weed management in chrysanthemum chrysanthemum … · certificate i this is to certify that the...

WEED MANAGEMENT IN CHRYSANTHEMUM

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)

Thesis

Submitted to the Punjab Agricultural University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING (Minor Subject: Botany)

By

Ravneet Kaur

(L-2012-A-58-M)

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping College of Agriculture

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

LUDHIANA-141004

2014

CERTIFICATE I

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Weed management in Chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” submitted for the degree of M.Sc. in the

subject of Floriculture and Landscaping (Minor subject: Botany) of the Punjab

Agricultural University, Ludhiana, is a bonafide research work carried out by Ravneet Kaur

(L-2012-A-58-M) under my supervision and that no part of this thesis has been submitted for

any other degree.

The assistance and help received during the course of investigation have been fully

acknowledged.

______________________

Major Advisor

(Dr. (Mrs.) Madhu Bala)

Assistant Floriculturist

Department of Floriculture and

Landscaping

Punjab Agricultural University

Ludhiana – 141004 (India)

CERTIFICATE II

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Weed management in Chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” submitted by Ravneet Kaur (L-2012-A-58-M) to the

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of M.Sc. in the subject of Floriculture and Landscaping (Minor subject: Botany) has

been approved by the Student‟s Advisory Committee along with Head of the Department after

an oral examination on the same.

________________ ________________________

(Dr. (Mrs.) Madhu Bala) Dr. A.P.S. Gill

Major Advisor (External Examiner)

Former Professor of Floriculture (Retd.)

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping

PAU, Ludhiana

___________________

(Dr. Premjit Singh)

Head of the Department

_____________________

(Dr. Gursharan Singh)

Dean Postgraduate Studies

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all my gratitude to Almighty for his blessings with whose grace I was able to complete

my study.

I take this opportunity with much pleasure to thank all the people who have helped

me through the course of my journey towards producing this thesis. I sincerely thank my

advisor, Dr. (Mrs.) Madhu Bala, Assistant Floriculturist, Department of Floriculture and

Landscaping, whose encouragement, introspective guidance, constructive suggestions, co-

operation and support from the initial to the final level enabled me to develop an

understanding of the research work.

I lack words to express my cordial thanks to my Advisory Committee: Dr. (Mrs.)

Nirmaljit Kaur Senior Botanist, Department of Botany, Dr. (Mrs.) Tarundeep Kaur Assistant

Agronomist, Department of Agronomy and Dr. (Mrs.) Kiranjit Kaur Dhatt, Floriculturist,

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping for their useful comments and constructive

suggestions during all the phases of present research.

Words are too little to express my appreciation to my adorable parents Mr. Avtar

Singh, Mrs. Sukhwinder Kaur, brother (Gurdip Singh) and bhabhi ji (Arshpreet Kaur) for

their encouragement, unfailing zeal, devotion and ever willing help.I will always be grateful

to my chacha ji (Rajinder Singh), Chachi ji (Sukhdeep Kaur), cousin brother (Navtej) and

sister (Jasleen) whose selfless support have brought me upto this stage of carrier.

I am also thankful to my classmates Azzez, Sahil, Prabjit Kaur, Tanya Takur and

Jaswinder Kaur. I acknowledge the wonderful support and work of my friends Jobenjeet,

Manmeet, Manpreet, Balraj, Shaminder, Jashanjot, Atinderpal and all my juniors and

seniors and thank them for their flourishing inspiration during my stay at PAU, Ludhiana.

Apart from above mentioned, there are many hands and good heart that have helped

me to walk on the right track of life. I will ever remain indebted to them.

Place:

Date: (Ravneet Kaur)

Title of the Thesis : Weed management in Chrysanthemum


Name of the Student and : Ravneet Kaur

Admission No. (L-2012-A-58-M)

Major Subject : Floriculture and Landscaping

Minor Subject : Botany

Name and Designation of : Dr. (Mrs.) Madhu Bala

Major Advisor Assistant Floriculturist

Degree to be awarded : M.Sc.

Year of award of Degree : 2014

Total Pages in Thesis : 71+Vita

Name of University : Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, India

ABSTRACT

The present investigations entitled, “Weed management in chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” were undertaken in the experimental field area of the

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

during 2013-2014 to study the effect of different pre-emergence herbicides and different types

of mulching materials on weed population, vegetative and floral parameters of

chrysanthemum cv. Garden Beauty. Three pre-emergence herbicides viz. Butachlor, Atrazine

@ 1 kg/ha, 1 kg/ha + 2 HW, 1.5 kg/ha and Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha, 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW,

1.0 kg/ha along with weed free and weedy control treatments were tried in chrysanthemum.

Eleven different treatments with three replications were compared in terms of weed

population, growth and floral characters. The result of experiment showed that butachlor 1

kg/ha + 2 HW was found to be the effective weed control method for controlling weed

population. Weed free treatment resulted in the maximum plant height (68.22 cm), plant

spread (38.27 cm), number of branches per plant (5.89), number o flowers per plant (70.37)

and duration of flowering (21.77 days). Among the different herbicides tried, butachlor 1

kg/ha + 2 HW gave the maximum plant height (65.53 cm), plant spread (35.27 cm), number

of branches per plant (5.56), number of flowers per plant (67.50) and duration of flowering

(20.71 days). In another experiment, eleven different treatments comprising different types of

mulching material (black and clear polythene sheet and paddy straw) were compared. Among

the different mulching material used, mulch with black polythene 150 µm showed better

results with effective weed control and improved growth and floral parameters. This treatment

showed the maximum plant height (66.67 cm), plant spread (41.77 cm), number of branches

per plant (5.55), number of flowers per plant (71.56) and duration of flowering (21.22 days).

Weed free treatment also showed better results with maximum plant height (67.00 cm), plant

spread (42.22 cm), number of branches per plant (5.78), number of flowers per plant (72.11)

and duration of flowering (22.00 days). Out of 14 weed species, Cyperus rotundus, Phyllanthus niruri and Parthenium hysterophorus were not controlled by any herbicidal or

mulching treatments in the experiment.

Key words: Weed control, chrysanthemum, herbicides, mulching.

________________________ ____________________

Signature of Major Advisor Signature of the Student

Koj p`qr dw isrlyK : „guldwaudI (kRweIzYNQImm morIPolIAm rYmt) ivc bUtI pRbMDn‟

ividAwrQI dw nwm Aqy : rvnIq kOr dwKlw nM. (AYl-2012-ey-58-AYm)

pRmu`K ivSw : Pu`l ivigAwn Aqy lYNfskyipMg

sihXogI ivSw : bnspqI ivigAwn

pRmu`K slwhkwr dw nwm Aqy : fw. (SRImqI) mDU bwlw Ahudw shwiek Pu`l ivigAwnI

imlx vwlI ifgrI dw nwm : AYm.AYs.sI.

ifgrI imlx dw swl : 2014

Koj p`qr dy ku`l pMny : 71+vItw

XUnIvristI dw nwm : pMjwb KyqIbwVI XUnIvristI, luiDAwxw-141004, pMjwb, Bwrq

swr-AMS

mOjUdw qjrbw ijs dw isrlyK “guldwaudI (kRweIzYNQImm morIPolIAm rYmt) ivc bUtI pRbMDn” hY[ jo Pul ivigAwn Aqy lYNfskyipMg ivBwg, pMjwb KyqIbwVI XUnIvristI, luiDAwxw dy Koj Pwrm qy swl 2013-14 ivc v`K-v`K ndInnwSk ivDIAW Aqy mlc dw Asr guldwaudI dI iksm “gwrfn ibaUtI” ivc pwey gey ndInW dI AbwdI, pOdy dw vwDw Aqy puSpk guxW au~pr vyKx leI kIqw igAw[ iqMn ndInW dy au~gx qoN pihlW spRy krn vwly ndInnwSk ijhVy ik bUtwklor, AYtrwzIm 1Kg/ha, 1Kg/hac + 2HW, pYNfImYQlIn, 0.75 Kg/hac, 0.75 Kg/hac + 2HW

