present a world that is more exciting than anything that the
reader is currently living. The discourse in tourism, therefore, reflects the ‘there’ and the ‘other’
as being associated with pleasure and play, which may disagree with the authenticity of the
experience (Galani-Moutafi, 2000).
Handler and Saxton (1988) define authentic experiences as those where the individual
encounters both a “real world” and their “real selves” (p. 243). In regard to tourism, experiences
are promoted as authentic, however, the authenticity of these experiences is often socially
constructed by certain perspectives and expectations. As a result, the “toured objects” that
tourists are experiencing may not be as authentic as what they may believe them to be (Wang,
1999, p.351). As cited by Wang (1999), this brings up the notion of “staged authenticity” which
MacCannell (1993) explains is a result of touristic expectations and representations of
destinations (p. 351). Although tourism texts ensure that the tourist will become a different
person and will return with a total transformation of self, they do so within the boundaries of the
expectations of the tourist (Bruner, 1991). Agreeing with Bruner (1991), Rojek (1993) explains,
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 22
that “while travel is seen as a resource in the endeavor of self-realization, tourism is considered
to actually confirm one's view of the world rather than transforming it (as cited in Galani-
Moutafi, 2000, p. 210).
To avoid what may be considered as inauthentic experiences, many tourism experiences
are purposely promoted as “travel” experiences. According to Galani-Moutafi, (2000) the
“traveler” seeks the experience of ‘travel’ and the ‘other’ because it involves adventure,
challenges, and a potentially more uncomfortable form of travel (p. 220). According to Elsrud
(2001), travelers are seen as desiring the “off-the-beaten-track” type of travel, which does not
entail the comforts and luxuries that tourists would enjoy and instead involves risk and
adventure. Experiencing risk and adventure is proposed as a way to attain greater self-
fulfillment (Elsrud, 2001). During these acts of risk, travelers are confronted by the unfamiliar in
every way, including people, places, and situations. Experiencing the ‘other’ in this way is highly
valuable for travelers because of its potential to build a new self-identity. Travel is also seen as
“embedded in education” because of the traveler’s desire to gain a deeper insight into another
culture (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). Educational opportunities may include traveling and
living with host families (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 211).
The possibility of reforming old identities and gaining new identities is an underlying
theme of travel brochures. Travel brochures are not only selling a destination, but are ultimately
selling the identities that go hand in hand with experiencing the destination. As a result, identity
serves as a way for brochures to stand out from one another and to attract specific social groups.
Different tourism brochures offer experiences and destinations that may fit into the different
realms of what it means to be a tourist versus a traveler. There are certain identities that are
constructed because of these differences, which are reflected in discursive and linguistic features
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 23
of brochures. As a result, examining the discourse of different types of tourism brochures may
reveal whether travel or tourism is being advertised, which correlate with the overarching theme
of identity. A careful analysis can also reveal what the potential traveler is hoping to gain from
the act of travel they choose to participate in, whether that act is in accordance with travel or
tourism.
3. Data & Methodology
3.1 Why Travel Brochures?
The goal of tourism advertising is to present a type of travel, destination, or experience
that potential travelers will ultimately choose. Since tourism experiences are not a tangible
product, the role of tourism brochures is especially significant in the realm of tourism
advertising. Thus, one of the main functions of a travel brochure is to present an experience that
people can identify with, connect with, and visualize becoming a part of. The act of traveling to a
foreign place can be presented as being completely different from anything the potential traveler
has previously experienced, which gives travel brochure companies a certain authority and
influence. This authority allows them to present their expertise, which is persuasive and
convincing. The experiences that are being offered are not only euphoric and attractive, but are
presented as being a source of newfound self-awareness or self-consciousness. Travel brochure
companies present destinations as the means to a new identity, one that can be realized with their
support, expert opinion, and knowledge base. Thus, throughout the entire act of travel, from the
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 24
presentation of the destination to a newfound identity, travel brochures maintain a significant and
irreplaceable role.
All travel brochures ultimately aim to persuade potential travelers to travel and similarly
do so through persuasion. Although travel brochures have the same ultimate goal, they differ in
the type of experience they are promoting and the specific group of people they are targeting. In
order to attract a specific group of people, the linguistic and visual features within travel
brochures are adapted according to that group. In this sense, particular types of travel brochures
attempt to persuade different socio-cultural groups, and do so through the overarching issue of
identity. Although similar discursive strategies are used to sell travel services and accomplish the
ultimate goal of persuasion, the language within is reflective of the target group.
Specific discursive features are used to connect with the intended target group and to
present a type of travel that the target group can identify with and gain a new identity from doing
so. Thus, a deeper analysis of these features can reveal characteristics of the target group, which
may be connected to their ultimate reason for travelling as well as the type of travel they choose.
For this analysis, the brochures of two different online travel companies will be investigated in
order to reveal how persuasion is accomplished by way of specific linguistic features and
through an underlying theme of identity.
3.2 STA and Trailfinders
The data for this analysis will be taken from two online travel companies: STA Travel,
hereafter referred to as STA, and Trailfinders. All data was accessed in the spring of 2014. STA,
created in 1979, specializes in global travel and aims to advise young people and students on
holidays and adventures abroad. Their mission statement is “Bringing You Face-to-Face with the
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 25
World.” STA provides brochures for nearly every area of the world, including Asia, Australia
and New Zealand, Europe, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East, and North America. In
addition, they provide brochures that highlight other forms of travel, which can be found on their
website and include “Travel with Purpose,” “Round the World,” and “Educate through Travel.”
Trailfinders was founded in 1970. The company frames itself as experts in tailor-making
itineraries worldwide. Like STA, Trailfinders offers a variety of trip services including trip
planning, flight, hotel, destination, packaged deals, and travel insurance. They provide online
brochures on Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, North America and South America.
Trailfinders’ mission statement which is found on their website is “to always exceed the
expectations of our clients, staff and suppliers.”
The focus of this analysis will encompass various travel brochures that are offered by
each of these travel companies. Although both travel companies provide brochures for nearly
every country in the world and offer similar destination choices, an analysis of the discursive
features can reveal the differences at play in regard to identity, persuasion, and travel. A Critical
Discourse Analysis, hereon referred as CDA, approach will be used. The theoretical framework
for this analysis is based mainly on the semiotics of the text.
3.3 Critical Discourse Analysis
CDA centers on discourse as social practice and requires an account of the relationships
between text, talk, social cognition, power, society and culture (Van Dijk, 1993, p. 253). CDA
describes discourse as being shaped by and as shaping social situations, social institutions, and
social structure and takes into account the identities of people and groups and the relationships
between people and groups (Van Dijk, 2005). Because discourse is socially shaped, CDA
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 26
highlights that discursive practices may have ideological effects and bring up issues of power
between social groups.
Differences in power between social groups result in people being more inclined to
accept beliefs, knowledge, and opinions from what are considered credible sources, which
includes scholars, experts, and professionals (Van Dijk, 2005). Certain forms and meanings of
discourse then may have more influence on people and their mental representations. Thus,
specific forms of discourse are used specifically to persuade people, which pertains to the
discourse found in travel brochures and the ultimate goal of persuasion.
