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An Interpretative Account of Early GreekHistoriography

A Historiographical Essay

In partial fulfillment of

RC575: Historiography

Dr. Brett F. Woods

ByJ. Phil Webb AMU 1037074

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An Interpretative Account of Early Greek Historiography

“In winter, on your soft couch by the fire, full of food, drinking sweet wineand cracking nuts, say this to the chance traveler at your door: What is yourname, my good friend? Where do you live? How many years can younumber? How old were you when the Persians came…?”

Xenophanes, Greek Poet and Philosopher

Early Greek historiography actually began with the Homeric Epics that were

passed from generation to generation by poets or bards who would relate them orally. Not

to be confused with modern history, as we now understand it, this precursor to history

actually did contain some of the elements of history, which for the time being satisfied

the natural inquisitiveness of the Greeks regarding their past. But as society matured,

their natural curiosity prompted further introspection; they soon realized that they could

not even answer fundamental questions about themselves. “Who am I? Where do I come

from? Who came before me?” Even though the bards sang of heroic men and deeds of a

distant past, there was still no connection to the present. Furthermore, as society became

more advanced, the need to know of the past and its broader implication for the present

and the future mounted. A good example of this being defense – for it was imperative to

be able to differentiate between friend (i.e. fellow Greeks) and potential foes (i.e. non-

Greeks or barbarians ). An astute group of Greeks, most likely beginning with Hecataeus

of Miletus, and continuing with Herodotus and Thucydides and beyond, presciently

recognized this need. Thus, Greek historiography was rooted in the epic tradition, borne

of urgent societal needs, and evolved into a sophisticated method akin to the modern

discipline of history while serving the vital purpose of defining Greek society.

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Homer and Hecataeus: Precursor to Greek History

From the earliest and most influential Greek writings, the Homeric epic poems

Iliad and Odyssey , “we already find a preoccupation with the past, and an urge to

transmit it to future generations” (Hornblower 1994, 7). Passed down from generation to

generation via the oral tradition, the overarching themes of the Iliad were timeless; the

actions of man - whether they be borne of courage or cowardice, his interaction with the

Gods, man’s folly and predisposition towards conflict and warfare, and the genealogy of

all Greeks. The Odyssey too deals with topics of intense human interest; the hero’s return,his travels, man’s natural geographical curiosity, and all the heart-rending struggles and

high adventure accrued during his journeys. Although the Homeric epics lacked “dates

and a coherent dating scheme” (Hornblower 1994, 8), they did serve to satisfy “what we

may call the historical interest of the audiences who heard them recited” (Bury 1909, 2).

Logically, the reaction of the Greeks was to seek a common identity and connection with

“the Homeric heroes” through “its ancient clans” (Bury 1909, 2) so that they could

provide their independent city-states, the Polis , with a sense of place and an air of

legitimacy. Despite the fact that the “principle motives of the Homeric epics were

historical” (Bury 1909, 4), and that they tended to serve the ancient Greeks in a myriad of

different ways, whether it be as entertainment or as a quasi-historical explanation for their

present situation, historian Simon Hornblower has keenly pointed out that “whatever else

it may have been, the epic was not history” (Hornblower 1994, 8).

The first true hints of modern history, as we know it today, came from Hecataeus

of Miletus. Proclaiming that “What I write here is an account of which I consider to be

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(Hornblower 1994, 29). It is for his hitherto unheard of method of recording events of

historical importance, and even more importantly, for his delving into the deeper

underlying meaning of such events, that Herodotus has been duly accorded the title of

‘the Father of History,’ for it has been universally recognized that “There was no

Herodotus before Herodotus” (Hornblower 1994, 28).

Thucydides, while continuing the historical tradition set forth by Herodotus, was

in his own right, an original and innovative historian. His single historical monolith, The

History of the Peloponnesian War , was a contemporary documentary of the war between

Sparta and Athens, which occurred from 431 – 404 BC (Thucydides’ History ends at 411BC – 404 BC marks the end of the war with the fall of Athens). Stating that "My work is

not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was done to

last forever" (Thucydides, Warner 1987, 48), Thucydides himself is proclaiming that this

work is vastly different from the literary works of previous Greeks which were often

written for public consumption. And so it was, for the reason that…

“He sets up a new standard of truth or accurate reproduction of facts, anda new ideal of historical research; judged by which, he finds Herodotus andthe Ionian historians wanting. He condemns them expressly for aiming at

providing ‘good reading’ as we should say, rather than facts, and for narratingstories, the truth of which cannot possibly be tested. He does not seek himselfto furnish entertainment or to win a popular success, but to construct a recordwhich shall be permanently valuable because it is true.”

(Bury 1909, 81)

This is precisely what truly sets his work apart – his relentless dedication to “accuracy”

and his internal structuring of the work in a “strict chronological order” (Hornblower

1994, 91). Beyond that, Thucydides like Herodotus, also seeks to offer a “full, perceptive

and neutral analysis of those circumstances” related in his work and to answer the ever-

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important questions of “who, what, where and when” (Hornblower 1994, 2). Whereas,

Herodotus deservedly earned his title as, the Father of History, Thucydides has been

called ‘The Master’ by some modern Historians who have recognized that “No prose

writer of the ancient world matched his gift for building an overarching narrative

structure, his attention to significant detail, and his emotional sweep” (Hornblower 1994,

24).