Aqy 1.0 Kg/hac dy nwl ndIn mukq Aqy ndIn au~gy hoey guldwaudI dy qjrbw KyqrW ivc vrqy gey[ qjrby dy nqIijAW ny d`isAw ik bUtwklor 1 Kg/hac + 2HW, bUtI dI jnsMiKAw dI rokQwm leI bUtI inrMqn qrIky qy Asrdwr pweI geI[ bUtI mukq aupcwr ivc vD̀ qoN v`D bUty dI aucweI (68/22 cm), bUty dw PYlwau pRqI bUtw (38.27 cm), SwKwvW dI igxqI pRqI bUtw (5.89 cm), Pu`lW dI igxqI (70.37) Aqy Pu`l iKVn dw smW (21.77 idn) iBMn-iBMn qrHW dIAW ndInnwSk dvweIAW ivc bUtwklor 1 Kg/ha + 2HW ny v`D qoN v`D bUty dI aucweI (65.53 cm), bUty dw PYlwau pRqI bUtw (35.27 cm), pRqI bUtw SwKwvW dI igxqI (5.56), pRqI bUtw Pu`lW dI igxqI (67.50) Aqy Pu`l iKVn dw smW (20.71 idn) id`qw[ dUsry pRXog ivc iBMn-iBMn 11 aupcwr ijnHW ivc iBMn-iBMn qrHW dy Gwh-PUs, F`kx vwly pdwrQ (kwly Aqy swP pOlIQIn cwdrw Aqy Jony dy qIly dI qulnw kIqI geI)[ iesqymwl kIqy gey iBMn-iBMn qrHW dy Gwh-PUs Aqy F`kx vwly pdwrQW ivcoN kwly pOlIQIn nwl F`ky gey KyqrW ivc 150 μm kwlI pOlIQIn cwdr bUtI inrMqr qy Asrdwr pweI geI Aqy vDIAw nqIjy Aqy au~pj ivc suDwr Aqy Pu`lW vwly mwp dMf ivKwey gey[ ies aupcwr ny v`D qoN v`D bUty dI aucweI (66.67 cm), bUty dw PYlwau (41.77 cm), pRqI bUtw SwKw (5.55), pRqI bUtw Pu`lW dI igxqI (71.56) Aqy Pu`l iKVn dw smW (21.22 idn) pwey gey[ bUtI mukq aupcwr ivc vDIAw nqIjy v`D qoN v`D bUty dI aucweI (67.00 cm), bUty dw PYlwau (42.22 cm), pRqI bUtw SwKwvW (7.78 cm), P`ulW dI igxqI (72.11) Aqy Pu`l iKVn dw smW (22 idn) ivKwey[ 14 bUtI pRjwqIAW iv`coN swieprs rotMnfs, PwielYNQs inrUhI Aqy pwrQynIAm hwestoPors pRjwqIAW, iksy vI ndInnwSk jW mlc dy pRXogW nwl qjrby ivc inrMqr nhIN kIqIAW jw skIAW[

Sbd kuMjI : bUtI pRbMDn, guldwaudI, ndIn, ndInnwSk, mlc[

__________________ _______________ pRmu`K slwhkwr dy hsqwKr ividAwrQI dy hsqwKr

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO.

I INTRODUCTION 1-3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4-14

III MATERIAL AND METHODS 15-20

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 21-62

V SUMMARY 63-64

REFERENCES 65-71

VITA

LIST OF TABLES

Table

No. Title Page

No.

3.1 Rating scale of phytotoxicity symptoms on chrysanthemum plants variety

“Garden Beauty” 19

4.1 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on weed count per unit area 23

4.2 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on fresh weight of weeds per

unit area 24

4.3 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on dry weight of weeds per unit

area 27

4.4 Phototoxic effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plants after

transplanting 29

4.5 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plant height, plant spread and

number of branches of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 30

4.6 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on number of sprays of

chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 35

4.7 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on days to first bud appearance

and days to full bloom stage of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 37

4.8 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on duration of flowering,

number of flowers per plant and flower diameter of chrysanthemum variety

“Garden Beauty”

39

4.9 Effect of different mulching material on weed count per unit area 41

4.10 Effect of different mulching material on fresh weight of weeds per unit area 44

4.11 Effect of different mulching material on dry weight of weeds per unit area 45

4.12 Effect of different mulching material on soil temperature after transplanting

of rooted cuttings of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 47

4.13 Effect of different mulching material on plant height, plant spread and

number of branches of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 50

4.14 Effect of different mulching material on number of branches and number of

sprays of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 51

4.15 Effect of different mulching material on days to first bud appearance and days

to full bloom stage of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 53

4.16 Effect of different mulching material on duration of flowering, number of flowers

per plant and flower diameter of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty” 57

4.17 Various weeds species observed in the herbicide and mulching trail

throughout the crop season 58

4.18 Comparison of cost of production involving different herbicides and manual

weeding 60

4.19 Comparison of cost of production involving different mulch and manual

weeding 62

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO.

4.1 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plant height in

chrysanthemum 31

4.2 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on number of

branches in chrysanthemum 33

4.3 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on number of sprays

in chrysanthemum 34

4.4 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on flower diameter

in chrysanthemum 38

4.5 Effect of different mulching material on plant height in

chrysanthemum 48

4.6 Effect of different mulching material on plant spread in

chrysanthemum 49

4.7 Effect of different mulching material on duration of flowering in

chrysanthemum 55

4.8 Effect of different mulching material on flower diameter in

chrysanthemum 56

LIST OF PLATES

Plate

No. Title

1 Chrysanthemum variety "Garden Beauty"

2 Preparation of Chrysanthemum cuttings

3 Rooted cuttings of chrysanthemum

4 Overview of mulching trial

5 Weed species observed in the experiments

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is one of the most widely

cultivated herbaceous perennial plant belonging to family Asteraceae and commonly known

as „Autumn Queen‟ or „Queen of East‟. It ranks next to rose in the international flower market

due to wide variation among the cultivars with respect to growth habit, flower shape, size and

colour, long lasting flower life and diversity in height. In India, chrysanthemum cultivation

covers 20.14 thousand hectare area with loose flower production of 202.63 million tonnes and

cut flower production of 1415.79 lakh flowers (Anonymous 2013). Chrysanthemum produces

showy flowers with different flower colour, flower shape and plant height that can be used as

pot plants for beautifying indoors and outdoors, as cut flowers for making bouquets and vase

decoration, as loose flower for making garlands, worshipping purpose and for garden

decoration.

In the North-Indian plains, the commercial growers propagate chrysanthemum plants

through terminal stem cuttings at the end of June that can be extended up to the end of July

and in these cuttings rooting take place within 2-3 weeks. After transplanting, these terminal

rooted cuttings have a very slow growth rate initially in the field as they take long time to get

established. During these hot days many types of weeds flourish very well. Weeds are

unwanted and undesirable plants which interfere with the utilization of land and water

resources, thus adversely affect human welfare and also harbor insect and disease pests (Rao

2000). Generally, the crop weed competition has known to be more intense in the early stages

of crop growth i.e. vegetative stage. During this stage weeds compete with the main crop for

various growth factors such as nutrients, moisture, light and space that adversely affect plant

growth, quality, flower production and also increase the cost of production. Chrysanthemum

is the most appropriate crop to concentrate on the development of a successful weed control

strategy to encourage crop growth and flowering that would be of the greatest benefit to the

flower industry as a whole.

An integrated approach for weed management is a special program that includes

prevention as well as physical, cultural and chemical weed control methods. Integrated weed

management is a method where all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable

methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic

damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors

(Kumar and Jagannathan 2003). Crop rotation can be useful tool for integrated weed

management, especially against perennial weeds like nutsedge (Warren and Coble 1999).

Hand pulling and manual weed control are the physical methods that are safest, most effective

and practical methods of weed control if done frequently, but very expensive, time consuming

2

and laborious methods. These methods are also most useful in small areas or in areas of

mixed plantings of desirable ornamental plants where herbicide use would be impractical.

Mechanical control may also involve the use of tillers, edgers, or other equipment to remove

existing weed problems. Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of the soil and plant residues

to prepare a seedbed for crop planting. It loosens soil, enhances the release of nutrients from

the soil for crop growth, kills weed and regulates the circulation of water and air within the

soil (Reicosky and Allmaras 2003).

Cultural control through plant competition or cropping practices to suppress weeds,

either through the use of smoother or competitive crops, crop rotation or through use of

mulches. Congenial environmental conditions determine the growth and production of any

flowering plants. However, not only favourable atmospheric conditions but soil environment

also plays a very important role in successful crop production. Soil environment includes

several components, among them soil moisture, soil temperature and presence of microflora

and fauna are important. Among the various soil moisture and temperature regulation

measures, mulching is perhaps the best known cost effective and easy method. Mulching is

one of the cultural practices aimed at to conserve soil moisture (Schonbeck and Evanylo

1998), regulate soil temperature (Tarara 2000), control weed growth (Sekhon et al 2008) and

reduce the impact of falling raindrops and reduce soil erosion (Edwards et al 2000). Mulching

is an agricultural and horticultural technique in which the use of organic materials (plant

residues-straw, hay, groundnut hulls, leaf and compost, peat, wood products-saw dust and

animal manures) and synthetic materials (paper, polyethylene, wax coated papers, aluminum,

steel foils and asphalt spray emulsions etc.) with or without shallow tillage, for the purpose of

increasing soil productivity is involved.

