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Unit 7: Evolution

What you need to Know:

1. HE.6.B.1—Compare and contrast Lamarck’s explanation of evolution with Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

2. HE.6.B.2—Recognize that evolution involves a change in allele frequencies in a population across successive generations

3. HE.6.B.3—Analyze the effects of mutations and the resulting variations within a population in terms of natural selection

4. HE.6.B.4— Illustrate mass extinction events using a time line5. HE.6.B.5—Evaluate evolution in terms of evidence as found in the following:

fossil record DNA analysis artificial selection morphology embryology viral evolution geographic distribution of related species antibiotic and pesticide resistance in various organisms

6. HE.6.B.6—Compare the processes of relative dating and radioactive dating to determine the age of fossils

Vocabulary:1. Adaption Inherited characteristic that increases an organism’s chances of survival

2. Allele Frequency Number of times that allele occurs in a population’s gene pool.3. Biological Evolution Any genetic or allele frequency change in a population over time.4. Common Descent Principle that all living species have derived from common ancestors.5. Descent With

ModificationPrinciple that each species has descended from other living species from genetic changes over time.

6. Embryology The study of the formation, development, and structure of embryos, including similarities.7. Fitness How well an organism is able to survive and reproduce.

8. Fossil Preserved remains or evidence of an ancient organism (fossilized usually means organic part replaced by minerals)

9. Gene Pool Combined genetic information of all the members in a specific population.

10. Genetic Drift When a large population gets subdivided into two or more populations with different allele frequencies.

11. Geographic Isolation The separation of two organisms from reproducing due to a geographic barrier that can lead to two populations.

12. Geological Time Scale Scale used by scientists to represent evolutionary time. Counts backwards from present to beginning of Earth.

13. Half-life Length of time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay.

14. Homologous Structures Structures that are alike in two different species because they share a common ancestor, such as limb in birds and reptiles that share the same bones and structures.

15. Mass Extinction Event or period of time where a vast number of species become extinct.

16. Morphology The study of the form and structures of organisms and their body plans that reveals similar development.

17. Natural Selection Process for change where some organisms survive due to certain variations in a population.

18. Pesticide Resistance A high speed form of evolution where a poison resistant organism remains and passes that trait on to its offspring.

19. Radioactive Dating Technique where scientists calculate the age of a rock based on the amount of remaining

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radioactive isotopes it contains.

20. Relative Dating Method of determining the age of a rock or specimen by comparing its placement to known layers of rock.

21. Speciation The formation of new species through natural selection.

22. Struggle for Existence More organisms are born than could possibly survive, thus causing a struggle won by the strongest or best able.

23. Survival of the Fittest Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully.

24. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Theory proposed by Charles Darwin to explain the principle of biological evolution through natural selection.

25. Vestigial Organs Organs that are ancestral and serve no useful function anymore but remain in modern organisms.

26. Viral Evolution A high speed form of evolution where a strain of virus becomes a different strain through genetic mutation.

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NS.10.B.1: Science is limited to natural explanations of how the world works

The goal of science is to: Science cannot…Explain paranormal myths or urban legends…but it can disprove them using scientific methods

Prove/disprove societal issues or have opinions of crazy, normal, cute, ugly, good, bad, etc.

Determine worth or beauty, make moral judgments, or work outside of the natural world.

NS.10.B.2: The difference between hypotheses, theories, and laws.

Cute? Real?Seen from space?

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NS.12.B.1: Theories are scientific explanations that require empirical data, verification, and peer review.

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NS.12.B.2: Scientific theories may be modified or expanded based on additional empirical data, verification, and peer review.

Scientists make hypotheses, theories, and laws.

Hypothesis Theory Law

Relation to Observations Relation to ExplanationsHypothesis Made after observations (or research) A possible explanation to be testedTheory Based on a wide range of well-tested observations A well-tested explanationLaw A statement based on an observation under a certain

set of conditionsNot an explanation

A simple analogy can be made using a slingshot and an automobile.

