GCSE History B Unit 1International Relations: Conflict and Peace in the 20th Century

Peacemaking 1918–1919

and the League of Nations

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Exam Board: Scheme of Work

Key issue: How did the Treaty of Versailles establish peace?

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Pages 3-5 The Paris Peace Conference: the aims of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson: the Fourteen Points

Pages 6-7 The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles: Diktat; territorial changes; military restrictions, war guilt and reparations

Pages 8-9 The strengths and weaknesses of the Treaty of Versailles: why Germany objected to itKey issue: Why did the League of Nations fail in its aim to keep peace?

Pages 10-12 Organisation, powers and peace keeping role: the Assembly; the Council; the Permanent Court of Justice; military and economic sanctions

Pages 13-15 Membership 1919-1939: why and how it changed; implications for the League of Nations

Pages 16-17 The Manchurian Crisis 1931–1933: events; action taken by the League; effect on the League as a peace keeping force

Page 18 The Abyssinian Crisis 1935–1936: events; action taken by the League; effect on the League as a peacekeeping force

Pages 19-20 The reasons for the collapse of the League

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Key issue: How did the Treaty of Versailles establish peace?

Background – the end of WW1:

In October 1917 a Revolution broke out in Russia that brought the COMMUNIST ‘Bolshevik Party’ to power. Almost the first act of the new government was to publish its peace proposals on 8th November. The fighting on the Eastern Front ended within a few weeks, and a peace conference began its deliberations at Brest Litovsk on 22nd December 1917. As well as gaining huge amounts of territory in the East, Germany could now concentrate its entire army on the Western Front.

The German army launched a huge offensive in France and Belgium in March 1918. The German Army made astonishing advances in the first few days of the offensive, advancing up to 60 kilometres (38 miles) and destroying the British Fifth Army. But the attack soon became bogged down and the advance had to be halted.

The French counter-attacked in July, the British in August, and it became clear that the Central Powers could not possibly win the war. Germany had lost the initiative, Austria-Hungary was on the verge of collapse and there was a chronic shortage of manpower.

The final Allied push towards the German border began on October 17th, 1918. As the British, French and American armies advanced, the alliance between the Central Powers began to collapse. Turkey signed an armistice at the end of October, Austria-Hungary followed on November 3rd. 

Germany began to crumble from within. Faced with the prospect of returning to sea, the sailors of the fleet stationed at Kiel mutinied on October 29th. Within a few days, the entire city was in their control and the revolution spread throughout the country.

On November 9th, Kaiser Willhelm abdicated; slipping across the border into the Netherlands and exile. A German Republic was declared and messages of peace were extended tentatively to the Allies. At 5 AM on the morning of November 11th an armistice was signed. 

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The terms of the agreement called

for a halt to fighting along the

The Paris Peace Conference: the aims of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson: the Fourteen Points

The Paris Peace Conference:

The peace conference that led to the Treaty of Versailles began its deliberations in Paris in January 1919. The proceedings were dominated by the French Premier Georges Clemenceau, the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and the American President Woodrow Wilson. The ‘Big Three’, as they were known, all had different aims and objectives which they wanted to achieve at the Peace Conference.

The aims of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson:

Georges Clemenceau - A tough politician with a reputation for being uncompromising – his nickname was ‘The Tiger’. He had seen his country invaded twice by the Germans, in 1870, and 1914. He was determined not to let this happen again.He wanted revenge, and to punish the Germans for what they had done. He wanted to make Germany pay for the damage done during the war. He also wanted to weaken Germany, so France would never be invaded again.

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CLEMENCEAU

Woodrow Wilson - An idealist and reformer. Once the USA had joined the war he drew up a plan called the 14 points, which was meant to ensure that future wars could be avoided. He could be very stubborn, and felt that the USA was morally superior to the European Powers, especially as the USA did not have an Empire.He wanted to make the world safe.  He wanted to end war by making a fair peace. In 1918, Wilson published ‘Fourteen Points’saying what he wanted. He said that he wanted disarmament, and a League of Nations (where countries could talk out their problems, without war). He also promised self-determination for

the peoples of Eastern Europe.