Mulching and its skillful applications can lead to improved soil organic matter

content by improving other soil characteristics (Harris et al 2004). This can also create

habitats for beneficial arthropods, including generalist predators such as big-eyed bugs, soft-

bodied flower beetles and spiders (Neilsen et al 2003) and ensures better yield of fruit of

higher quality (Ghosh and Bauri 2003). Mulches also add nutrients to the soil and ultimately

enhance the growth and yield of crops (Kumar et al 1990). Generally straw, rice husk, crop

residues and polythene sheets (Black and Transparent plastic sheet) can be used as artificial

mulches in ornamental crops (Wilhoit et al 1990, Stowell 2000). It has been proved that

municipal wastes are considered as one of the effective mulching material in horticultural

crop production (Tariq et al 2012). Cyperus rotundus and Cynodon dactylon were effectively

controlled by neem leaf and mango leaf mulches in rose (Challa and Ravindra 1999). Black

plastic mulch was proved effective for aster (Callistephus chinensis) with healthier vegetative

growth, maximum flower production and petal pigmentation while minimum yield was

obtained in control (Solaiman et al 2008). In different parts of the world different materials

3

are used for mulching but black polyethylene is mostly used for good production (Hassan et

al 2000, Sharma et al 2001 and Singh et al 2006). This might be due to the black colour of the

polythene that absorbed all the incident radiations itself. Therefore, no light penetration

occurred through the black polythene mulch which ultimately checks the weed seed

germination and growth.

Chemical weed control includes the use of pre and post-emergence application of

different herbicides to control weeds. Herbicides that are applied to weed-free media / soil to

destroy weed seedlings as they germinate and emerge are as pre-emergent to weeds. The other

opportunity to control weeds is to apply an herbicide to young, actively growing weeds that

application is termed a post-emergent to weeds. Application of herbicides reduced weed

densities without phytotoxicity in rose (Rajamani et al 1992). Perennial sedges (Cyperus spp.)

and Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) have long been in the top 10 worst weeds of the world

(Holm et al 1977). They have underground storage organs and while many herbicides will

desiccate the above-ground portions, they readily re-emerge from underground buds. These

weeds were controlled to some degree by mechanical cultivation and by a few systemic

herbicides such as glyphosate. Some incompletely domesticated weeds e.g. seed amaranth

(Amaranthus spp.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), fonio (Digitaria exilis syn Paspalum

exile, Syntherisma exilis), tef (Eragrostis tef), birdseed millet (various species) and many

others, can be highly competitive with weeds (Gressel 2008). There is need to identify

additional herbicides which might be useful for effective weed control in flower crops. This

need is due to changes in herbicides registration related to changes in regulatory policy and

shifts in weed species over time with continued use of one herbicide (Lebaron and Gressel

1982). Cultural and use of chemical are the most effective methods as compared to the

physical method in various ornamental plants; therefore these are comparatively economical,

convenient and efficient in eradicating weeds. Very less information is available about the use

of suitable chemicals and mulches to control weeds in chrysanthemum. There is scope to use

different type of mulches and herbicides to control weeds in chrysanthemum that will result in

good quality flower production.

Keeping above aspects in view, the present investigations were undertaken for effective

weed control in chrysanthemum with the following objectives:

1. To study the effect of different herbicides and mulches on weed population.

2. To study the effect of different herbicides and mulches on growth and development of

chrysanthemum.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Weeds found in production fields reduce crop yields by competing for nutrients,

moisture, physical space, and light (Bond and Oliver 2006), and they may also harbor crop

insects and diseases. As a result, crop growth is often reduced, and, at harvest, weeds can

interfere with equipment and reduce grower profits by increasing crop injury and hand labor

(Nowacki, 1983). Deep ploughing and other mechanical and manual cultivation techniques,

previously the main methods of weed control, are now heavily supplanted by chemical control

such that more than half the pesticides used worldwide are for weed control. Chemical weed

control, currently coupled with transgenic herbicide-resistant crops, has been the most rapidly

adopted new practice in agriculture (James 2010), resulting in considerably lower costs and

reduced environmental impact (Brookes and Barfoot 2010). Spraying herbicides reduces

fossil fuel needs for cultivation, especially in minimum tillage. The most common weed

management practices in agricultural crops include cultural, mechanical, and chemical

approaches.

The relevant literature related to the research topic “Weed management in

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” has been discussed under the

following headings:

2.1 Effect of different herbicides on weed control, plant growth and flowering

parameters

2.2 Effect of different mulching material on weed control, plant growth and

flowering parameters

2.1 Effect of different herbicides on weed control, plant growth and flowering parameters

Herbicides are often the primary tools of choice for weed management across most

acres of the world. The selection of which herbicide to use should be based on multiple

factors, including soils, cropping rotations, tillage practices, and weed species. Herbicide

application rates can vary according to many factors. Rates for soil-applied herbicides are

greatly influenced by soil characteristics, such as organic matter content, texture, and pH.

Koutepas (1982) studied the effect of different weed control methods on qualitative

and quantitative characters of gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus Hort.). Pre-emergence

application of metoxuron (3 kg ai/ha) or perfluidone (2.5 kg ai/ha), pre-plant soil

incorporation of granular EPTC (3.5 kg ai/ha) and hoeing were included for effective weed

control. Flowers from weeded and from metoxuron-treated plots showed better qualitative and

quantitative characteristics (height, cut flower weight, flowering percentage) than flowers

from weedy plots and flowering started in these plots were early (5-8 days). Perfluidone or

EPTC herbicides showed phytotoxic effects to the plants.

5

Gilreath (1984) reported that in gladiolus cv. Mantles White Field, more than or equal

to 90 percent control of Digitaria ciliaris weed was achieved when napropamide 2 Ib/acre,

pronamide 2 Ib/acre, thiobencarb 4 Ib/acre and alachlor 1.5 Ib + chlorpropham 2 Ib/acre were

sprayed 2-4 times. 90 percent control of Amaranthus hybridus was only achieved with

alachlor + chlorpropham, napropamide and oryzalin applications.

Brosh et al (1985a) reported that Convolvulus spp. weed was controlled better by pre

emergence than post-emergence application of oxyfluorfen (0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 kg/ha) and

oxadiazon (0.75 kg/ha) in gladiolus cv. Peter Pearce and cv. Trader Horn. Post-emergence

sprays of metaxuron @ 1.6, 2.4 and 3.2 kg/ha, however, show damage of leaves and also

inhibited the growth of gladiolus plants.

Brosh et al (1985b) observed that Convolvulus spp. weed in rose cv. Mercedes was

controlled upto 80 percent by using herbicide like oxyfluorfen @ 0.75 kg/ha (soil drench) and

oxadiazon @ 0.75 Kg/ha + simazine @ 0.5 kg/ha (soil drench) and all other annual weeds

were eliminated completely. All herbicides did not show toxic effect on rose plants, when

applied with a hand sprinkler at the base of the rose bushes.

Lamont (1986) found that when alachlor, chlorthal-dimethly, napropamide,

oxadiazon and oxyfluorfen were used to control the weeds in Carnations, Chrysanthemum,

Gypsophilla, Helichrysum and Zinnia in summer, all herbicides were effective against more

than 90 percent of grasses and 67-100 percent of broad leaved weeds. In winter alachlor,

chorthal-dimethyl, napropamide, oryzalin and chloroxuron were tested on Calendula, Iceland

poppy, Antirrhinum, Stock and Wallflower and found that all expect chloroxuron were

effective against more than 80 percent of grasses.

Lamont and O‟Connell (1986) studied that application of herbicides like alachlor,

chlorthal-dimethly and napropamide@ 1.125 or 2.225 kg/ha, 7.5 or 15.0 kg/ha and 2.25 or 4.5

kg/ha respectively in the winter annuals Papaver nudicaule, Limonium sinuatum, Mathiola

incana, Calendula officinalis, Dianthus barbetus and Antirrhinum majus and summer annuals

Helichrysum bracteatum, Gypsophila elegans, Zinnia elegans and Callistephus chinensis,

alachlor resulted in control of 70 percent broadleaved and 90 percent grassy weeds. Chlorthal-

dimethly gave 70-90 percent weed control in summer and only 50-70 percent weed control

was recorded in winter. The study further revealed that alachlor showed toxic effect on

Papaver nudicaule, Dianthus barbatus and Zinnia elegans. Chlorthal-dimethly was toxic for

Gypsophila elegans, Zinnia elegans and Mathiola incana. Similarly napropamide was

phytotoxic to Helichrysum bracteatum, Callistephus chinensis, Zinnia elegans and Calendula

officinals.

Yadav and Bose (1987) conducted an experiment on chemical weed control in

tuberose and gladiolus. Pre-plant application of atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-

isopropylamino, 1,3,5-triazine) @ 3.0 kg/ha resulted in the maximum control of weeds in

6

tuberose field and gave highest yield (10.2 tonnes/ha) of good quality flowers. The

corresponding yield from weedy control plants was only 5.8 tonnes/ha. The most effective

herbicide in controlling the weeds in gladiolus field and promoting the growth and flowering

of the crop was found to be oxyfluorfen (2-chloro-1-(3-ethoxy-4 nitrophenoxy) 4-

(trifluoromethyl) benzene that was applied @ 0.5 kg/ha.