According to Strauss and Feiz (2014), CDA is a “micro-based analysis of discourse in
that it takes into account patterns of linguistic features, including adverbs, verbs of knowing and
understanding, pronouns of inclusion, pronouns of exclusion, metaphoric figurative language and
other stance-marking features” (p. 316). CDA is an approach that takes into account the stances
and identities that are underlying in the discourse (Strauss & Feiz, 2014). This approach is
applicable to an analysis of tourism brochures because of the way that travel relates to the
overarching issue of identity, which is socially driven. Thus, a CDA approach will lead to a more
holistic understanding of the semiotics at play because it envelops the larger social world.
The functions of tourism brochures have underlying themes of identity and persuasion in
the discourse and a CDA approach reveals these specific motivations (Strauss & Feiz, 2014).
This approach will lead to a better understanding of the inner workings of the discourse and the
patterns of linguistic features within both companies’ brochures. These linguistic features
include: visual imagery, stance of expertise, participation framework, and a comparison of the
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 27
here and the there. These four categories act as techniques or strategies that help travel brochures
to accomplish persuasion, but may be tailored to a specific audience or target group.
3.3 a. Visual imagery
The multimodal nature of travel brochures is especially influential because use of images
results in a stronger connection between the act of travel, the destination, the reader, and the
travel company (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Francesconi, 2014; Hiippala, 2007; Kress, 2010;
Molina & Esteban, 2006; van Leeuwen, 2005). In order for potential travelers to relate to the
images found in a specific brochure, the images must be adapted to fit their beliefs, perspectives,
or motivations. Thus, an analysis of the images found in STA and Trailfinders brochures should
reveal certain characteristics of the target group as well as the type of identity they will gain from
the act of travel.
3.3 b. Stance of expertise
From a CDA perspective, taking on a stance of expertise is an important part of the
persuasion process when it comes influencing mental representations, which is possible because
differences in power between groups (Van Dijk, 2005). Stance is the “speaker or writer’s feeling,
attitude, perspective, or position as enacted in discourse” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.103). As
previously noted, recipients of discourse are more inclined to accept beliefs or knowledge from a
credible source, thus, travel brochure companies employ an expert stance to help them
accomplish the act of persuasion (Van Dijk, 2005). Ochs (1993) explains how speakers use
verbal or stance acts to construct their own identities as well as others’ identities, which makes
acts and stances a resource in constructing particular social identities (p. 289). Epistemic stance
is a type of stance that is a result of the particular way participants interact (Goodwin, 2007). It
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 28
reflects degrees of certainty or doubt and includes expressions of knowing, thinking, and
believing (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p. 280). Tourism brochure discourse can easily take on an
epistemic stance because of the distinction between novice and expert travelers.
When it comes to the act of travel, potential travelers lie somewhere along the realm of
novice or expert travelers. If travelers are novice, it becomes especially important for travel
brochure companies to present themselves as the source of stability or expertise. In relation to the
overarching issue of identity, travel brochures attempt to sell a new sense of consciousness or
awareness that is formed by way travel or by becoming an expert traveler, which is influenced by
stance taking. If a travel brochure company orients itself as the expert, potential travelers are
more likely to rely on their expert advice and, thus, are more inclined to picture themselves as
being part of or gaining their new identities. This positions the travel company as the main
resource for the individual to realize their new identity or awareness.
A stance of expertise becomes apparent in the inner workings of the discourse of travel
brochures. As a result, specific discursive features are used to guide potential travelers through
the destination or act of travel that is being presented. Once again, an analysis of these features
can reveal certain characteristics or expectations about the intended target group in regard to
travel.
3.3 c. Participation framework
The concept of participation framework was introduced by Goffman (1981) and is meant
to differentiate between those who are involved in acts of discourse and the way they act in
particular interaction settings. An analysis of participation frameworks will show who is
involved in the discourse. This is crucial when it comes to understanding discourse, especially in
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 29
regard to media discourse (Strauss and Feiz, 2014). Since tourism discourse is a form of media or
advertising discourse, an analysis of the participation framework will lead to a deeper
understanding of the larger social interaction between participants.
The participation framework also allows relationships to be formed between the
participants, which in this case involves potential travelers and the travel company (Strauss &
Feiz, 2014). It is set up in a way that contrasts the current identity of reader and the identity that
is presented by the act of travel, which contributes to the overall persuasive element of travel
brochures. In addition, travel brochures differentiate identities of novice and expert travelers,
with the reader standing as the novice traveler and the travel brochure company as the expert
traveler. This gives travel brochure companies even more authority and persuasive power.
3.3 d. Here vs. there
Setting up a contrast between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ is another strategy that travel
brochures use to add to the power of persuasion (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). The inner workings of
the discourse reveal differences between the potential traveler’s current life and that of the travel
life. The extent that the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ are projected as being different from one another
relate to the type of travel being presented as well as the intended target group. Thus, a deeper
analysis of the discourse can reveal a separation between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ and the
characteristics of the intended target group.
A distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ also contributes to the overarching theme
of identity in the sense that a new, unique experience has the potential to change potential
travelers. Once again, travel brochure companies are the expert source and have the ability to
guide potential travelers towards their new sense of consciousness. Overall, an analysis of these
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 30
specific discursive features also shows how identity and persuasion act as underlying themes in
travel brochures.
4. Data Analysis
4.1 STA Travel
STA brochures aim to accomplish the act of persuasion by way of an individual’s
personal identity. It becomes apparent that STA is targeting a specific social group, which
includes young adults or university students who are looking for an alternative experience. This
alternative experience, however, offers a more profound possibility, which is gaining a new
identity or new sense of consciousness by way of travel. STA’s goal is to bring potential
travelers “face-to-face” with the world and to alter a traveler’s perspective of the world (STA
Website: About Us). All of the discursive and visual elements point to this and attempt to
persuade readers that their reformed sense of self is knocking on their front door. Thus, STA
promotes the idea that an individual’s current identity has the potential to be exclusively and
positively shaped or transformed by travel.
Why is the identity an individual would gain from traveling from STA different from any
other means of travel? This is where the inner workings of the discourse come into play. STA
reflects their authenticity and distinctiveness through visual imagery, by highlighting their stance
of expertise, by forming a specific participation framework, and describing the notions of the
‘here’ and the ‘there.’ All of these aspects assist in the creation of a new, reformed travel
identity.
4.1 a. Visual imagery
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 31
Even before the potential traveler begins to read an STA brochure, an alternative identity
is being presented through particular images. The reader is initially drawn in by inspiring images
and the unique layout of the brochure. Creativity is used to activate a certain type of feeling and
emotion. The makers use inviting fonts and colors, which seem to have a life of their own and
make the brochure itself feel like an adventure. Large, artistic fonts are oriented more towards
the creative side, and almost activate a free-spirit feeling, which is a characteristic of the type of
travel that STA is promoting (See Appendix A1).
In addition to the visual characteristics of the words, the images themselves also project a
similar feel. The multimodal nature of an STA travel brochure capture’s the reader’s attention
and allows the reader to visualize the destination (Francesconi, 2014). As readers page through
any of the brochures, they come across various pictures of active young people, who serve as
examples of those who have already chosen to travel with STA. STA purposely choses specific
images that the reader can connect with and, more importantly, that are a direct representation of
his or her individual self. For instance, an image in the Europe brochure shows a group of young
men and women who are smiling and appear to be genuinely enjoying their European experience
while immersing themselves in the culture (See Appendix A2). This image draws potential
travelers in and makes them feel as though they are connected to the experience already because
the group is most likely a direct representation of themselves.