A scientific law is like a slingshot. A slingshot has but one moving part--the rubber band. If you put a rock in it and draw it back, the rock will fly out at a predictable speed, depending upon the distance the band is drawn back.

An automobile has many moving parts, all working in unison to perform the chore of transporting someone from one point to another point. An automobile is a complex piece of machinery. Sometimes, improvements are made to one or more component parts. A theory is like the automobile. Components of it can be changed or improved upon, without changing the overall truth of the theory as a whole.

Theories can __________________ become laws.

Practice Problems:

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Each one of these statements is a theory, hypothesis or law. Put T, H or L

1. Some illnesses are caused by microscopic organisms entering their body and taking over cell functions._____

2. People become ill when exposed to pathogenic bacteria. _____

3. If people don’t wash their hands, they are more likely to become ill. _____

4. The heliocentric solar system says that the planets in our solar system orbit around the sun. _____

5. Planets orbit the sun due to the sun’s large gravitational force caused by its large mass. _____

6. If the planets circle the sun, then by mapping the stars, planets’ movement through space will be graphed. _____

7. As you dig deeper into the earth, deposited minerals and fossils become older. _____

8. If you carbon date fossils found near earth’s surface, they will be younger than the fossils below it. _____

NS.10.B.3: The difference between a scientific theory and the term “theory” used in general conversation.

Scientific Theory and everyday use of the word “theory”

It’s “just a theory”.

The common use of the word “theory” is something that almost all scientists have run into, and many have probably banged their heads at hearing phrases like “evolution is just a theory”, etc.. What is of interest is how and when people decide to use the word “theory” and the affect that it has on audiences.

The noun, theory has two main classes of definitions for our consideration within the English language, something that is concrete and well-established and something that is speculative, like a hypothesis. The first one comes from science and the second is in everyday use. Many people do not even realize the difference. When they hear the Theory of Evolution they could use the wrong definition (the non-science one) and think it is something not concrete and well established.

A theory in its technical usage is something that is more or less verified or an established explanation accounting for known facts or observations, like the theory of relativity or how evolutionary biology is a theory. In modern science the term “theory” or “scientific theory” refers to a given explanation, consistent with the scientific method and observations.

In non-technical contexts, theory is used as a synonym for hypothesis, to mean an untested idea or opinion. A hypothesis is an inference put forth as a possible explanation of phenomena, which serves as a basis for empirical science to uncover some fundamental laws.

Identify each of the following as scientific use or common language usage.

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Example Common Use Scientific UseI have a theory who will win the football game tonight.The theory of plate tectonics explains how continents move.The theory of gravity is under constant discussion.I have a theory of how well I will do on this test.My theory of who ate the last cookie was correct.I theorized the car broke down because of lack of gas.Darwin contributed to the theory of evolution.

1. HE.6.B.1—Compare and contrast Lamarck’s explanation of evolution with Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) and Charles Darwin (1809-1882) both thought and had ideas about how life on earth got to be the way it is now. They had some similar and some very different ideas.

Unlike most other people at that time, Darwin and Lamarck both thought that life had changed gradually over time and was still changing, that living things change to be better suited and adapted to their environments, and that all organisms are related. Darwin and Lamarck also agreed that life evolved from fewer, simpler organisms to many, more complex organisms.

Lamarck is best known for his Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, first presented in 1801 (Darwin's first book dealing with natural selection was published in 1859): If an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its environment, those changes are passed on to its offspring. He said that change is made by what the organisms want or need. For example, Lamarck believed that elephants all used to have short trunks. When there was no food or water that they could reach with their short trunks, they stretched their trunks to reach the water and branches, and their offspring inherited long trunks. Lamarck also said that body parts that are not being used, such as the human appendix and little toes are gradually disappearing. Eventually, people will be born without these parts. Lamarck also believed that evolution happens according to a predetermined plan and that the results have already been decided.