Kuhns and Michael (1992) reported that napropamide herbicide gave total weed

control throughout the season under the mulch. Oxadiazon provided very good weed control

when on bare soil and fair control when on top of mulch, isoxaben was the most effective

when on bare soil and fairly effective under the mulch, when these herbicides were sprayed

on bare soil, under the mulch and on the top of the mulch when napropamide @ 4.4 kg/ha,

oxadiazon @ 3.3 kg/ha and isoxaben @ 1.1 kg/ha were used in the field of Palergonium

hortorum cv. Orange Appeal, Petunia hybrida cv. Carpet Red and Tagetes patula cv. Cortez

Yellow.

Basavaraju et al (1992) conducted an experiment to study the effect of different

pre-emergent herbicides on yield in china aster. All pre-emergence herbicides diuron,

simazine, metolachlor, alachlor and pendimethalin used at various rates reduced the number

of weeds expect the sedges when sprayed on a mixed population of weeds in china aster

(Callistephus chinensis) field. Pendimethalin was proved to be toxic for china aster and

gave reduced yield.

Derr (1993) found that dithiopyr, pendimethalin and prodiamine at different

concentrations provided excellent control of spotted spurge (Euphorbia maculata) and yellow

woodsorrel (Oxalis stricta) in Coreopsis lanceolata, Chrysanthemum superbum, Gaillardia

aristata and Echinacea purpurea. The tolerance of transplanted lanceleaf coreopsis

(Coreopsis lanceolata), ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucantheum), purple cone flower

(Echinacea purpurea) and blanket flower (Gaillardia aristata) to metolachlor was determined

in field trials. Metolachlor @ 4.5 kg/ha (maximum use rate) and 9.0 kg/ha (twice the

maximum use rate) did not reduce stand or flowering of any wildflower species after one or

two applications, although plants developed transient visible injury. Combining metolachlor

with the broadleaf herbicides simazine or isoxaben resulted in unacceptable injury and stand

reduction, especially in ox-eye daisy. Metolachlor plus oxadiazon was less injurious to the

wildflowers than metolachlor plus either simazine or isoxaben. Treatments containing

metolachlor controlled yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) by at least 89% in both

experiments. Treatments containing isoxaben controlled eclipta (Eclipta alba).

Henderson-Cole and Schnelle (1993) reported that the two most serious weeds

Digitaria sanguinalis and Amranthas retroflexus were completely controlled by the use of

prodiamine throughout the growing season, but oxadiazon lost its effectiveness after 3 months

period when both herbicides were sprayed @ 1.1 and 4.5 kg/ha in Petunia hybrida cv.

7

Celebrity Mix, Salvia splendons cv. Top Red and Catharanthus roseus cv. Bright Eye.

Chahal et al (1994) reported that atrazine @ 1-2 kg/ha effectively controlled the

weeds Galinsoga parviflora, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colonum, E. crus-galli and

Digitaria sanguinalis upto 95 days of planting in gladiolus cv. Psittaacinus hybrid followed

by pendimethalin @ 1-2 kg/ha.

Thetford et al (1995) studied the effect of pre-emergence herbicides on annual

bedding plants. Five pre-emergence herbicides were evaluated for control of large crabgrass

(Digitaria sanguinalis L. Scop.) and prostrate spurge (Euphorbia humistata Engelm. ex Gray)

and their phytotoxicity to spring planted herbaceous bedding plants. Dimension 0.5G

(dithiopyr) applied @ 1.1, 2.2 or 3.4 kg ai/ha, Southern Weedgrass Control (SWGC)

(pendimethalin) 2.68G and rout 3G (oxyfluorfen + oryzalin) each applied @ 1.7, 3.4 or 6.7 kg

ai/ha, snapshot 2.5TG (trifluralin + isoxaben) applied at 3.4 or 6.7 kg ai/ha and ronstar 2G

(oxadiazon) applied at 4.5 kg ai/ha controlled both weeds up to 60 days after treatment

(DAT). Bedding plant tolerance varied with herbicide and application rate. Basil and salvia

were sensitive to snapshot (trifluralin + isoxaben), (6.7 kg ai/ha), while ronstar (oxadiazon)

(4.5 kg ai/ha) injured begonia and impatiens. Species sensitive to dimension (dithiopyr) @ 2.2

or 3.4 kg/ha 60 days after treatment were begonia, salvia, and nicotiana. Bedding plants

sensitive to SWGC (pendimethalin) were celosia and salvia. Rout (oxyfluorfen + oryzalin)

was injurious to most species evaluated @ 6.7 kg ai/ha and in some cases @ 3.4 kg ai/ha. In

experiments 2, 3 shoot growth of impatiens, geranium, basil, and ageratum was not affected

by any herbicide treatment. However, impatiens root growth was suppressed (30 DAT) with

dimension (dithiopyr), snapshot (trifluralin + isoxaben), SWGC (pendimethalin) (high rate

only) and ronstar (oxadiazon). Basil root growth was suppressed 15 days after treatment with

dimension (dithiopyr), snapshot (trifluralin+ isoxaben), and SWGC (pendimethalin),

however, all root dry weights were similar to control root dry weights at 30 days after

treatment.

Porter (1996) reported that herbicide like Isoxaben, trifluralin and isoxaben + oryzalin

@ 1.12 kg/ha, 1kg/ha and 5.6kg/ha, respectively were quite effective against a number of

broad spectrum weeds growing in Coreopsis grandiflora cv. Early Sunrise, Chrysanthemum

coccineum cv. Gaint Mixed and Hibiscus moscheutos cv. Southern Belle.

Gilreath and Bell (1998) studied the effect of different chemicals on weed control in

Gladiolus. Ten pre-emergence herbicides compared to alachlor and hand weeding for weed

control and phytotoxicity to gladiolus were used. Herbicides were applied three times during

the production season (once pre-emergence and twice post-emergence) to „Manatee Pink‟

gladiolus grown from number two size flowering corms. Oxadiazon produced foliar burn after

each application whereas, other treatments caused injury only when applied to emerged

foliage and damage was observed only with ethofumesate and methazole. After two

8

applications of each herbicide, pigweed control was comparable with alachlor was provided

by all herbicides, expect quinchlorac, dithiopyr and isoxaben but at the end of the season

pigweed control was no different among any treatments. Season-long control of goosegrass

was obtained with alachlor, dithiopyr, metolachlor, oryzalin and the high rate of fluometralin.

Badhesha (2003) studied the effect of different chemicals to control weeds in winter

annuals. Three pre-plant herbicides viz. fluchloralin and trifluralin @ 0.75 kg/ha, 0.75 kg/ha

+2 HW, 1.0 kg/ha and pendimethalin @ 0.50 kg/ha, 0.50 kg/ha +2HW and 0.75 kg/ha along

with weed free treatments and weedy control were tried in three winter annuals Helichrysum

bracteatum, Coreopsis lanceolata and Chrysanthemum carinatum. Trifluralin @ 0.75 kg/ha +

2 HW resulted in maximum seed yield in H.bracteratum and C. carinatum. The maximum

plant height was obtained from fluchloralin @ 0.75 kg//ha + 2 HW in H. bracteatum, weed

free treatment in C.lanceolata and trifluralin @ 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW in C.carinatum. The

longest duration of flowering was recorded using pendimethalin @ 0.50 kg/ha + 2HW in H.

bracteatum and C.lanceolata, respectively whereas in C.carinatum, the longest duration of

flowering was observed under trifulralin treatment of 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW. Trifluralin @ 0.75

kg/ha + 2 HW resulted in maximum number of flowers / plant (74.50 and 191.90) in C.

lanceolata and C.carinatum respectively whereas it was maximum (110.62) with the

pendimethalin @ 0.50 kg/ha + 2 HW application in H. bracteratum.

Shalini and Patil (2004) conducted an experiment to study the effect of integrated

weed management practices on vegetative, reproductive and yield parameters in gerbera

(Gerbera jamesonii H. Bolus). Seven different pre-emergence herbicides, like pendimethalin

@ 1.0 kg a.i./ha, alachlor @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha, metolachlor @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha, butachlor @ 1.0 kg

a.i./ha, atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha, oxyfluorfen @ 0.15 kg a.i./ha, oxadiargyl @ 90 g a.i./ha two

mulching materials and cultural practices were used as weed control treatments and replicated

thrice in randomized block design were used. All the weed management practices different

significantly. Among the treatments applied pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1

, B.P (black

polyethylene). Sheet treatment and alachlor @ 1.5 kg a.i. ha-1

showed better results with

vegetative, reproductive and yield parameters.