A young, adventurous individual is more likely to be attracted to this unique brochure.
All of the visual aspects of an STA brochure point towards this socio-cultural group and enhance
the promotional power and persuasive ability of STA. As a result, the potential traveler aligns
themselves with the type of travel being presented and can visualize how travel will reshape their
sense of self.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 32
4.1 b. Stance of expertise
In order for STA to be more convincing and persuasive, STA must take on a stance of
expertise. By setting up a contrast between the experienced STA traveler and the inexperienced
traveler, the reader can clearly see the distinction between their current identity and their desired
identity. Taking on a stance of expertise is twofold, in that it gives STA more persuasion power
and allows STA to be a travel role model, who has already achieved a new perspective of the
world.
Why should the young and adventurous be convinced to travel with STA? STA makes
their expertise and undeniable knowledge base stand out as soon as their brochure is opened. In
the opening statement, STA even goes as far as linking their expertise to human genetics with the
statement: “Adventure…It’s in our DNA” (All Brochures: 2). They continue on to describe how
they love nothing more than getting to know a new culture, which is the “whole reason they set
up STA 35 years ago” (All brochures: 2). From the start, they bring the reader into their world,
which is the world that they have been exploring for the last 35 years. Other phrases, such as
“We practically invented the concept of flying around the world” also underscore STA’s
expertise (All brochures: 7). STA invites the potential traveler to step inside their own personal
discoveries, and makes it apparent that they will generously share their insights, knowledge, and
expertise. As a result, the individual has the opportunity to become part of STA’s world where
they can be taken by the hand and lead towards their new identity.
A stance of expertise is maintained throughout the brochure through the discourse. The
reader may be an inexperienced traveler and therefore is left only with the option of absorbing
the information being presented because of STA’s unquestionable knowledge base. Big, bolded
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 33
headings such as “We know because we go!” stand out and underscore their expertise (All
brochures: 5). STA explains: “We listen to our travelers, our expert staff visit faraway places
and use this knowledge to create your very own life-changing experience” (All brochures: 2).
STA’s expert staff have already “been there and done that,” and can therefore assist the
potential traveler in every way possible and become the traveler’s main role model (All
brochures: 4). This gives STA even more authority and persuasion power (See Appendix A3).
STA also uses their authority to eliminate the uncertainty of travel for the reader. The fact
that their destinations and experiences are “hand-picked” and “vetted” by STA expert travelers,
gives the traveler a sense of comfort (All brochures: 5). Travel itself is inherently filled with the
unknown and unfamiliar, which makes STA’s expert opinion far more valuable. By masking the
unknown with their expertise and bringing the potential traveler into a world that STA has
already explored, travelers will be more inclined to choose STA. Above all, the potential traveler
already feels closer to what will become their new identity because they have, more or less,
already partially overcome the hurdle of the unknown.
In regard to stance, particular pieces of the discourse mark epistemic stance and index
certainty of STA’s expertise. STA promises the discovery of a new outlook on life and the world
by travel, but specifically by travelling with STA. They create a feel of certainty through
epistemic stance with phrases such as, “We will make sure you never look at the world in quite
the same way.” The modal verb “will” indexes a high degree of certainty and once again
enhances persuasion. In a section of their brochures called, “Top 10 Reasons to Travel with STA
Travel,” there are various instances of epistemic stance that are indexed through the discourse.
Included in the list are some of the following reasons:
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 34
1. “We are the experts.”
2. “We will beat any price…”
3. “We will inspire you…”
4. “We know our stuff when it comes to travel, we’ve been there, done that…”
(All brochures: 5).
Verbs and phrases such as ‘are,’ ‘will,’ ‘know,’ ‘inspire,’ and ‘been there, done that’ all
support the image of expertise and, in turn, greatens STA’s ability to persuade readers that a new
sense of self is inevitable. Once again, these examples show how STA’s expertise is indexed
through the inner workings of the discourse and add to STA’s persuasion power. The potential
traveler can fully depend on STA during the journey of travel.
4.1 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you”
The participation framework is also purposely set up in a manner that contrasts the
identity of the reader and that of the STA traveler. The use of the pronouns ‘we’ and ‘you’ are
key in creating this contrast and help form a relationship between the potential traveler and STA.
The entire company of STA, any of its travelers, researchers, or employees are included in the
category of ‘we’ and are therefore placed in the expert category. ‘You’ is directed at the targeted
social group, who are the young and novice travelers. As the expert, STA has already acquired
the preferred travel identity and can therefore take on the role of guiding the individual towards
their desired identity.
In order to convince the individual that they are a part of the ‘you’ who STA will be
guiding towards a new identity, STA must establish a personal connection with the individual. It
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 35
is crucial for the reader to see that their individual needs can be fulfilled by the adventures STA
promotes so their desired identity can be seen as achievable. If their individual needs are
accounted for, STA has the ability to play a more powerful role and will become the preferred
guide. STA shows this by describing that they can provide “adventures for all” and that they
will “learn to understand your needs as an individual.” These statements make the individual
feel like a priority, as though the brochure is directed directly at them. Due to their extensive list
of experiences, STA is able to provide a variety of options perfectly suited for the individual:
“To make things much easier for you, we’re giving you our own, very educated opinion
on each property that we feature. We’ve horizontally tangoed with the cool, the
interesting, the enviable, and the luxe to the off the wall to bring you our curated offering
of hostels, hotels, lodges, and apartments, all chosen especially for you” (All brochures:
10).
STA’s own ‘very educated opinion’ and the different groups of people they have
‘tangoed’ with, indicate that STA has already experienced every detail, thus, they are able to
present all available options. The phrases ‘to make things much easier for you’ and ‘all chosen
especially for you,’ place high priority on the individual and create a closer connection. Within
the details of the itinerary descriptions, the experience becomes even more individualized and
has the potential to attract individuals of all kinds. STA attempts to dig into the traveler’s private
mentality:
1. “Perhaps you need to relax…or perhaps you are still raring to go and ready to
explore?” (Latin America: 23).
2. “If you’re feeling particularly energetic…” (Latin America: 23).
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 36
3. “Explore the world exactly as you have always dreamed” (Europe: 30).
4. “Thrill seekers have the option to bungee jump…For something a little less hair-
raising…” (Africa: 24).
5. “This is an adventure-lovers nirvana-get your thrills swimming, tubing, or
exploring caves…” (Asia: 27).
The reader feels as though they are part of the ‘you’ being targeted because their every
need seems to be accounted for in the destination descriptions. In addition, use of this pronoun
makes the reader feel even more connected to the emotional and exciting journey and they can
virtually step right in to the act of travel and their desired identity.
Particular verb forms in combination with the pronoun ‘you,’ also individualize the
experience STA is presenting and enrich the relationship between STA and the traveler. These
verb forms include the simple present, modal verbs, and the imperative. The simple present is
purposely used to bring a future and hypothetical experience closer to the individual and make
them feel as though the experience is already occurring:
“Today you jump on board a longtail boat to discover…Cruise down the Mekong by slow
boat watching local life pass you by…” (Asia: 22).