David Lloyd George - A realist. As an experienced politician, he knew that there would have to be compromise at the Paris Peace Conference. He occupied the middle ground between Clemenceau and Wilson.He said he would ‘make Germany pay’ – because he knew that was what the British people wanted to hear. He wanted ‘justice’, but he did not want revenge. He said that the peace must not be harsh – that would just cause another war in a few years time.  He tried to get a ‘halfway point’ – a compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau.  He ALSO wanted to expand the British Empire, maintain British control of the seas, and increase Britain's trade

The Fourteen Points4

WILSON

LLOYD GEORGE

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points were first outlined in a speech Wilson gave to the American Congress in January 1918. It was on the back of the Fourteen Points that Germany and her allies agreed to an armistice in November 1918. Listed here are 12 out of 14:

1. No more secret agreements or treaties2. Free navigation of all seas.3. An end to all economic barriers between countries.4. Countries to reduce weapon numbers.5. To consider the future of all colonies, with the SELF-DETERMINATION of their people taken into account6. The German Army is to be removed from Russia. Russia should be left to develop her own political set-up.7. Belgium should be as independent as it was before the war.8. France should be fully liberated and allowed to recover territory taken by Germany.9. (not included here)

10. SELF-DETERMINATION should be allowed for all those living in Austria-Hungary.11. SELF-DETERMINATION and guarantees of independence should be allowed for the Balkan states.12. (not included here)

13. An independent Poland should be created which should have access to the sea.14. A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states.

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The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles: Diktat; territorial changes; military

restrictions, war guilt and reparations

Diktat

The peace treaty that the ‘Big Three’ had agreed was signed at the vast Versailles Palace near Paris. The Versailles Palace was considered the most appropriate venue simply because of its size - many hundreds of people were involved in the process and the final signing ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors could accommodate hundreds of dignitaries

The Germans were furious with the terms of the Treaty. They had expected it to be based on Woodrow Wilson’ 14 points, but instead the treaty seemed harsh and vindictive. The German delegation – led by their new President, Ebert – signed the Treaty, but only under protest. The Germans felt that their opinions had not been listed to and the treat had been ‘dictated’ to them; they called it a ‘diktat’.

Territorial changes

The following land was taken away from Germany (see picture on the next page): Alsace-Lorraine (given to France) Eupen and Malmedy (given to Belgium) Northern Schleswig (given to Denmark) Hultschin (given to Czechoslovakia) West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia (given to Poland) to form the ‘Polish

Corridor’ The Saar, Danzig and Memel were put under the control of the League of

Nations and the people of these regions would be allowed to vote to stay in Germany or not in a future referendum. Germany was forbidden from uniting with Austria.

The League of Nations also took control of Germany's overseas colonies. However, the League handed control of most of these colonies to Britain and France.

Germany had to return to Russia land taken in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Some of this land was made into new states: Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.

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Military restrictions

Germany’s army was reduced to 100,000 men; the army was not allowed tanks Germany was not allowed an airforce  Germany was allowed only 6 capital naval ships and no submarines  The west of the Rhineland and 50 kms east of the River Rhine was made into a

demilitarised zone (DMZ). No German soldier or weapon was allowed into this zone. The Allies were to keep an army of occupation on the west bank of the Rhine for 15 years.

War Guilt and Reparations

Germany had to admit full responsibility for starting the war. This was Clause 231 - the infamous "War Guilt Clause". 

Germany was therefore responsible for all the war damage caused by the First World War and had to pay REPARATIONS, the bulk of which would go to France and Belgium to pay for the damage done to the infrastructure of both countries by the war. The figure was eventually put at £6,600 million - a huge sum of money well beyond Germany’s ability to pay.

The loss of vital industrial territory would also be a severe blow to any attempts by Germany to rebuild her economy. Coal from the Saar and Upper Silesia in particular was a vital economic loss.

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The Treaty of Versailles is too harsh on the Germans – they will seek revenge for the terms placed upon them. This treaty is not based on my 14 points. Self-determination has not been applied fairly – Britain and France still have their colonies and lots of Germans now live in other countries.This treaty is not designed for peace, but for punishment and if I were German, I would have refused to sign it.

The strengths and weaknesses of the Treaty of Versailles: why Germany objected to it

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Treaty

The Treaty of Versailles was a compromise, which none of the ‘Big Three’ were totally happy with. Wilson was upset that the principle of ‘Self Determination’ had not been applied, and thought that the Treaty was too harsh. Clemenceau was concerned that the Treaty had not gone far enough, and that Germany still remained a potential threat to France. Lloyd George did not feel that ‘justice’ had been done, and predicted that German desire for revenge would lead another war.

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Wilson

Lloyd-George

I feel that I achieved a good treaty for Britain, but not for Germany and not for peace.

None of the old problems have really been solved, and Germany has been left bitter and resentful.

I predict this treaty will lead to another war in 25 years.

Clemenceau

The Treaty does not protect France enough. Germany still has most of its industry and the core of its professional army remains – they could still be a threat to France. I wanted Germany to be broken up into small nation states, but Wilson disagreed. I do not think this Treaty goes far enough.

Why Germany objected to the Treaty

The Treaty left a mood of anger throughout Germany as it was felt that as a nation Germany had been unfairly treated. 

Above all else, Germany hated the clause blaming her for causing the war and the resultant financial penalties the treaty was bound to impose on Germany. Those who signed it (though effectively they had no choice) became known as the "November Criminals".