Singh and Karki (2005) conducted an experiment to study the effect of different

herbicides and mulching material on growth and flowering parameters in rose. The

comparison of the response of herbicides (atrazine, pendimethalin and metribuzin @ 1 and 2

kg/ha) and mulching with rice straw and dry weeds along with manual weeding was done. All

the treatments significantly increased number of basal shoots / plant which was at par with

rice straw mulch. However, the diameter of basal shoot was found to be maximum with weed

free which was at par with metribuzin 2.0 kg/ha. Flower yield was significantly higher with

weed free followed by rice straw mulch, monthly hand weeding, dry weed mulch and

9

metribuzin 2.0 kg/ha. Among herbicidal treatments, metribuzin @ 2.0 kg/ha was found more

effective than pendimethalin and atrazine.

Manuja et al (2005) studied the effect of various pre- and post-emergence herbicides

on weed infestation and on corm and cormel production in three gladiolus. The main weeds

infesting the crop were Ageratum conyzoides, Gnaphalium peregrinum, Plantago lanceolata,

Cynodon dactylon, Amaranthus viridis, Paspalum dilatatum, Portulaca oleracea, Euphorbia

hirta, Oxalis corniculata, Trifolium repens, Imperata cylindrical and Digitaria adscendance.

Among the various pre-emergence herbicides tested, atrazine and alachlor, both @

1.0 kg a.i./ha, significantly lowered the germination percentage of the gladiolus cormels.

Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha reduced the germination of the cormels to a lesser extent. Pre-

emergence application of oxyfluorfen 0.25 kg a.i./ha gave the lowest weed count and weed

dry matter accumulation, comparable with weed free treatment, at 90 days after planting

(DAT). This treatment along with post-emergence application of glyphosate (1.0 kg a.i./ha at

90 DAT) gave best results at 180 days after planting. The corm and cormel production was

significantly higher in oxyfluorfen treatment. The results revealed that the application of

oxyfluorfen as pre-emergence herbicide followed by application of glyphosate as post-

emergence at 90 DAT could be an effective treatment for weed control in gladiolus cormels.

Vinaykumar and Gowda (2010) conducted an experiment on chemical weed

management in china aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees). Herbicides like oxyfluorfen @

(0.15 kg a.i/ha,0.12 kg a.i/ha, 0.10 kg a.i/ha), trifluralin @ (1.25 kg a.i/ha, 1 kg a.i/ha, 0.75 kg

a.i/ha), pendimethalin @ (1.25 kg a.i/ha, 1 kg a.i/ha, 0.75 kg a.i/ha) and metolachlor (1.5 kg

a.i/ha, 1.25 kg a.i/ha, 1 kg a.i/ha) along with hand-weeding and un-weeded control (Weedy

check) were tested in RCBD with three replications. The results revealed that application of

oxyfluorfen @ 0.1kg a.i/ha followed by earthing up at 35 DAT significantly lower weed

density and significantly increased plant growth, flower yield and quality of flower that were

at par with metolachlor @ 1.0 kg a.i/ha followed by earthing gave poor control of weeds and

reduced plant growth, yield and quality of flowers but significantly superior than weedy

check.

Kumar et al (2010) conducted an experiment to find out the relative efficiency of

weed management practices in marigold (Tagetes erecta Linn). The results indicated that a

significantly higher weed control efficiency was achieved with the treatments of two hand

weedings (20, 40 days) followed by trifluralin 1.0 kg/ha pre-plant incorporation (PPI) + 1HW.

The data on yield and yield attributing characters viz., plant height stem diameter, number of

leaves / plant, number of flowers / plant and flower yield were significantly influenced by

various weed management treatments. The highest flower yield 29140 kg / ha was recorded

with the application of two hand weedings which was at par with trifluralin 1.0 kg / ha pre-

10

plant incorporation 1HW. Significantly lowest flower yield of marigold was recorded in

weedy check plots.

Kumar et al (2012) carried out an experiment to find out relative efficiency of weed

management practices in gladiolus (Tagets erecta L.). Result revealed that significant

enhancement in spike yield with 2 hand weedings at 20 and 40 days after transplanting (6.05 t

/ ha) and pendimethalin 2 kg / ha + 1 hand weeding (5.79 t / ha), both of which were superior

to weedy check (3.25 t / ha). The highest weed control efficiency (78.2%) was also achieved

with 2 hand weedings, followed by pendimethalin + hand weding 76.9%). Application of

pendimethalin along with hand weeding proved to be economical.

2.2 Effect of different mulching material on weed control, plant growth and flowering

parameters

Any material used (spread) at surface or vertically in soil to assist soil and water

conservation and soil productivity is called mulch. The word mulch has been probably

derived from the German word “molsch” means soft to decay, which apparently referred to

the use of straw and leaves by gardeners as a spread over the ground as mulch (Jacks et al

1955). Mulching as an application of layer of covering material on the soil surface (Rowe-

Dutton and Patricia 1957). As quoted by Bhavani (1960), mulching appears to be a very

ancient Chinese practice employed to conserve the scanty supply of moisture available for

growing melons.

Paskalev and Tsachev (1982) conducted an experiment on rejuvenation of rose

plantations mulched with polyethylene film of 80-100 cm wide polythene film, results were

found to cause remarkable improvement in growth and flowering of roses.

Using black plastic mulch for growing dahlia is also beneficial as it improves growth,

flowering and tuberous root formation, as well as cuts down weeding (Leurox 1982).

Orzolek et al (1993) observed that use of polyethylene mulch in the field, increase in

the soil temperature especially in early spring, reduced weed problems, increased moisture

conservation, reduction in certain insect pest, higher crop yield and more efficient use of soil

nutrients.

Merwin et al (1995) compared different mulches, herbicides and cultivation as

orchard groundcover management systems and reported that covering or mulching the soil

surface can prevent weed seed germination or physically suppress seedling emergence. Loose

materials like straw, bark and composted municipal green waste can provide effective weed

control.

Yamaguchi et al (1996) studied the effect of reflective film mulching (RFM) and

shading treatments on the growth of carnation at high temperatures. Combination of reflective

film mulching and shading treatments increased plant height, length of primary and secondary

branches of carnation seedlings. Moreover reflective film mulching prolonged the harvest

11

period by advancing flowering by approximately 1 month, which resulted in the increase of

the cut flower yield. The number of cut flowers harvested in the first 3 months of the harvest

period increased from 33 to 107% compared to the non-mulched plots (over 2 years), and

total yield (harvested until May in the next year) increased by 15%. The optimum results were

obtained when the shading period was limited to 2 months in midsummer, and a longer

shading period decreased the yield as a result of reduced solar radiation. The beneficial effects

of reflective film mulching on carnation growth by lowering of soil temperature in

midsummer and supply of solar radiation to the low to middle leaves from the reflective

surface were observed.

Rathore et al (1998) reported that water conservation is more in the soil profile during

the early growth period with straw mulch than using it. Crop residues or mulch at the soil

surface act as shade, serve as a vapour barrier against moisture losses from the soil, causing

slow surface runoff.

Al-Masoum et al (1998) reported that plastic mulch is better, in addition to warming

the soil and eliminating weeds, it also reflects beneficial spectra of light back on to the plants.

Similarly, more anthocyanin was synthesized in presence plastic mulch. Polythene mulch

showed significantly better performance in flower production and petal coloration of Aster

(Callistephus chinensis). Black plastic mulches increased the aster production, through faster

germination and better root proliferation while checking weed growth, preserving the soil

structure, retaining soil moisture and increasing contents around the plants.

Rodrigues et al (1999) studied the effect of mulching in soilless systems of the rose

crop, productivity, water consumption, temperature and salinization and the results showed

significant differences in flower production and quality using the mulched system. The Black

polythene sheet (0.18 mm) mulching also increased 29 and 56 per cent flower yield of Anna

and Sari varieties of roses, respectively. Higher water use efficiency was caused by lower

evaporation in Rosa indica by using black polythene sheet (0.18 mm thick) as mulch.

An experiment was initiated to study the effects of different types of plastic mulch

(transparent and black plastic mulch) on plant growth and flowering of chrysanthemums. Five

cultivars of chrysanthemums viz. Thiching Queen, Shyamal, Mundial, Inga and Otome

Zakura were used for experiment. In most of the growth parameters viz. plant height, length

of flower stalk, number of flower sprays / plant, flower diameter, longevity of flower and

duration of flowering, the effect of black plastic mulch was significantly better as compared

to transparent mulch and control (Mukherjee and Raja 1999).

Kim et al (2000) used four types of mulching sheets (clear, reflective, black or green)

in chrysanthemum cv. Baegkwang to study their performances. The quality of cut flowers and

marketable yield of chrysanthemums planted on 10th May increased with shading and with the

use of reflective film, whereas chrysanthemums planted on 4th June recorded the highest

12

marketable yield with the use of reflective film regardless of shading intensity. The cut flower

yield of chrysanthemum planted on 4thjune was higher compared to those planted on 10

th

May.