“Explore the jaw-dropping site of Iguassu Falls from not one, but two different countries
with numerous viewpoints…Peer over the edge of the boardwalks and witness the
incredible power of nature…hop on an exhilarating boat tour…” (Latin America: 93).
The simple present creates the illusion of a quick time travel and the potential traveler
can already feel the exhilarating adventure, thus giving them a taste of how their new sense of
awareness will inevitably develop.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 37
In addition to the present tense, the modal verb ‘will’ is also used to describe the future
experience and as indicated in the previous section, indexes epistemic stance. By explicitly
explaining what the individual will do during their adventure, the individual feels even more
certain about the details being presented:
“In the morning of Day 17, you will have guided a tour of Hue’s old Citadel…Next you’ll
cross over the scenic Hai Van Pass on your way to Hoi An, where you’ll stay for three
nights” (Asia: 23).
Similar to the simple present, the use of the modal ‘will’ makes the reader feel like the
journey has already begun and the future experience becomes even more definite. If the reader is
able to visualize the experience, they will ultimately be more convinced to travel with STA.
Along with the simple present and the modal verb ‘will’, the use of the imperative makes
STA’s claims, suggestions, and information much more relevant and direct. Imperative
statements are used as headings and subheadings to draw the reader in, almost as though STA is
speaking directly to them. These statements are especially powerful and rope the individual in
closer to what is being directed. The front cover of the Latin America brochure invites the
individual to peek inside the colorful brochure with statements such as: “Dream Big, Wake
Early, Talk to Strangers, Eat Well, Share Leftovers, and Introduce Friends” (See Appendix A1).
Not only do these statements capture the reader’s attention, but they create the feeling that these
directives can only be accomplished by traveling with STA.
The imperative is used throughout all sections of STA’s brochures, including the
descriptions of destinations and adventures, tips and advice and any other informative sections.
No matter which STA brochure the reader picks up, every page has imperative headings and
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 38
subheadings, pulling the reader in further with every piece of the discourse. For instance, in the
Latin America brochure some of these headings include:
1. Save with STA Travel
2. Start the Adventure
3. Make it Happen
4. Sleep with Us
5. Go Smart or Go Home
6. Explore South America
In addition to short imperative statements used as headings, STA also utilizes the
imperative within the travel descriptions or itinerary plans. The itinerary for a day in Lima, Peru
reads:
Arrive into Peru’s capitol city at any time today, relax at your hotel, or head out to
explore some of its vibrant neighborhoods. This evening, meet up with your Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) and the rest of your group to learn about the five weeks’ worth
of adventures that lie ahead! (Latin America: 22).
This imperative theme appears to imbue STA with more authenticity and power. Their
expertise allows them to sound genuine when using the imperative and persuades their readers to
have a certain experience and emotion. Once again, the reader feels as though they are already
experiencing the adventure and can already see how their sense of self is changing. This
particular participation framework creates a positive relationship between STA and the potential
traveler. The pronoun ‘you’ is especially powerful because it allows the reader to connect with
the text and ultimately with STA. In addition, the contrast between ‘we’ (experienced travelers)
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 39
and ‘you’ (inexperienced travelers) remains in the back of the reader’s mind, and STA shows
them what it would mean to become a part of the ‘we.’ The use of the present tense, the modal
verb ‘will,’ and the imperative also steer the reader towards their new identity.
4.1 d. Here vs. there
Another concept that is crucial in assisting STA in keeping their promise of a new
identity is the underlying comparison of the ‘here’ and the ‘there.’ STA builds up the notion of
the ‘here,’ which is the potential traveler’s home, versus the ‘there,’ which is the destination STA
is describing. Although it is not explicitly stated, the reader’s ‘here’ is assumed to be less
exciting, mundane, and much less colorful. The ‘there,’ on the other hand, is presented as an
emotional, sensory-overloaded, incredible experience, which is drastically different from that of
the ‘here’ and is how the potential traveler will form their unique identity as an STA traveler.
The ‘there’ is presented as an “extraordinary tourist world” (Hummon, 1988, p.181). As the
reader moves through one of STA’s brochures, they get the feeling that they are a part of the
world of the ‘there.’ In this sense, STA gives the reader a taste of how this type of travel will
make them feel, which is exhilarating and life-altering. STA is careful to choose specific
linguistic features that make the ‘there’ all the more attractive and appealing, leaving their
readers asking for more.
Some of these linguistic features include alluring expressions, superlatives, and
sensational adjectives. For instance, in STA’s Africa and Middle East brochure, the following
excerpt describes the country of Madagascar:
“A jaw-dropping, wild-life trenched hotspot, Madagascar is one of the most interesting
places on earth and home to some of the weirdest and rarest animal species in existence.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 40
Forget the film, seeing is truly believing- with over 70 varieties of lemurs and an
abundance of wildlife, Madagascar is more colorful than even Hollywood captured…
This is a once-in-a-lifetime journey to one of the most unique holiday destinations in the
world” (Africa & Middle East:73).
This description has an underlying persuasive force that is accomplished through the
discourse and convinces the reader that the ‘there’ is captivating. Superlatives, such as
“weirdest,” “rarest,” and “most unique” are used in accordance with adjectives such as “jaw-
dropping” and “wild-life trenched” to paint a picture in the reader’s mind. These superlatives
outline the clear distinction between the ‘here’ and ‘there’ in that they are implicitly comparing
the reader’s home with the destination. In order for an identity to be formed, it is essential that
the ‘there’ is presented in a way that completely diverges from the ‘here.’ Use of linguistic
expressions assist in creating a divergence between the two and in creating an emotional bond
between the reader and the experience (Mocini, 2005). Experiencing the ‘there’ in this manner is
what will ultimately lead the potential traveler to their new sense of self.
On the front cover of the Africa and Middle East brochure STA once again uses
imperative statements to draw the reader in and that also highlight the notion of the ‘here’ versus
‘there.’ Statements such as “Get Connected, Get Disconnected, Go Far, and Get Closer,” are
subliminally contrasting the reader’s daily life with that of travel life. These statements suggest
that by traveling with STA, the reader will become disconnected and move farther away from the
‘here,’ which, in return, allows them to become connected with and closer to the ‘there.’ Thus,
the STA traveler’s identity is right within the reader’s grasp.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 41
In reading descriptions of any brochure, a reader comes away with the sense that their
individual self can be shaped by such an intense experience of the ‘there.’ An underlying
characteristic of the journey being presented is that it is unlike anything else the reader has
experienced, may be experiencing, or will experience in the future. Because of this characteristic,
the reader must take a step from familiar territory to unfamiliar territory. The unfamiliar can be
daunting and nerve-wracking for many people, however, STA is sure to provide encouragement
and support during every step of the transition. For instance, phrases such as “spread your
wings” encourage the reader to take a step into the unknown. STA also provides travel advice
and tips, including travel safety tips:
“If you’ve never been away from home for longer than a seven-day family holiday to
Disneyworld, then we recommend you read our travel safety advice to help prepare you
for the unexpected. Traveling in Europe is inspiring and amazing, but it’s wise to have
your wits about you” (All brochures: 12).