Darwin believed that the desires of animals have nothing to do with how they evolve, and that changes in an organism during its life do not affect the evolution of the species. He said that organisms, even of the same species, are all different and that those which happen to have variations that help them to survive in their environments survive and have more offspring. The offspring are born with their parents' helpful traits, and as they reproduce, individuals with that trait make up more of the population. Other individuals, that are not so well adapted, die off. Most elephants used

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to have short trunks, but some had longer trunks. When there was no food or water that they could reach with their short trunks, the ones with short trunks died off, and the ones with long trunks survived and reproduced. Eventually, all of the elephants had long trunks. Darwin also believed that evolution does not happen according to any sort of plan.

Darwin's theory has been supported by a lot of evidence. Lamarck's Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics has been disproved. This was done in two major ways. The first is by experiment. We have seen through many real examples and observations that changes that occur in an animal during life are not passed on to the animal's offspring. If a dog's ears are cropped short, its puppies are still born with long ears. If someone exercises every day, runs marathons, eats well, and is generally very healthy, the fitness is not passed on and the person's children still have to work just as hard to get that fit and healthy. These and other examples show that Lamarck's theory does not explain how life formed and became the way it is. The other way that Lamarck's theory has been proven wrong is the study of genetics. Darwin knew that traits are passed on, but he never understood how they are passed on. During the time when Darwin's first book first came out, Gregor Mendel, who discovered genetics, was just starting his experiments. However, now we know a lot more about genetics, and we know that the only way for traits to be passed on is through genes, and that genes cannot be affected by the outside world. The only thing that can be affected is which gene sets there are in a population, and this is determined by which individuals die and which ones live. This is the other way that we have learned that the fruits of an animal's efforts cannot be inherited by its offspring.

Larmarck’s Ideas:

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Tendency towards perfection: Example:

Use and Disuse: Example:

Inheritance of Acquired Traits: Example:

Darwin’s Ideas:

1. Individual Variation:

2. Overproduction:

3. Struggle for Existence:

4. Survival of the Fittest:

These four all contribute to the concept of Natural Selection.

Natural Selection:

2. HE.6.B.2—Recognize that evolution involves a change in allele frequencies in a population across successive generations

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Gene Pool:

Allele Frequency:

How Populations Change:

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Initial population Population after 20 years Population after 50 years

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Type of Natural Selection Definition: Example:

Directional Selection

Stabilizing Selection

Disruptive Selection

Stabilizing Selection

Directional Selection

Disruptive SelectionBaby Body Mass Squirrel Fur Color

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3. HE.6.B.3—Analyze the effects of mutations and the resulting variations within a population in terms of natural selection.

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4. HE.6.B.4— Illustrate mass extinction events using a time line.

Timeline Practice

List the events and types of organisms in the box in the order in which they appeared on Earth. The oldest one is Number 1.

1. __________________________

2. __________________________

3. __________________________

4. __________________________

5. __________________________

6. __________________________

7. __________________________

8. __________________________

9. __________________________

10. __________________________

11. Which of the events in the list occurred in the Precambrian time? ________________

12. Why is so little known about the Precambrian time? ____________________________________________________

13. Why could Fred Flintstone never have lived with pet dinosaurs? ___________________________________________

14. What might have caused the mass extinctions of many land and sea animals at the end of the Paleozoic Era?__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Reptiles Placental mammalsFish AlgaeFlowering plants AmphibiansRunning mammals Large treesModern man Dinosaurs

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% Species Extinct

List the name and time period of each major extinction event using the graph above. Put them in order from earliest to most recent.

1. __________________________________ Time frame: _________________

2. __________________________________ Time frame: _________________

3. __________________________________ Time frame: _________________

4. __________________________________ Time frame: _________________

5. __________________________________ Time frame: _________________

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5. HE.6.B.5—Evaluate evolution in terms of evidence as found in the following: fossil record, DNA analysis, artificial selection, Morphology, embryology, viral evolution, geographic distribution of related species, antibiotic and pesticide resistance in various organisms Evidence Summary of Evidence Example of Evidence Scientists have

FoundGeographic Distribution

Morphology

Fossil Record

DNA Analysis

Artificial Selection

Transitional Forms

Embryology

Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance

Viral Evolution

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Geographic DistributionThe distribution of living things on the globe provides information about the past histories of both living things and the surface of the Earth. This evidence is consistent not just with the evolution of life, but also with the movement of continental plates around the world-otherwise known as plate tectonics.