Kim et al (2000) studied the effect of different planting times and mulching on

growth and flowering of native wild flower Crocosmia crocosmiiflorain cut flower culture

and obtained maximum plant height and number of flower stems increased particularly in

polyvinyl mulching treatments.

Hong et al (2001) studied the effect of different mulching materials on growth and

flowering of oriental hybrid lilies in alpine area and reported that the foliage weight of lilies

was found higher with mulching materials than control. Mulching with saw dust and

reflective film stimulate foliage growth and root development.

Murugan and Gopinath (2001) conducted an experiment to study the effect of organic

and inorganic mulches on growth and flowering of crossandra (Crossandra undulaefolia

Salisb) cv. Saundarya. Maximum duration of flowering and advanced flowering in crossandra

was obtained by using black polyethylene mulch (25, 50 and 100 μ) as compared to organic

mulches (dried leaves, coconut fronds and coir pith).

Arora et al (2002) reported that the black polyethylene mulch was found to be

superior to other mulches. Likewise, different cultivars of carnation in poly house

significantly improved plant height, number of branches, flower size and yield with the

application of black polyethylene mulch.

Barman et al (2005) studied the effect of mulching on cut flower production and corm

multiplication in gladiolus and recorded significant improvement in number of days taken to

first floret opening, spike length and rachis length with the application of paddy straw mulch

in gladiolus.

Chawla (2006) conducted an experiment to study the effect of irrigation regimes and

mulching on vegetative growth, quality and yield of flowers of African marigold and obtained

maximum plant height (70.91 cm), plant spread (53.05 cm) and highest number of branches

(18.54) at harvest in marigold cv. “Double mix” with application of black LLDPE mulch

compared to white LLDPE mulch, organic mulch and no mulch.

Solaiman et al (2008) conducted an experiment to study the effect of traditional

mulches (water hyacinth mulch (WHM), straw mulch (SM) and black plastic mulch (BPM))

on the flower production and petal coloration of China Aster (Callistephus chinensis) and

observed greater plant height with straw mulch while highest number of flower and early

flower initiation of the plants were recorded under black plastic mulch than straw mulch.

Vivid colored flowers were also produced with the black plastic mulch treated plants.

Kumar et al (2010) compared the effectiveness of two different coloured (black and

white / clear) plastic mulch of different thickness (50, 100 and 200 m) and rice straw mulch

13

on vegetative and floral parameters of rose cv. Laher. The result revealed that mulch with 200

m black polythene produced tallest plants with maximum spread and number of branches /

plant. Flowering parameters like number of flowers / plant, flower diameter, duration of

flowering and length of flowering stalk were recorded highest under 100 m black polythene

mulch treatment. Significant infestation of weeds was occurred underneath the white

polythene irrespective of different thickness. This might be due to light penetration that result

weeds below the transparent polythene film again emerged which might have hindered the

flower production and quality.

Reza et al (2011) conducted an experiment in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum

morifolium) using 3 black polyethylene mulch (BPM) treatments (control, 25 and 50 μ) and 3

fertigation levels (control, 80% and 100% RDF). Black polyethylene mulch (50 μ) resulted in

the highest values for plant height (48.20 cm), number of leaves per plant (559.17), number of

laterals per plant (313.45), spread of plant (N-S 49.79 and E-W 46.38 cm) and number of

suckers per plant (3.09). Fertigation with 80% RDF resulted in the greatest plant height of

47.81 cm. However, the highest number of leaves per plant (534.50), number of laterals per

plant (318.33), spread of plant (N-S 49.37 and E-W 45.03 cm) and number of suckers per

plant (3.16) was obtained from fertigation with 100% RDF. Advancements in days to first

flowering by 4 days was recorded with 50 μ black polyethylene mulch, as well as in days to

50% flowering by 5 days and days to complete flowering by 6 days, compared to the control.

With 80% RDF fertigation, advancements in days to first lowering, 50% flowering and

complete flowering by 4, 7 and 7 days, respectively, were obtained. Fertigation with 100%

RDF ang 50μ recorded higher number of flowers per plant and flowers per unit area

compared to the control.

Rameshkumar et al (2012) compared the efficiency of goat grazing and polyethylene

mulching in tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.). Results of two year experiments indicated

that goat grazing reduced the infestation of weeds like motha (Cyperus rotundus) by 72 per

cent and itsit (Trianthema portulacastrum) by 23%. Mulching with polyethylene film of 100

μ thickness for 40 days in the month of May reduced the growth of weed like Trianthema

portulacastrum by 84%, whereas the same was ineffective on Cyperus rotundus. Integration

of goat grazing at 15 days interval in the off-season from March to May and polyethylene

mulching during May before growing tuberose in middle of June performed better than

traditional hand weeding and herbicide treatments in terms of weed control and crop

performance.

Younis et al (2012) studied the effect of different types of mulching materials such as

transparent plastic sheet, rice straw and black plastic sheet on growth and flowering

parameters of Freesia alba cv. Aurora. The result indicated that germination percentage was

significantly improved by black mulch as compared to control. Straw mulch produced

14

maximum plant height, earlier flower emergence, highest number of flower spikes per plant,

floret per spike and flowers per plant. The maximum flower diameter was also observed in

black polyethylene mulch. While comparing the result it was concluded that black plastic

mulch triggers plant growth and development (vegetative growth) while straw mulch

encourages flower production both qualitatively and quantitatively in freesia plants.

Sarmah et al (2014) studied the effect of different mulching material on growth and

flowering of gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus) cv. Red Gem under Assam condition. The

experiment was laid with seven treatments (viz. black polyethylene mulch, paddy straw, dried

leaves, dried banana leaves, water hyacinth, rice husk and control without mulch) replicated

thrice. The results showed that black polyethylene mulch produced tallest plant with

maximum number of leaves per plant and number of suckers per clump. Same treatment also

showed earlier flower bud visibility, maximum flower size, flowers per clump and highest

length of flower stalk. Among the different mulching material used, black polyethylene mulch

much triggers plant growth, development (vegetative growth) and also encourages flower

production in gerbera plant.

CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present experiment entitled “Weed Management in Chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of

Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during the year

2013-2014. The research work was planned and conducted by keeping in view the following

objectives:

To study the effect of different herbicides and mulches on weed population.

To study the effect of different herbicides and mulches on growth and development of

chrysanthemum.

3.1 Geographic location

Ludhiana is situated between 300 54‟ North (latitude) and 75

0 48‟ East (longitude) at

the height of 247 m above mean sea level.

3.2 Climate

The climatic zone of Ludhiana being subtropical is characterized by cold winters with

occasional ground frost in the months of December and January and high temperature

associated with hot desiccating winds in the months of May and June. The average rainfall of

the area is 498.3 mm during 2013. The rain mainly occurs during monsoon season with a few

rain showers during winter season.

3.3 Plan of Work

The experiment was laid out to study effective weed control methods in

chrysanthemum:

Experiment I: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on weed control in

chrysanthemum

The experimental material comprises of different pre-emergence herbicides which are

given as under.

Experiment II: Effect of different mulching material on weed control in chrysanthemum

The experimental material comprises of different mulching materials which are given

as under

16

I. Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides used for weed control in

chrysanthemum variety

Sr.No. Treatments Dose

(kg/ha) Time of application

T1 Butachlor 1.00 Pre-plant

T2 Butachlor + 2 hand weedings 1.00 Pre-plant + 2 HW

(at monthly interval)

T3 Butachlor 1.50 Pre-plant

T4 Pendimethalin 0.75 Pre-plant

T5 Pendimethalin+2 Hand weedings 0.75 Pre-plant + 2 HW


T6 Pendimethalin 1.00 Pre-plant

T7 Atrazine 1.00 Pre-plant

T8 Atrazine + 2 Hand weedings 1.00 Pre-plant + 2 HW


T9 Atrazine 1.50 Pre-plant

T10 Weedy (control) _ _

T11 Weed free _ _

II. Effect of different mulching material on weed control in chrysanthemum

Sr. No. Treatments Thickness Time of application

T1 Paddy Straw Mulch 1.00 t/ha Pre-plant



T4 Black polythene 50 µm thick Pre-plant



T7 Clear polythene 50 µm thick Pre-plant



T10 Weedy (control) _ _

T11 Weed free _ _

Plate 1: Chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Plate 2: Preparation of Chrysanthemum cuttings (a and b)

a b

17

3.3.1 Plant material

Variety

Garden Beauty: It is a mid season variety, 70 cm tall and requires 132 days for flowering.

Flowers are spoon type, maroon in colour of 10 cm in diameter. It produces 73 flowers per

plant and duration of flowering is 23 days. It is suitable for garden decoration and released by

PAU in 2007 (Plate 1).