Although the reader must jump into the unknown, STA is there to provide directions and
advice. STA is able to prepare a traveler for the unexpected because of their previous experience
with the unexpected. In this sense, STA makes it known that they have already taken on the
responsibility of alleviating some of the stress and uncertainty of travel and are present at every
step of the way.
Other statements that make the reader feel at ease while they are experiencing the ‘there’
are found on various pages throughout their brochures. For instance, in the Europe brochure,
STA asks questions such as, “Been Inspired?” or “Thinking about spreading your wings a little
further?” and follows with the answer of: “Then pick up one of our other brochures” (Europe:
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 42
17). This indicates that STA can directly answer to the calls of inspiration. In addition,
statements such as “with this easy, touring concept you can make an entire content your
playground” allow the reader to feel as though it would be easy to step into this type of lifestyle
(Latin America: 20). The potential traveler can securely allow themselves to rely on STA during
their experience of the “there,” which will allow them to reach their travel identity.
At the same time, however, STA brings attention to the power of the experience of the
unknown, which is what will ultimately transform the traveler’s identity:
1. “Get Lost” “Find Your Way” “Make Mistakes” (Asia: front cover)
2. “Figure It Out” (Australia: front cover)
3. “Spin in Circles” (Europe: front cover)
4. “Be Brave”;“Get Scared” (North America: front cover)
These imperative headings show that the act of travel is not always predictable and
requires adaptation. STA encourages potential travelers to take on the challenging aspects of
travel, which will test the limits and result in self-growth. Even though travelers are able to rely
on STA, the unpredictable aspects of travel are still promoted as an invaluable part of the
experience.
STA promotes a life-changing identity that is not only tied to the individual, but also to
the destination country and culture. As a result, the presentation of the ‘there’ becomes much
more powerful and persuasive because of the way it will contribute to an individual’s new
identity. STA highlights their involvement in “responsible tourism” and in every brochure
designates a page explaining their deep connections to foreign destinations (All Brochures: 14).
A page titled “Making it Count” describes the STA Travel Foundation, which brings focus to
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 43
STA’s involvement in charity projects worldwide (See Appendix A4). Projects include work in
regard to the local communities, conservation, clean water, and health.
STA states “we owe everything to the incredible communities who open the doors and
allow us to experience their beautiful backyards…so it’s up to us to be courteous and
understanding” (Latin America: 14). Although the individual traveler does not necessarily have
to contribute to any of STA’s humanitarian projects, their travel identity is still contained under
the umbrella of the “The Responsible STA Traveler” if they choose to travel with STA (All
Brochures: 14). By automatically enveloping all of their traveler’s as “Responsible STA
Travelers,” STA gains even more persuasion power in that their readers will be left with the
sense that they are, or will be, the exceptional traveler. Providing this worldly perspective gives
individuals the sense that they are playing a role that allows them to positively contribute to the
larger world around them, thus the connection with the ‘there’ becomes even stronger.
In order to emphasize this responsible travel identity, STA places a great deal of focus on
local communities, foreign culture, and the realities of the destinations within the itinerary
descriptions themselves. STA brings attention to the real struggles and issues of some of the
beautiful destinations they are promoting:
“Despite its beautiful surroundings and the buzz that comes with its thriving tourism,
Cuzco is a tough place to grow up for many children. For those living in extreme poverty,
there’s no room for big ambitions…” (All Brochures: 14).
STA encourages travelers to become involved with local communities and familiarize
themselves with a foreign culture as part of their experience of the ‘there.’ STA encourages
travelers to have an educated experience, which allows travelers to gain a deeper insight into a
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 44
foreign culture. These aspects of travel are seen as a way to gain greater self-fulfillment or to
transform self-identity (Elsrud, 2001; Galani-Moutafi, 2000). In addition, STA brings attention
to the fact that the exciting elements of travel are a result of the cultures that are embedded in the
destinations:
“Trek through the rainforest to one of a number of local communities to enjoy a three-
night ‘homestay’ to learn about the lifestyle of the indigenous population. For some, their
traditional homelands are threatened by the encroachment of industry and cash-crop
farming…” (Latin America: 43).
Many of STA’s destinations even offer the opportunity to become immersed in the
lifestyle of a local community. Travelers are provided with the option of short-term homestays,
which will create a stronger connection between the individual and the local community:
“On Day 14, you’ll stay the night with a local family in the village of San Juan, an eye-
opening experience where you’ll gain a better understanding of the day-to-day life of the
locals in this region” (Latin America: 122).
Travelers are provided with the opportunity to experience the destination in a more
profound manner and are encouraged to step outside of their comfort zone and attempt to
understand a foreign way of life. Because they are given the opportunity to experience the ‘there’
in this unique way, the reader is able to see how their identity will transform right before their
eyes. As a result, not only to the characteristics of the ‘here’ and ‘there’ become even greater of a
contrast, but so does the individual’s current identity and their desired identity. STA places a
great deal of importance on the act of travel as a means of shaping and reforming identities and
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 45
uses this aspect as a means of persuading potential traveler’s to choose the ‘there’ presented by
STA.
4.2 Trailfinders
The analysis of STA shows how discursive features reflect a specific social group and
how all aspects of their brochures point toward that group. Similar to STA, Trailfinders also
attempts to persuade a specific socio-cultural group to use their travel services. Trailfinders does
not explicitly state who their target group is, but the inner workings of the discourse reveal the
presumed characteristics and, ultimately, the identity of the individuals who desire to travel with
Trailfinders and their reasons for travel. In general, Trailfinders promotes travel holidays that
ensure accommodation, luxury, impeccable services, and a hassle-free experience. Discursive
features are used to highlight these aspects of travel, which align with the potential traveler’s
current identity, as well as the identity they wish to either maintain or take on during travel.
In order to align the identity of the targeted social group with the act of travel,
Trailfinders promotes their experiences as being stable, comfortable, and of high-quality. This is
reflected in Trailfinders brochures through visual imagery, a stance of expertise, a specific
participation framework, and a comparison of the ‘here’ and the ‘there.’ All of these discursive
features combine in a way that allows Trailfinders to take on the role of leading their travelers
through the journey.
4.2 a. Visual imagery
The visual presentation of a Trailfinders brochure is simple and gives off a more classic
type of feel. The text is inviting and calming with soft colors, bolded headings, and a formal font
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 46
style (See Appendix B1). Words are supplemented with images that portray the destinations they
are describing, natural flora and fauna, and maps of the touring they provide.
The visual aspects of a Trailfinders brochure seem to build up formality and stability.
Before the potential traveler even begins to read, they are drawn in to the security of the visual
presentation, which attracts a more formal target group. Trailfinders purposely gives off an
image that will go hand-in-hand with a predictable and superior type of travel. Overall, the
multimodal nature of Trailfinders’ brochures enables potential travelers to visualize themselves
as being part of the experience and destination (Francesconi, 2014).
4.2 b. Stance of expertise
In order to persuade a specific social-group to travel with Trailfinders, the experiences
and services must align with the expectations of that particular social group. In this sense,
tending to the identity of potential travelers is crucial in for this company to be successful. To
accomplish persuasion, Trailfinders takes on a stance of expertise. Their expertise is reflected in
the inner workings of the discourse and ultimately allows for the Trailfinders travel identity and
the potential traveler’s current identity to align.