Today, marsupial mammals are found in the Americas as well as Australia and New Guinea, shown in the upper map. They are not found swimming across the Pacific Ocean, nor have they been discovered wandering the Asian mainland. There appear to be no routes of migration between the two populations. How could marsupials have gotten from their place of origin to locations half a world away?

Fossils of marsupials have been found in the Antarctic as well as in South America and Australia. During the past few decades scientists have demonstrated that what is now called South America was part of a large land mass called Gondwana, which included Australia and Antarctica. Marsupials didn’t need a migration route from one part of the world to another; they rode the continents to their present positions.

MorphologyOrganisms that are closely related to one another share many anatomical similarities. Studying these similarities is studying the organisms’ morphology. Sometimes the similarities are easy to see, as between crocodiles and alligators, but in other cases considerable study is needed for a full appreciation of relationships.

Whales and hummingbirds have tetrapod (4 legged) skeletons inherited from a common ancestor. Their bodies have been modified and parts have been lost through natural selection, resulting in adaptation to their respective lifestyles over millions of years. On the surface, these animals look very different, but the relationship between them is easy to demonstrate. Except for those bones that have been lost over time, nearly every bone in each corresponds to an equivalent bone in the other.

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Fossil EvidenceA fossil is the prehistoric remains of a plant or animal. Fossils are typically preserved when they are buried under many layers of sand and mud. Under great pressure the sand and mud become sedimentary rock. Minerals seep into the fossil replacing the organic matter and creating a replica in stone.

A fossil can be a trace fossil or a body fossil. A body fossil is what was actual organic material from a creature or plant (like a bone). Trace fossils are signs of plant and animal activity that have been preserved in rock. For example, dinosaur tracks, trails and dung are all trace fossils.

The fossil record is our bank of knowledge composed of all the information we have gained by examining fossils. The fossil record provides snapshots of the past that, when assembled, illustrate a timeline of evolutionary change over the past four billion years. The picture may be smudged in places and may have bits missing, but fossil evidence clearly shows that life is old and has changed over time.

DNA AnalysisAll living things are fundamentally alike. At the cellular and molecular level living things are remarkably similar to each other. These fundamental similarities are most easily explained by evolutionary theory: life shares a common ancestor.

The cellular level, all organisms are made of cells, which consist of membranes filled with water containing genetic material, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, salts, and other substances. The cells of most living things use sugar for fuel while producing proteins as building blocks and messengers. Notice the similarity between the typical animal and plant cells pictured above — only three structures are unique to one or the other.

Different species share genetic homologies (similarities) as well as anatomical ones. Roundworms, for example, share 25% of their genes with humans. These genes are slightly different in each species, but their striking similarities nevertheless reveal their common ancestry. In fact, the DNA code itself is a homology that links all life on Earth to a common ancestor. DNA and RNA possess a simple four-base code that provides the recipe for all living things. In some cases, if we were to transfer genetic material from the cell of one living thing to the cell of another, the recipient would follow the new instructions as if they were its own.

These characteristics of life demonstrate the fundamental sameness of all living things on Earth and serve as the basis of today's efforts at genetic engineering.

Artificial Selection

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Artificial selection provides a model that helps us understand natural selection. People have been artificially selecting domesticated plants and animals for thousands of years. These activities have amounted to large, long-term, practical experiments that clearly demonstrate that species can change dramatically through selective breeding. Since farmers choose which plants to take seeds from and plant the next year, they are artificially selecting which traits to pass on to the next generation. Broccoli and brussel sprouts bear little superficial resemblance to their wild mustard relatives (left).

If domesticated dogs were discovered today, they would be classified as hundreds of different species and considered quite distinct from wolves. Although it is probable that various breeds of dogs were independently domesticated from distinct wild dog lineages, there are no wolf relatives anywhere in the world that look much like dachshunds or collies (right).

These observations demonstrate that selection has profound effects on populations and has the ability to modify forms and behaviors of living things to the point that they look and act very unlike their ancestors. Artificial selection provides a model that helps us understand natural selection.