Xenophon, less instrumental than either Herodotus or Thucydides in the

formulation of what would become the historic method, does however deserve mention

as a notable early Greek historian as he nonetheless fills in important gaps in the Greekhistorical record. Taking up where Thucydides left off in his History of the

Peloponnesian War , Xenophon’s work Hellenica covers the time period of 411 – 362

BC. This work is deemed fairly credible as Xenophon “was personally acquainted with

many leading figures of his time” (Westlake 1969, 203). Xenophon’s other historical

work of importance is his Anabasis , or The Persian Expedition , which documents the

travails of ten thousand Greek mercenaries hired by the Persian prince, Cyrus the

Younger, in a bid to gain the throne of Persia.

Greek Historians in Roman Times: Polybius and Arrian

As the epicenter of human civilization continued to shift westward with the

gradual subsidence of Greek society and subsequent rise of the Roman Empire, Greek

historians continued to exert a considerable amount of influence within their respective

society and without, as well as on the fledgling discipline of History. Foremost of these

later Greek historians was Polybius, whose prolific 40-volume work, The Histories or

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The Rise of the Roman Empire , was a grand attempt at writing a “universal history”

(Finley 1959, 441). Unfortunately, only five complete volumes have survived.

Nevertheless, he is highly regarded for his recognized “obligation of historical truth and

impartiality” (Bury, 1909, 217) as he continued down the path set by Thucydides.

Expanding on Thucydides methodology of seeking the answers to questions of ‘who,

what, where and when,’ Polybius sought to also answer “how and why” in his works

(Hornblower 1994, 2). Ultimately, it was Polybius who defined the “historian’s task as

explanation” (Hornblower 1994, 2).

Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon, otherwise known as Arrian, completes theroll call of the most prominent early Greek historians as his masterful work, The

Campaigns of Alexander , provides arguably the best surviving account of a chapter so

important to Greek history: Alexander the Great’s invasion of Persia.

Mestrius Plutarchus, or Plutarch, is typically not classified amongst the Greek

historians as his wonderful work, Parallel Lives , albeit a work of tremendous historical

value, is more closely associated with the biographical genre rather than amongst

historical works.

In Conclusion

Surprisingly, the Greeks did not possess a historical tradition before the works of

Hecataeus or Herodotus. Prior to this they had relied solely on the oral traditions of the

Homeric epics. But these proved inadequate in the face of advancing society. For

explaining inexplicable phenomena or human interaction as the work of ‘the Gods’ could

not, and did not, hold up to the scrutiny of an advancing civilization. This advancement

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demanded a knowledge of the past, so that they might draw a connection with their past

and be guided in the present. This was the catalyst for the advent of History.

Bibliography

Arrian. Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt. 1971. The Campaigns of Alexander .London: Penguin Books.

Bury, J. B. 1909. The Ancient Greek Historians . New York: The MacMillan Company.

Finley, M.I. Ed. 1959. The Portable Greek Historians: The Essence of Herodotus,Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius . New York: The Viking Press.

Gilderhus, Mark T. 2000. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction,Fourth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Heredotus. Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt. 1972. The Histories . London: PenguinBooks.

Hornblower, Simon. 1994. Greek Historiography . Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Knox, Bernard, Ed. 1993. Classical Literature . New York: W. W. Norton and Company.

Selincourt, Aubrey de. 1982. The World of Herodotus . San Francisco: North Point Press.

Starr, Chester G. 1968. The Awakening of the Greek Historical Spirit . New York: AlfredA. Knopf.

Thucydides. Translated by Rex Warner. 1987. History of the Peloponnesian War .Middlesex, England, Penguin Books.

Westlake, H. D. 1969. Essays on the Greek Historians and Greek History . New York:Manchester University Press.

Worthington, Ian. 1994. Ventures in Greek History . Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Xenophon. Translated by Rex Warner. 1979. A History of My Times (Hellenica) .London: Penguin Books.

Xenophon. Translated by Rex Warner. 1965. The Persian Expedition . Baltimore,Maryland: Penguin Books.

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Index of Early Greek Historians Mentioned in this Paper

Historian Dates Significant Historiographical WorksHomer 8 th Century BC The Iliad

The OdysseyHecataeus of Miletus c. 550 – 476 BC Genealogiai (Only fragments survive)

Herodotus of Halicarnassus c. 484 – 425 BC The Histories

Thucydides c. 460 – 400 BC History of the Peloponnesian war

Xenophon 427 – 355 BC Anabasis Hellenica Aegesilaus

Polybius 203 – 120 BC The Histories

Arrian 92 – 175 AD The Campaigns of Alexander

Thesis Statement: Thus, Greek historiography was rooted in the Epic tradition, borne ofurgent societal needs, and evolved into a sophisticated method akin to the moderndiscipline of history while serving the vital purpose of defining Greek society.

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