A stance of expertise is particularly important for Trailfinders because of the social group
they are targeting. Those who would be inclined to travel with this company are in search of the
comfortable and hassle-free experience that is being promoted, which requires predictability and
stability. In order to for the experience to agree with these characteristics, a high level of
expertise must be promoted, which is accomplished through epistemic stance. Epistemic stance
assists Trailfinders in creating an overall feel of certainty and reliability (Strauss & Feiz, 2014).
As soon as the reader opens up any brochure, Trailfinders high level of expertise is described:
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 47
“With more than 43 years of experience, Trailfinders unrivalled knowledge, outstanding
personal service, and unmatched consumer protection means you could not be in better
hands” (Asia: 3).
Descriptive adjectives, such as ‘unrivalled’ and ‘unmatched,’ indicate high degrees of
certainty and place Trailfinders knowledge base and services high above any other travel
company. Other phrases, such as, “We promise outstanding levels of service and to ensure that
your travels are always carefree,” are especially strong because of verbs and adverbs such as,
‘promise’, ‘ensure’ and ‘always’ (Trailfinders Website: About Us). These verbs and adverbs
eliminate doubt in the reader’s mind, which agrees with the identity they wish to maintain or take
on during travel. These stances help Trailfinders to construct the company’s expert identity as
well as the identities of those who they are targeting (Ochs, 1993). With these high degrees of
epistemic stance, travelers will be more inclined to depend on Trailfinders to guide them through
their experience.
In the list of “29 Reasons to Choose Trailfinders,” the first reason highlights
Trailfinder’s traveling consultants who are “exceptionally well-travelled” and “have visited over
96% of the world's countries to bring you firsthand knowledge of destinations worldwide”
(Trailfinders Website: About Us). Their undeniable knowledge base makes Trailfinders even
more convincing and attractive. Trailfinders have already been through the process of
exploration and discovery to bring their travelers a variety of the best options available:
“We have been helping travelers enjoy holidays to Asia for well over 40 years and our
expert consultants know the region and its fascinating countries exceptionally well.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 48
Below you will find details of the various holiday styles we can offer throughout Asia.”
(Asia: 2; See Appendix B2).
In order for the travel experience to be more predictable and comfortable, the presence of
an expert or guide is essential. As a result, Trailfinders places a great deal of focus on their
experienced guides and tour directors. By depending on Trailfinders travel consultants and
personal guides, the potential traveler is not only guaranteed security and comfort, but will also
have a unique experience that can only be attained with a guide. This is indicated with phrases
such as, “Enjoy the sights whilst your tour director will unlock the secrets of the destination”
(US, Canada, Central and South America: 319) and “Your guide will know the best waterholes
for spotting elephants, hippos…” (Africa and the Middle East: 45). Trailfinders role becomes
even more powerful as their guides provide comfort, while simultaneously exposing the hidden
gems of travel that would otherwise be overlooked. As a result, the potential traveler feels as
though they are experiencing the destination in an exclusive way, which goes hand-in-hand with
the identity they wish to maintain during travel.
Trailfinders highlights that “there are many things to consider when planning a Safari,”
implicitly causing the reader to revert their focus back to the stress involved in travel planning.
This stress can be alleviated, however, with the help of Trailfinders’ travel services. In a section
entitled “Peace of Mind,” Trailfinders indicates that they will take full responsibility for every
aspect of travel, right down to the “safe and well-satisfied return” (Africa: 5). By eliminating
stress, Trailfinders role becomes even more important in the eyes of the traveler.
Trailfinders promotes various styles of holidays that they themselves have already
experienced and mapped out for any potential travelers. They indicate that they will kindly share
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 49
their entire knowledge base about travel, which has been formed from years of experience. For
instance, phrases such as, “Our specialist Safari team lives and breathe Africa and are happy to
share this passion when planning your trip,” give the reader direct access to Trailfinder’s
knowledge (Africa: 4). The Safari team ‘lives and breathe Africa,’ convincing readers that they
are undoubtedly knowledgeable and passionate about such a place.
By emphasizing their stance of expertise, Trailfinders is more attractive to the targeted
social group. The fact that Trailfinders has been exploring the destinations they provide for
“more than 43 years” gives them credibility and, in return, gives travelers a sense of security in
choosing Trailfinders. This reflects the identity of those who would choose to travel with
Trailfinders, in the sense that they are in search of an experience that is more predictable than the
typical adventure and want to avoid risk. In addition, the discourse reflects that those who wish
to travel with Trailfinders maintain an identity oriented towards a higher-status or superiority.
4.2. c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you”
Trailfinders makes it apparent that they exist with the sole purpose of providing the
potential traveler with their own “perfect trip” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319).
In order to convince the reader that this is possible, Trailfinders uses a specific participation
framework involving the pronouns ‘we’ and ‘you’. Since Trailfinders is the ultimate leader
through the journey of the destination, it is important for them to establish a positive relationship
with the traveler, which is accomplished through this participation framework. The use of
personal pronouns individualizes the experience, which automatically brings the traveler and
Trailfinders closer together.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 50
Although ‘you’ seems to be generic, it is actually highlighting the identity of the
individual who would choose to travel with Trailfinders. Trailfinders places focus on the ‘you’
through phrases such as, “we are totally flexible and offer freedom to create a thrilling itinerary
unique to you” (Africa: 4) and “feel free to tell us where you’d like to go… (Islands of the Indian
Ocean: 4). Trailfinders highlights that their expertise and knowledge specifically exists to
provide the traveler with their ideal experience. In this sense, the power of choice lies in the
hands of the traveler and they feel more in control.
Itinerary descriptions become more personalized through the use of the pronoun ‘your.’
General nouns are typically preceded by the articles ‘a’ or ‘the,’ but the pronoun ‘your’ makes
the noun more specific to the traveler and connects the individual to the experience:
1. “your passionate guide” (Unmissable Experiences Australia and New Zealand: 9)
2. “your tour concludes” (Islands of the Indian Ocean: 7)
3. “begin your holiday” (Islands of the Indian Ocean: 5)
4. “your perfect trip” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319)
Through the use of pronouns and possessive pronouns, Trailfinders subtly brings the
reader closer to the services they offer and creates a sense of belonging. Any part of the
adventure or destination seems to already belong to the individual and they feel more privileged
or important as they page through a Trailfinders brochure.
In addition, a combination of the imperative and implied ‘you’ bring the potential traveler
even closer to the text and the journey. Day nine of a South American adventure reads:
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 51
“Explore the renowned La Recoleta Cementary this morning before flying north to
Iguazú to see the mighty falls. Relax in your hotel situated close to the falls and marvel at
the wonderful views” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 289).
Imperative verbs such as ‘explore’, ‘relax,’ and ‘marvel’ command the reader to step into
the act of travel and push the traveler further into the experience being described. The closer the
potential traveler gets to the experience, the closer they get to Trailfinders, and the possibilities
of the destination become locked in the relationship between the two.
4.2 d. Here vs. there
In general, an underlying assumption of travel is that the traveler is in search of an
experience that will take them out of the ‘here’ and place them in the ‘there.’ The contrast
between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ is crucial for Trailfinders to successfully persuade readers to
travel with them. In order for an individual develop a desire for travelling into the unknown of
the ‘there,’ it must be presented in a way that is alluring and attractive. In this regard, the ‘here’
is implicitly assumed to be mundane or less interesting and from which the potential traveler
needs to escape. More importantly, those who would be inclined to travel specifically with
Trailfinders are in search of a ‘there’ that is convenient, relaxing, hassle-free, and luxurious.