Transitional FormsFossils or organisms that show the intermediate states between an ancestral form and that of its descendants are referred to as transitional forms. There are numerous examples of transitional forms in the fossil record, providing an abundance of evidence for change over time.

Pakicetus (below left), is described as an early ancestor to modern whales. Although pakicetids were land mammals, it is clear that they are related to whales and dolphins based on a number of specializations of the ear, relating to hearing. The skull shown on the left displays nostrils at the front of the skull.

A skull of the gray whale that roams the seas today (below right) has its nostrils placed at the top of its skull. It would appear from these two specimens that the position of the nostril has changed over time and thus we would expect to see intermediate forms such as the aetiocetus (center).

EmbryologyStudying the embryological (embryos) development of living things provides clues to the evolution of present-day organisms. During some stages of development, organisms exhibit ancestral features in whole or incomplete form.

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Some species of living snakes have hind limb-buds as early embryos but rapidly lose the buds and develop into legless adults. The study of developmental stages of snakes, combined with fossil evidence of snakes with hind limbs, supports the hypothesis that snakes evolved from a limbed ancestor.

Toothed whales have full sets of teeth throughout their lives. Baleen whales, however, only possess teeth in the early fetal stage and lose them before birth. The possession of teeth in fetal baleen whales provides evidence of common ancestry with toothed whales.

Antibiotic and Pesticide ResistanceAntibiotics and similar drugs, together called

antimicrobial agents, have been used for the last 70 years to treat patients who have infectious diseases. Since the 1940s, these drugs have greatly reduced illness and death from infectious diseases. Antibiotic use has been beneficial and, when prescribed and taken correctly, their value in patient care is enormous. However, these drugs have been used so widely and for so long that the infectious organisms the antibiotics are designed to kill have adapted to them, making the drugs less effective. Microbiologist Barry Kreiswirth of the Public Health Research Institute says, “We’ve created this problem. By developing as many antibiotics as we have over the last 50 years, we’ve essentially accelerated an evolutionary process. The outcome is that we’re going to have more drug-resistant microbes to the point where some of the most dangerous bacteria will not be treatable.”

Evolution can also be seen in pesticide resistance. In agricultural systems, pesticides are used to control insects and pests. Many of the pesticides have encouraging results, some killing as many as 99% of insects. But insects do not go away altogether or vanish forever, so what is going on? Evolution! The few survivors of the first pesticide spray are insects with genes that somehow enable them to resist the chemicals. So, the survivors then reproduce and the offspring may inherit the genes for pesticide resistance. With each new generation, more and more insects with the pesticide resistance increases.

Viral EvolutionThe age-old struggle against the common cold is evidence of evolution in action. A strain of flu virus is only effective when it takes on a new form to which hosts have yet developed an immunity. As soon as immunity develops, the virus is suppressed until new mutations lead to a new strain. Given their

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short life-cycles, viruses and bacteria churn through generations quickly, allowing mutations to accumulate many times faster than they do in animal or plant species.

Since viruses have such high mutation and reproductive rates, they can adapt to changing environments quite well. Indeed, since the only way they can reproduce is by infecting a cell they must be able to evolve faster than their host’s cells. If not, then the host cells would adapt/evolve to where a virus would no longer be able to infect.

"Understanding evolution is essential to identifying and treating disease," said Harvey Fineberg, president of the Institute of Medicine. "For example, the SARS virus evolved from an ancestor virus that was discovered by DNA sequencing. Learning about SARS' genetic similarities and mutations has helped scientists understand how the virus

evolved. This kind of knowledge can help us anticipate and contain infections that emerge in the future."

DNA sequencing and molecular biology have provided a wealth of information about evolutionary relationships among species. As existing infectious agents evolve into new and more dangerous forms, scientists track the changes so they can detect, treat, and vaccinate to prevent the spread of disease.

Evidence for Evolution Practice

For each question below, identify the evidence of evolution using the ones from your chart on page 13. Then, using complete sentences, explain why it is evidence of evolution.