Methodology

The healthy terminal stem cuttings (5-7 cm) free from symptoms of any disease or

insect pest were taken in June. The cuttings were then be planted in propagation trays having

burnt rice husk as rooting media. Plug trays were kept moist by sprinkling water with the help

of watering cane to ensure satisfactory rooting of cutting. New roots were developed after 10-

15 days and rooted cuttings were ready for transplanting in the field (Plate 2, 3).

3.3.2 Preparation of Field Area

The field was ploughed two to three times before preparation of beds for planting.

The planting beds should be well prepared after incorporating well rotten farm yard manure

@ 20 tonnes / acre in the month of June, at least one month before planting of rooted cuttings.

Add 40 kg N (160 kg CAN), 80 kg P2O5 (500 kg Single Super Phosphate) and 80 kg K2O (133

kg Muriate of Potash) per acre as basal dose. Beds of 1.2 × 1.2 m width and 15 cm height are

prepared leaving 60 cm working space between the beds. In chrysanthemum raised beds are

prepared for proper drainage of excessive water as it is very sensitive to waterlogging. Apply

another dose of 90 kg CAN after one month of planting and 80 kg CAN per acre after two

months of planting.

3.3.3 Application of herbicides

The herbicides were applied then immediately transplanting of rooted terminal

cuttings were done. The herbicides were applied with knapsack sprayer by using the flat

fan type nozzle. After the application of herbicides the plots were kept undisturbed till

transplanting of rooted cuttings.

A. Dose calculations

The required dose of herbicides can be calculated as given under5:

Recommended dose in a.i. or a.e. ha-1

Dose of commercial product ha-1= 100

Percent concentration in the product

B. Weed control efficiency (WCE)

DMC - DMT

WCE = 100

DMC

DMC- Dry matter of weeds in control (weedy) crop

DMT- Dry matter of weeds in a treatment

18

3.3.4 Application of different mulching material

The mulching material like paddy straw mulch (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 t / ha) and polythene

sheets having thickness (50,100 and 150 µm) were spread in the field, two days before

transplanting of rooted terminal cuttings (Plate 4). A hole of 5 cm (diameter) was made on

bed 1.2 x 1.2 m beds having spacing 30 cm before transplanting of rooted terminal cuttings.

3.3.5 Cultural Practices

Cultural operations like irrigation and management of insect pest and diseases were

performed well in time according to package of practices. Pinching was also done in variety

Garden beauty at 4th and 7

th week after transplanting. Staking was done in plants to avoid lodging.

3.3.6 Statistical Design of the experiment

The design of experiment was laid in pattern of Randomized Block Design (RBD)

No. of treatments : 11

No. of replications : 3

No. of plants /plot : 16

Plot size : 1.2 m x 1.2 m

Spacing (Row/plant) : 30 cm x 30 cm

3.4 Observations recorded

The observations were recorded with the following aspects:

3.4.1 Weed observations

3.4.1.1 Weed population per unit area (m2)

The weed population was recorded with 50 cm x 50 cm quadrat, thrown randomly in

the plots from two spots.

3.4.1.2 Fresh weight of weeds per unit area (g/m2)

All the weeds in 50 cm × 50 cm quadrat were cut from soil surfaces is above ground

and put into paper bags in every plot. The fresh weight of weeds was recorded with the help

of electronic weighing machine.

3.4.1.3 Dry weight of weeds per unit area (g/m2)

The weed samples were sundried for 1-2 days until they lost maximum moisture.

Then samples were kept in oven for 48 h at 50°C and final weight was recorded.

3.4.1.4 Soil temperature (°C)

Soil temperature was calculated at 15 cm depth with the help of soil temperature

thermometer in mulching experiment.

3.4.2 Vegetative parameters

3.4.2.1 Phytotoxicity effect

Visual observation of phytotoxicity symptoms, such as leaf injury, stunting, crop

wilting, necrosis, epinasty and hyponasty on chrysanthemum plants were recorded at 7 and 14

days after application as per the phytotoxicity rating scale (using 0-10 rating scale).

Plate 3: Rooted cuttings of chrysanthemum

Plate 4: Overview of mulching trial

19

Table 3.1: Rating scale of phytotoxicity symptoms on chrysanthemum plants variety

“Garden Beauty”

Rating Scale Phytotoxicity

0 No

1 1-10 %

2 11-20 %

3 21-30 %

4 31-40 %

5 41-50 %

6 51-60 %

7 61-70 %

8 71-80 %

9 81-90 %

10 91-100 % (or complete

death of plants)

3.4.2.2 Plant height (cm)

Height of randomly selected four plants and their mean was calculated from each

replication was recorded at the time of first bud appearance and plant height was recorded

from the ground level to the apical portion of longest shoot with help of meter scale.

3.4.2.3 Plant spread (cm)

The plant spread from top of the plant (length and width) of 4 randomly selected

plants from each replication was measured with the help of meter scale at the time of peak

flowering and their average was calculated.

3.4.2.4 Number of branches per plant

The number of primary branches per plant were counted from four randomly selected

plants from each replication at the time of full bloom and their mean was calculated.

3.4.3 Flowering parameters

3.4.3.1 Number of sprays per plant

The number of secondary branches per plant were counted from four randomly

selected plants from each replication at the time of full bloom and their mean was calculated.

3.4.3.2 Days to first bud appearance

The total number of days from date of transplanting to first bud appearance was

calculated for four randomly selected plants from each replication and their average was

worked out.

20

3.4.3.3 Days to full bloom stage

Days to full bloom was recorded for four randomly selected plants from the date of

transplanting till 50 percent of flowers were fully opened.

3.4.3.4 Duration of flowering (days)

The number of days in which flower remain in full bloom is longevity. The four

plants are randomly selected per replication and days are counted from flower opening till 50

% of flowers dry.

3.4.3.5 Flower diameter (cm)

The flower size (length and width) of four randomly selected flowers per replication

was measured with the help of scale at the time of peak flowering and their average was

calculated.

3.4.3.6 Number of flowers per plant

The total number of flowers were counted at the time of full bloom of four randomly

selected plants per replication and mean was calculated.

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was carried out for the observations recorded in experiment to find

out whether there exists any significant variation for various parameters among different

gamma ray treatments. Data were subjected to statistical analysis by using CPCS-1, software

developed by Department of mathematics and statistics

CHAPTER IV

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The present investigations entitled “Weed Management in Chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” were carried out to find out the effective weed

control method in chrysanthemum cultivar “Garden Beauty” by using different herbicides and

mulching material. The salient findings of present investigation are presented here under the

following heads:

4.1 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on weed population, growth and

flowering characters.

4.2 Effect of different mulching material on weed population, growth and flowering

characters.

4.1 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on weed population, growth and

flowering characters

4.1.1 Weed count per m²

a) 30 days after transplanting (DAT)

The data presented in Table 4.1 states that all the treatment differed significantly with

each other with regard to weed count (per m2) at 30 day interval after transplanting of rooted

cutting of chrysanthemum cv. Garden Beauty. The number of weeds per unit area (m2) in

weed free treatment was nil, where plots were kept weed free with regular hand weeding. The

less number of weeds in weed free treatment was due to better availability of nutrients,

moisture, sunlight and space for crop growth. This is in conformity with the findings of

Basavaraju et al. (1992) in China aster, Pal and Das (1990) in tuberose and Koutepas (1982)

in gladiolus.

Among the different herbicides tried, the lowest weed population (8.31/m2) was

recorded from butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 HW treatment which was quite closely followed by

atrazine 1 kg/ha + 2 HW treatment with weed count (8.40/m2) and pendimethalin treatment of

0.75 + 2 HW with (8.49/m2) weed population. All these three treatments showed non-

significant results.

The highest weed population (17.59/m²) was recorded from weedy control treatment

where no weed control measures were undertaken. Pendimethalin treatment of 0.75 kg/ha

gave the maximum weed count (13.75 m²) which was at par with atrazine 1.0 kg/ha

(13.45/m2) and butachlor 1 kg/ha with weed count (13.20/ m

2).

b) 60 days after transplanting (DAT)

The data embodied in the Table 4.1 indicate that the number of weeds per unit area in

weedy control treatment was significantly higher than that from rest of the treatments carried

out in the experiment. This means that no weeding or herbicidal application was applied to

22

weedy control treatment, the weed population was maximum. The data further states that the

weed population was significantly less in the treatments where higher dose of herbicide was

applied as compared to that of lower herbicidal dose treatments in case of all three herbicides

used in the experiment.

The weed-free treatment where (timely manual weeding was done) no weed was let

to emerge gave zero weed population. Among the different herbicide tried, the lowest weed

count (9.77 /m²) was recorded from butachlor treatment of 1kg/ha + 2 HW which was at par

with pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (10.10 /m2) and atrazine 1 kg / ha + 2 HW (10.24

/m2). But weed population was significantly more in atrazine treatment than from butachlor

and pendimethalin treatment. The herbicides provide control of the weeds but when their

application is coupled with the hand-weeding, the results are remarkable in both, weed control

as well as high crop production. The concentration of the herbicide alone when increased

(when no hand-weeding is coupled) gives significantly better weed control than that from the

lower dose of the herbicide.