Many German citizens felt that they were being punished for the mistakes of the German government in August 1914 as it was the government that had declared war - not the people.

Field Marshal Hindenburg, Germany’s most famous war hero, summed up the mood of many people when he said:

Weaknesses of the Treaty

Many Germans resented the Treaty, and wanted revenge. Hitler gained support in Germany by promising to tear up the Treaty. Many of the new countries that the Treaty created were weak and could not

stand up for themselves. Millions of Germans had ended up living outside of Germany. The new League of Nations was ineffective and unable to resolve conflicts Many countries (such as Germany and Russia) lost territory – but wanted it back Many people in Britain and the USA thought that the Treaty was too harsh

Did the Treaty have any strengths?

Lloyd George’s and Wilson’s predictions about the German desire for revenge creating future conflict did eventually come true – the Treaty of Versailles is seen by most historians a major cause of WW2.

With hindsight, the Treaty seemed deeply flawed and doomed to failure.

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"God does not desert us. We must take care that the great work of Wilhelm I. and Bismarck is not crumbled to pieces. Germany and Prussia will then arise again. That is my firm belief, and I can only beg you to think in this sense and, when the hour strikes, also to act."

Key issue: Why did the League of Nations fail in its aim to keep peace?

Organisation, powers and peace keeping role: the Assembly; the Council; the

Permanent Court of Justice; military and economic sanctions

Background

The League of Nations came into being after the end of World War One. The League of Nation's task was simple - to ensure that war never broke out again. After the turmoil caused by the Versailles Treaty, many looked to the League to bring stability to the world.

America entered World War One in 1917. The country as a whole - and the President Woodrow Wilson in particular - was horrified by the slaughter that had taken place in what was meant to be a civilised part of the world. The only way to avoid a repetition of such a disaster was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes as and when they occurred - this would be the task of the League of Nations.

Organisation, Powers and Peace keeping role

When it was established in 1919, the founding nations agreed a ‘Covenant’ – a set of aims and principles on which the League would be based.The ‘Covenant’ of the League said that the aims of the League were:

• To discourage aggression from any nation.• To encourage countries to co-operate, especially in business and trade• To encourage nations to disarm• To improve the living and working conditions of people in all part of the

world

Above all – the aim of the League was to make sure that there would be no more wars like the ‘Great War’ of 1914-18.

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Military and Economic sanctions

Part of the appeal of the League of Nations was that by joining, countries would work together to protect each other. If one country was attacked, then others would help. This idea was called ‘COLLECTIVE SECURITY’.

To make sure that collective security was enforced, the League had three ‘SANCTIONS’ it could use to deter or punish aggressive nations:

1. Moral Condemnation

If one nation was seen to be the offender in a conflict, the League could introduce verbal sanctions - warning an aggressor nation that she would need to leave another nation's territory or face the consequences.

2. Economic Sanctions

The League would instruct its members to stop trading with the aggressive country. The purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that it would have to do as the League required. The logic behind it was to push an aggressor nation towards bankruptcy, so that the people in that state would take out their anger on their government forcing them to accept the League’s decision. The League could order League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel.

3. Military ForceThe League would send soldiers or ships to confront the aggressive country. However, the League did not have a military force at its disposal and no member of the League had to provide one under the terms of joining. Instead, this sanction relied on the League’s members using their own armies and navies to do the League’s bidding.

The Assembly; the Council; the Permanent Court of Justice: the structure of the League

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Membership 1919-1939: why and how it changed; implications for the League of

Nations

The USA and Isolationism

After WW1, many Americans were becoming increasingly ISOLATIONIST in their views. They wanted the USA to follow a policy of ISOLATIONISM – limiting diplomacy, trade and involvement with rest of the world.

Wilson and the League

Woodrow Wilson campaigned to try and persuade the American people and Congress to sign up the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations. In order to achieve this he needed the support of the American Congress (parliament).He even suffered a stroke caused by the strain of travelling around the USA trying to win support.

In spite of this, Congress voted down the treaty 38/53 in November 1919.

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Other membership problems

It was not only the USA that did not join the League. 15

“The gap in the bridge”10th December, 1919, Punch Magazine

Russia was not allowed to join because the other League members did not want to work alongside a Communist Country.

Germany and the other defeated powers were barred from joining the League until they had shown their willingness to abide by the terms of the peace treaties.

Many people saw the League as a “winners’ club”, dominated by the victorious nations of WW1.

Britain and France

Britain and France were the only two major powers continually represented in the League. This meant that in effect, they pretty much ran the League as they wanted to.

However, both countries had suffered terribly during the war. Their economies and armed forces were badly weakened.

This meant that they were usually unwilling to intervene in conflicts when this might cost them money or men.

After the horror of 1914–18, the French and British public were very much against conflict. This meant their governments were unwilling to go to war, even to protect long-term peace.