These characteristics are a focal point throughout any experience that Trailfinders presents
because they align with the expectations and representations of the targeted social group
The theme of prestige and superiority seems to be a common element in the comparison
of the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ for Trailfinders travelers. The potential traveler does not necessarily
aim to adapt their identity to travel, but can mold travel to their existing identity, giving them a
sense of high status. For Trailfinders, the ‘here’ remains an important contrast of the ‘there,’
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 52
however, the more important contrast lies within the ‘there’. Trailfinders portrays their
adventures as the best possible option for an individual who aligns themselves, or who would
like to align themselves, with luxury and high stature in the realm of travel.
In order to begin to align the ‘there’ with the reader’s expectations, Trailfinders balances
the concept of adventure, which is inherently unpredictable, with stability. Trailfinders presence
is the key to this balance and vital to the planning of any experience. Within the itinerary
descriptions, Trailfinders makes it clear that the sole purpose of their efforts is to make travel
easier and stress-free:
1. “Discover the destination in a comfortable vehicle accompanied by friendly and
knowledgeable guides…” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319).
2. “A private airport transfer will be provided so you can connect to your destination”
(Asia: 168).
3. “Enjoy morning and afternoon safaris in an open vehicle led by an expert ranger”
(Africa and the Middle East: 39).
Trailfinders presence allows the reader to feel comforted and at ease. The traveler is able
to experience the destination “at leisure” because of Trailfinders knowledge, background of
experienced travel, and expert guides (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319). The
traveler’s comfort is a top priority, which is portrayed in phrases such as, “explore on a
comfortable cruise boat,” and “your tour director…ensure complete comfort throughout” (US,
Canada, Central and South America: 319). No matter how the reader chooses to travel, their
comfort is guaranteed. Verbs such as ‘explore’ and ‘discover’ maintain the sense of exhilaration,
but are balanced with security.
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This feeling of security is even more heightened by giving the potential traveler the
power of choice. Thus, the traveler is in control and is able to align the experience exactly to
their specific needs. For instance, an itinerary description of Thailand indicates that “each canoe
has a guide, so you can choose to paddle, or just relax” (Unmissable Experiences Asia: 8). The
traveler is comforted by the presence of a guide, but can still be actively involved in the
experience if they so choose. As part of an African safari experience, the traveler can “relax
back at camp or join a fascinating guided bush walk” (Africa and the Middle East: 45). Overall,
Trailfinders stresses the fact that they will cater to the individual’s needs, which agrees with
identity that the target group wishes to maintain or become a part of.
Discursive elements, such as alluring expressions, superlatives and vivid imagery all
contribute to the image of the ‘there’ and also reveal the identity of the target group. Trailfinders
utilizes formal language to describe their experiences because the target group is more likely to
identify with this type of language, indicating their high expectations. Trailfinders purposely uses
specific discursive features that the target group can identify with and, thus, will more readily
visualize themselves as a Trailfinders traveler (Hiippala, 2007). Accommodation descriptions for
the Amazon and Pantanal in Brazil, read:
1. “Combining a high level of comfort and service with an excellent range of facilities...”
2. “Comfortable guest rooms are simple but tastefully decorated and benefit from a private
veranda with a hammock”
3. …this is one of the most intimate accommodation options in the Pantanal.”
4. “This small and charming lodge…Guest rooms feature a balcony with hammock whilst
Deluxe Bungalows are nestled amongst the trees, offering complete privacy.”
(US, Canada, Central and South America: 301)
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Descriptive adverbs and adjectives, such as ‘excellent,’ ‘tastefully,’ ‘private,’ ‘intimate,’
‘charming,’ ‘Deluxe,’ and ‘comfortable,’ give off a feel of formality and attract a specific group
of individuals who find these characteristics appealing.
Superlatives are important in illustrating Trailfinders image of travelling in style or
traveling with only the best of the best. The following phrases demonstrate the power of the
superlative:
1. “An intoxicating mix of one of the most dynamic cityscapes in the world…” (Dubai:
6)
2. “Much of Dubai’s best dining can be found here…” (Dubai: 7)
3. “Before heading to the largest free-flight bird aviary in the world…” (Africa and the
Middle East: 11).
4. “The most glamorous of the Caribbean Islands…” (Islands of the Caribbean: 2)
5. “Perhaps the most picturesque of the Caribbean’s islands…” (Islands of the
Caribbean: 4)
The use of superlatives allows Trailfinders to present their destinations in a way that
leaves no room for comparison. In addition, superlatives greaten the persuasive force behind
Trailfinders descriptions.
Linguistic expressions that are sensory overloaded and contain vivid imagery are also
significant in creating an unforgettable image of the ‘there’. They allow the reader to form an
emotional connection with the words themselves, and ultimately, the experience:
“Abel Tasman National Park is one of the jewels in New Zealand’s crown and this small
group tour offers fantastic coastal cruising, walking, and kayaking amidst stunning
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 55
natural scenery. Enjoy a scenic cruise on the Sea Shuttle before disembarking at
beautiful Anchorage Bay for a short walk to Watering Cove where your thrilling 3 hour
kayak trip begins. Watch for playful seals as you explore this stunning coastal paradise”
(Unmissable Australia and New Zealand: 31).
Expressions such as ‘amidst stunning natural scenery,’ ‘your thrilling 3 hour kayak trip,’
and ‘explore this stunning coastal paradise,’ are meant to play with the reader’s emotions in that
they can almost feel themselves becoming a part of such a stimulating environment. Once again,
the use of the present tense and imperative allow for an even deeper connection to be formed
because the individual can step directly into the future experience.
Overall, the ‘there’ is presented as an attractive experience that will meet all of the
individual’s needs, no matter what they are. More importantly, the presentation of the ‘there’
revolves around a specific style of travel that tends directly to the individuals identity. The
traveler wishes to experience the journey, but only with maximized comfort and stability.
Trailfinders promotes the journey as being adapted to meet the needs, desires, and expectations
of the potential traveler.
5. Findings
5.1 STA & Trailfinders Uncovered
Both STA and Trailfinders use the overarching issue of traveler identity and ‘other’
identity to sell their travel services and to persuade potential travelers to choose their
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 56
experiences. The inner workings of the discourse in regard to stance, participation framework,
and a comparison of the ‘here’ and ‘there’ all contribute to the persuasive force of each company
and form a connective web between the potential traveler, the destination, and the travel
company. This connection, however, becomes finalized when the individual is able to personally
identify with the act of travel that is being presented to them. As a result, identity is at the crux of
persuasion for both companies, but is specific to the socio-cultural group being targeted. The
language is then adapted according to each target group, which helps both companies to sell their
travel experiences.
The findings agree with a CDA approach because identity and language are inextricably
linked in the discourse of STA and Trailfinders travel brochures. Both companies have the same
ultimate goal, which is to convince potential travelers to choose the destination being promoted,
but the discourse is aligned with the identities of the target group and the identity that will be
gained from travel. Analyzing the discursive features revealed the role of identity and persuasion
in regard to travel and also revealed the extent to which travel is seen as a means of reshaping
existing identities.