1. Humans, chimpanzees, whales, and bats all have the same bones in their arms, fins, or wings.

a. What type of evidence is this?

b. Why is this evidence of evolution?

2. Scientists find fossilized bones of a huge animal that doesn’t exist today.



3. The human gene for your muscle protein is different from monkey muscle protein in 4 places and different from a chicken’s gene in 25 places.



http://www.listoid.com/image/143/list_2_143_20101214_052232_394.jpg

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4. Honey possums lick nectar from flowers using a long tongue made of soft muscle. Butterflies lick nectar from flowers using a long tongue made of hard protein.



5. Humans, rabbits, and zebras all have an appendix, an extra piece in their digestive system, although in humans it’s much smaller.



6. A new bone is found in Egypt filling in a gap in the fossil record. The leg bone is similar to a bone found which was 1 million years ago and another dated at 2 million years ago. Scientists have found this bone to be 1.5 million years old.



7. A seed company breeds generations after generations of soy plants until they produce the ideal soy plant. They patent the plant and sell it to farmers.



8. HIV has not been cured due to the fact that the virus mutates at a fast rate making it difficult to identify one way to vaccinate against it.



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9. Fish embryos and human embryos both have gill slits. In fish they develop into gills, but in humans they disappear before birth.



10. Deserts in North and South America have cacti, but deserts in Africa, Asia, and Australia have succulent desert plants that have milky sap.



11. Penicillin has been used so much that is no longer has an effect on bacterial infections. New drugs must be created to eliminate harmful bacteria.



12. Humans have a tailbone at the end of the spine that is of no apparent use. The vestigial tailbone in humans is homologous to the functional tail of other primates.



6. HE.6.B.6—Compare the processes of relative dating and radioactive dating to determine the age of fossils.

Relative/Radioactive Dating

List the layers of rock from youngest to oldest.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succulent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacti

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1. How do geologists use index fossils?

2. When scientists use radioactive dating, they do not need to know the exact location of where the specimen came from. In relative dating, you do need to know where the organism remains were found. Why is this?

Complete the following questions on Radioactive Dating.

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1. If one half-life is equal to 5730 years, how many years would 2 half-lives be?

2. When the initial amount of carbon formed is 10 grams, how many grams will remain after 3 half-lives?

3. How many grams of Carbon-14 would remain after 22,920 years?

1. The half-life of Tritium is 12 years. After 12 years, what percentage of Tritium remains?

2. If 10 grams of tritium was present when the organism was formed, how many years would have passed for 25% of the original Tritium is left?

3. At 49 years, how many half-lives have passed?

4. Which type of dating (relative or radioactive) is more precise?

5. Which is easier to use in the field or away from advanced technologies?

6. Which type of dating requires knowing exactly where the fossil was found?

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Relative Dating vs. Radioactive DatingRelative Dating Radioactive Dating

Definition:

Pros:

Cons:

Test Review:

(This is not comprehensive; this is to help you start studying)

1. What did Darwin’s theory of evolution propose?

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2. What was Lamarck’s hypothesis of use and disuse?

3. Overuse of certain pesticides results in bugs that are resistant to the pesticides. Explain the process of how this happens.

4. On each of the Galapagos Islands the finches have different shaped beaks. How does this show evolution?

5. What does artificial selection and selective breeding tell us about evolution?

6. What are the positives and negatives of using relative dating?

7. What are the positives and negatives of using radioactive dating?

8. The swine flu pandemic of 2010 killed thousands of people around the world. Using your knowledge of the different types of evolution should we be concerned that this virus could become more deadly in the future? Why or why not?

9. The amount of time it takes for half of a radioactive element to decay is known as __________.

The following are questions or statements based on the associated diagrams.

Unknown Species TAC GAT CCC CCG

Species 1 TAC GAC CGC CCG

Species 2 ACT GAT CCC CCG

Species 3 TAC GAT CGC CCC

Species 4 ACT GCA CCG CCG

10. According to these data, the unknown species is most closely related to _________________________

Use the Geologic Timeline to answer the following questions:

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