In addition, the dominance of the League by these two Imperial powers damaged the Leagues authority, as it a sometimes appeared that the League only existed to protect their interests.

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The Manchurian Crisis 1931–1933 and the Abyssinian Crisis 1935 – 1936: events; action taken by the

League; effect on the League as a peace keeping force

Background

The early 1920s had been times of prosperity and democracy. In the 1920s, the League had been quite successful, however in the 1930s, it failed terribly.  

The world was plunged into an economic crisis in 1929 and by 1930 there was a global economic depression. Countries now wanted to increase their wealth at other nations' expense and Fascist or military governments, which believed in the survival of the strongest, came to power in Germany, Japan and Italy.

By 1935, most countries did not think that the League could keep the peace as it had failed to deal effectively with two huge crises at the start of the 1930s. When Hitler began to break the terms of the Treaty of Versailles when he began to gain power in Germany, the League was powerless to stop him.

The Manchurian Crisis (1931-1933)

The Dispute

In the 1930s there was a world-wide economic depression. Japan tried to overcome the depression by building up an empire.

In September 1931, the Japanese claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the Manchurian railway in Korea, which Japan controlled. Japan attacked and by February 1932, had brutally conquered Manchuria. The Japanese set up their government in Manchuria, calling it Manchoukuo.

In March 1932, China appealed to the League of Nations for help.

What the League did

In April 1932 the League sent a DELEGATION (a group of officials), led by Lord Lytton to study the problem in Manchuria. Compiling this report took almost a year.

In October 1932, Lord Lytton and his delegation declared that Japan should leave Manchuria. In February 1933 a special assembly of the League voted against Japan’s actions. The Japanese delegation walked out of the assembly.

The Outcome17

Japan refused to leave Manchuria. Instead, Japan left the League.

Many countries had important trading links with Japan and were uncomfortable SANCTIONING them too harshly.  Additionally, the League could not agree on a specific sanction or even a ban on weapons sales.

The two most powerful nations in the League, Britain and France, did not want a war (and could not afford one) so nothing was done.

The League had failed. 

The Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936)

The Dispute

In December 1934 a dispute about the border between Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and the Italian Somaliland flared into fighting. Italy’s fascist dictator, Mussolini, readied the Italian army to invade Abyssinia. He wanted war and glory.

The Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie went to the League to appeal for help.

What the League did18

Diagram detailing the Japanese invasion of Manchuria

In July 1935, the League banned arms sales to either side (which significantly hurt the Abyssinians more so than the Italians). The League attempted to talk to Mussolini – but he used the time to send a 100,000 strong army to Africa (the Italian troops used poison gas and attacked Red Cross Hospitals). The League suggested a plan to the Abyssinian Emperor to give part of Abyssinia to Italy. He refused to accept this suggestion.

The Outcome

Mussolini ignored the League, and invaded Abyssinia. The League banned weapons sales, and put sanctions on rubber and metal, but it did little else – in fact Britain and France refused to intervene. Significantly, the British did not close the Suez Canal (see diagram), fearing that Mussolini would declare war on Britain if they did. Mussolini was able to send men and supplies to Abyssinia through the (British owned) Suez Canal.

Britain and France had in fact secretly agreed to give two thirds of Abyssinia to Italy in the Hoare-Laval Pact – a secret plan made by the foreign secretary of Britain and the prime minister of France.

By May 1936, Italy had conquered Abyssinia.

The League had failed.

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Diagram detailing the Italian invasion of Abyssinia

The reasons for the collapse of the League

Key reasons for the collapse of the League

Important nations were absent (Russia was not welcome to join the League and America, one of the greatest world powers at the time, refused to join - which weakened the League from the start)

Countries like Japan, Germany and Italy left the League when it suited them The League did not have its own army (Britain and France refused to use their

armed forces to support the League) The League was inefficient and its decisions were often slow (for example, the

Lytton report took almost a year to compile and it took months for the League to condemn the actions of Mussolini in Abyssinia)

Economic sanctions were ineffective (Italy was able to ignore economic sanctions and trade with non-league members)

Economic sanctions did not include resources like oil and coal The peace treaties of 1919 came to be seen as unfair (the League was hugely

unpopular in Germany because it supported the Treaty of Versailles and it lost support in Britain and the USA due to its support of the Treaty)

League members put their own interests above those of the League as a whole (Britain and France continued to trade with Italy during the Abyssinian Crisis because they didn’t want to damage their economies and wanted Mussolini’s support against the increasingly powerful Adolf Hitler)

Reasons for the collapse of the League – Historian’s view

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“While the League of Nations could celebrate its successes, the League had every reason to examine its failures and where it went wrong. These failures, especially in the 1930’s, cruelly exposed the weaknesses of the League of Nations and played a part in the outbreak of World War Two in 1939. During the 1920’s the failures of the League of Nations were essentially small-