5.2 STA Travel
STA targets young adults and students who are in search of an alternative experience and
who are most likely in a transition period of their young adult life. The act of travel is presented
in a way that has the potential to change their lives and shape existing identities. More
importantly, with the help of STA, travel becomes an opportunity for an individual to shape their
identity in an exclusive and unique way. STA, therefore, is actively agentive and acts as a
vehicle that transplants travelers directly to the root of their new reshaped identities. STA’s
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 57
expertise and experienced traveler status allows for them to actively bring travelers “face-to-
face” with the world which is limitless and filled with opportunity.
Although STA’s stance of expertise guides travelers on their journey, which alleviates
stress and minimizes some of the uncertainties of the unknown, STA still encourages travelers to
test their boundaries and immerse themselves in an unfamiliar environment. As a result, the risk
of the unknown and the unpredictable remains an invaluable part of the experience that STA is
promoting. STA encourages potential travelers to “spin in circles” (Europe: front cover) and
“make mistakes” (Asia: front cover), highlighting the power of the experience of the unknown.
The ‘there’ is projected as a place for the STA traveler to discover themselves. Wanderlust is a
key feature in the type of travel that STA presents, which reflects a type of traveler lifestyle that
requires an exploration of a foreign place.
Another important aspect of the identity travelers will gain through STA is that it has a
direct connection to the larger world. Travelers are not only experiencing the destination, but are
forming deep cross-cultural connections that have the potential to shape their outlook of the
world. Travel is viewed as a process of learning, growing, and self-discovery. Those who travel
with STA are forced to adapt their existing self and perceptions to the overall journey. In this
sense, travel creates awareness not only of the self, but of foreign culture and people. The ‘there’
and the ‘other’ are a catalyst in the processes of self-reflection and self-identification. In
addition, STA encourages a deeper insight into a foreign culture and to experience the unfamiliar
in a way that requires risk, adaptation, and challenge.
STA travel brochures draw the potential traveler in with descriptive features and colorful
language, bringing the traveler closer to the experience being offered, which reflects all of the
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 58
above characteristics. After reading an STA brochure, the potential traveler already feels closer
to their new sense of self and, thus, are easily persuaded on their desire to travel.
5.3 Trailfinders Travel
Trailfinders, on the other hand, promotes their travel experiences as aligning with a more
superior and prestigious standard of experiencing. They set an undeniable foundation of
expertise and stability, and it is from this foundation that they are able to guide their travelers all
over the world in what is presented as the most luxurious and classic manner. Trailfinders’
experiences are framed within luxury and oriented towards a symbol of high status. With the
help of Trailfinders, travelers step into a role that makes them feel prioritized and selected, which
reflects both their existing identity and the identity they wish to acquire during travel.
In a Trailfinders brochure, destinations are presented in a way that agrees with the
traveler’s expectations, but not necessarily reality. Trailfinders describes their destinations so
that they align with the individual’s cultural taste and preference. Although foreign culture is
being presented, it is presented in a way that the potential traveler will be able to relate to and
visualize themselves experiencing. Trailfinders encourages the ideas of exploration and
discovery in a way that does not require the traveler to shift their views of themselves or the
world around them. They guarantee the “perfect trip” which is unique to the potential traveler
and automatically aligns the potential traveler’s needs and expectations with the destination (US,
Canada, Central and South America: 319). As a result, the potential traveler does not need to
take on a new perspective, but can maintain their old perspective during the experience.
The unpredictable nature of travel is alleviated by intensive planning and stability, which
are key features of the Trailfinders style of travel. Trailfinders’ goal is to take travelers on a
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 59
journey that minimizes stress and maximizes comfort, thus Trailfinders’ role is unquestionable in
an otherwise inherently unpredictable setting. Travelers can visualize themselves having the
most stimulating experience, while their every need is accounted for. Through Trailfinders
facilities, services, and experiences, the traveler gains everything and lacks nothing.
The language in a Trailfinders’ brochure is reflective of the characteristics of those who
would choose a Trailfinders’ experience. Those who desire a tasteful, charming, comfortable,
secure, and intimate journey identify easily with the discourse in a Trailfinders brochure because
it is chosen specifically for them.
5.4 Travel vs. Tourism
Both STA and Trailfinders attract different target groups and do so through the consumer
identities that form these particular target groups. STA and Trailfinders present their high level
of expertise throughout the experience promoted in the travel brochure and similarly take on a
supportive role through the entire journey of travel, however, the difference lies in what will
come from the act of travel.
Traveling with STA requires risk, adaptation, and challenge and gives travelers the
opportunity to take on an open minded perspective of the world around them. Travelers are
encouraged to place themselves in a position of learning where they will gain new insight of
themselves and the ‘other.’ As a result, STA travel may be more closely aligned with Galani-
Moutafi’s (2000) concept of “travel” (p. 210). Authentic ‘travel,’ where the traveler is faced with
foreign situations that require adaptation and a different mindset, are seen to have more potential
in achieving greater self-fulfillment (Elsrud, 2001). Although STA maintains a supportive role
throughout the entire experience, it attempts to promote and lead travelers on a ‘travel’ journey.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 60
The idea of reshaping identities or gaining a new sense of self is therefore viewed as a significant
part of travel.
Experiences with Trailfinders, on the other hand, may be contained under the umbrella of
Galani-Moutafi’s (2000) concept of “tourism” (p. 210). Although Trailfinders still presents travel
as being part of an “extraordinary world,” which is more exciting than a traveler’s current world,
they do so within the expectations of the social group they are targeting (Hummon, 1988, p.
181). Those who travel with Trailfinders may reshape their existing identities, however, they will
be shaped by what is portrayed as an “exotic” and potentially unrealistic ‘other’ (Galani-Moutafi,
2000, p. 212). The ‘other’ and the ‘there’ are presented in a way that agrees with the potential
traveler’s expectations, which does not acknowledge the realities of a foreign place. This agrees
with the concept of ‘tourism’ because what is perceived as being an authentic experience is only
based on a predetermined representation. In addition, Trailfinders ensures that the travel
experience will be free of risk, hassle, and worry, thus eliminating the necessity of adaptation or
challenge. The tourist is safe in the hands of Trailfinders, making the role of Trailfinders that
much more important. Trailfinders leads potential travelers on a ‘tourism’ journey, which may
prevent travelers from the possibility of reimagining their selves because they do not have to take
on a new perspective of the world around them.
In general, this shows differences in the ultimate reasons for the desire to travel for those
who would choose STA and for those who would choose Trailfinders. The individual who is in
search of a life-altering experience would most likely choose STA, while the individual who is in
search of an unchanging life experience would most likely choose Trailfinders. As a result,
identity becomes dependent on the type of travel and the risk involved.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 61
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Appendix A
The following images were sourced from various online travel brochures on the STA Travel
website in December 2014 and can be found at the following link:
www.statravel.com/destination-guides.htm.
A1. Latin America: front cover. A2. Europe: 13.
A3. All brochures: 2. A4. All brochures: 14.
A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 67
Appendix B
The following images were sourced from various online travel brochures on the Trailfinders
website in December 2014 and can be found at the following link:
www.trailfinders.com/brochures.
B1. Central & South America: 11.
B2. Asia: 2.