Marked reduction in weed population resulting in better growth and flowering with

pre-emergence application of herbicides with hand weedings was reported by Dutta (1985).

Application of treatments with HW proved to be economical weed management practice.

Similar findings were obtained by Singh and Bijimol (1999) and Patil and Shalini (2006).

The highest weed population (19.58 /m2) was recorded from weedy control treatment

where no weed-control measure was undertaken. Among herbicidal treatments, the highest

weed count was recorded from pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha (15.63 /m²) followed by butachlor

and atrazine 1 kg/ha (14.34 /m², 14.21 /m²) respectively. These three treatments differed non-

significantly with each other.

In every herbicide, the weeding coupled treatment was significantly lower in weed

population than that from herbicide alone treatments. And amongst the herbicide alone

treatments, the high herbicidal dose treatment gave significantly lesser number of weeds per

unit area than that from low herbicidal dose treatment.

4.1.2 Fresh weight of weeds


It is quite evident from the data presented in Table 4.2 that no regular trend is

followed by the different herbicidal treatments as far as the fresh matter of weeds was

concerned. All the treatments differed significantly with regard to fresh weight (g/m2) at 30

days after transplanting.

The weed free treatment gave zero (0.00) fresh matter of weeds. Butachlor 1 kg/ha +

2 HW treatment gave the minimum fresh weight (11.83 g/m²) which was closely followed by

pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (11.84 g /m²) and atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW with (11.99 g

/m2) weed fresh weight.

23

Table 4.1: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on weed count per unit area

Sr. No. Treatments Weed Count (per m²)

30 DAT 60 DAT

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha

13.20

(175)*

14.34

(205)

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings


8.31

(69)

9.77

(95)

T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha

10.93

(119)

10.30

(105)

T4 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha

13.75

(189)

15.63

(244)

T5 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 Hand

Weedings (at monthly interval)

8.49

(72)

10.10

(101)


10.63

(112)

12.03

(144)

T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha

13.45

(181)

14.21

(201)

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings


8.40

(71)

10.24

(104)


10.84

(117)

11.64

(135)

T10 Weedy (control)

17.59

(309)

19.58

(384)

T11 Weed free 1.0

(0)

1.0

(0)

C.D (p=0.05) 2.02 1.40

*Figures in parenthesis are the original mean. Data analyzed for square root transformation.

24

Table 4.2: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on fresh weight of weeds per

unit area

Sr. No. Treatments

Fresh weight (g/m²)

30 DAT 60 DAT


18.55

(347)*

19.64

(386)

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weeding


11.83

(141)

13.51

(182)


15.26

(233)

14.08

(198)


19.29

(373)

21.39

(458)


Weeding


11.84

(141)

13.81

(190)


14.85

(219)

16.46

(270)


18.89

(359)

19.46

(378)

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weeding


11.99

(145)

13.99

(195)


15.15

(230)

15.92

(253)

T10 Weedy (control)

24.53

(602)

26.79

(720)

T11 Weed free

1.0

(0)

1.0

(0)

C.D (p=0.05) 2.80 1.91


25

The lowest weed fresh matter (14.85 g/m2) related to higher doses of herbicides was

recorded from pendimethalin 1 kg/ha treatment followed by atrazine treatment of 1.5 kg/ha

(15.15 g/m2)

and butachlor 1.5 kg/ha with (15.26 g/m

2) weed fresh matter

. The higher doses

of herbicides for fresh weight of weeds were significantly at par.

The maximum weed fresh matter (24.53 g/m2) was recorded from weedy control

treatment suggesting no weeding or herbicidal application to these plots, giving free

environment to the weeds to flourish completely. Among herbicidal treatments, the maximum

fresh weight was recorded from pendimethalin treatment @ 0.75 kg/ha with weed fresh

matter (19.29 g/m²) which was closely followed by atrazine 1.0 kg/ha (18.89 g/m²) and

butachlor 1 kg/ha with weed fresh matter (18.55 g/m²). The data further states that the weed

fresh matter was significantly less in the treatments where the higher dose of the herbicides

were applied as compared to that of lower herbicidal dose treatments.


The data pertaining to fresh weight of weeds under different herbicides are presented

in Table 4.2. It clearly indicated that all the treatments differed significantly with each other

with respect to weed fresh matter (g/m2) at 60 day interval after transplanting of rooted

cutting of chrysanthemum cv. Garden Beauty.

The weed fresh matter from weed-free plot was recorded (0.0) zero. The

minimum weed fresh matter (13.51 g/m2) was recorded from butachlor treatment of 1

kg/ha + 2 HW suggesting that the best weed control was given by this treatment. It was

quite closely followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (13.81g/m2) and atrazine of 1

kg/ha + 2 HW (13.99 g/m2). The weed fresh matter of these three treatments was at par

with each other.

Among the different pre-emergence herbicides tried, the highest weed fresh

matter (21.39 g/m²) was recorded from pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha which differed non-

significantly from butachlor 1 kg/ha (19.64 g/m²) and atrazine 1kg/ha with (19.46 g/m²)

weed fresh matter. The highest weed fresh matter (26.79 g/m²) was also recorded from

weedy control plots, where, no manual measure or herbicide application was undertaken

to control weeds.

When the herbicide alone treatments of higher dose of herbicide were compared,

butachlor 1.5 kg/ha gave minimum weed-fresh matter (14.08 g/m2) that was significantly

lower (15.92 g/m2) from atrazine 1.5 kg/ha and pendimethalin 1.0 kg/ha (16.46 g/m

2).

4.1.3 Dry weight of weeds

(a) 30 days after transplanting (DAT)

Data pertaining to dry weight of weeds given in Table 4.3 indicate that all the

treatments differed significantly with regard to dry weight of weeds (g/m2) 30 days after

transplanting.

26

The weed-free treatment gave zero (0.00) dry matter of weeds. The lowest weed dry

matter (4.87g/m²) was recorded from butachlor 1 kg/ ha + 2 HW followed by atrazine 1kg/ha

+ 2 HW (4.54g/m²) and pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW with weed dry matter (5.27g/m²).

These three treatments showed non-significant results with each other.

The highest dry matter of weeds (11.97g/m²), 30 DAT was recorded from weedy

control treatment where no weeding or herbicidal application were applied, giving free

environment to the weeds to flourish completely. Pendimethalin treatment of 0.75 kg/ha gave

the maximum dry matter (8.93 g/m²) which was at par with atrazine 1.0 kg/ha (8.88 g/m2) and

butachlor 1 kg/ha having (8.53 g/m2) weed dry matter. Similar to our findings, results have

also been reported by Staats and Klett (1993) in Coreopsis lanceolata and Dahlia hybrid and

by Derr (1995) in Chrysanthemum superbum.

(b) 60 days after transplanting (DAT)

The weed dry matter 60 DAT from the plots with application of hand-weeding

coupled with herbicidal treatment was significantly lesser than from herbicides alone. Further,

in herbicide alone treatments, the treatments with higher herbicide dose gave significantly

lesser weed dry matter than that from low herbicide dose treatments. This is clearly indicated

from the data presented in Table 4.3.

The lowest weed dry matter (0.00), i.e. nil was reported from weed-free treatment

where no weeds were allowed to flourish. Among the different herbicidal treatments, the

lowest weed dry matter (5.04 g/m²) was recorded from butachlor 1.00 kg/ha + 2HW and it

was significantly lower than that from atrazine 1 kg/ha + 2HW with (5.66 g/m²) weed dry

matter.

Reduction in weed population and weed dry weight in herbicidal treatments with

2 HW can be attributed to relatively better management practices which shifted the

competition. The crop plants in the former treatments experienced good vegetative growth

right from the early stages up to the end of cropping period because of less competition of

weeds for nutrients, water, space and sunlight (Kumar et al 2012). Similar to our

findings, results were also obtained by Singh and Bijimol (1999) and Patil and Shalini

(2006).

The highest weed dry matter (12.71 g/m²) was recorded from weedy control

treatments, where no weeding exercise was adopted. Among different pre-emergence

herbicides, the maximum dry weight was recorded from treatment pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha

with weed dry matter (9.75 g/m²) which was statistically at par with butachlor and atrazine @

1 kg/ha having dry weight of weeds (8.69 g/m² and 8.64 g/m²) respectively.

27

Table 4.3: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on dry weight of weeds per

unit area

Sr. No. Treatments

Dry weight (g/m²) Weed control

efficiency (%) 30 DAT 60 DAT


8.53

(73)*

8.69

(75)* 53.42

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand

Weedings


4.87

(24)

5.04

(25) 84.47


6.41

(41)

6.46

(41) 74.53


8.93

(80)

9.75

(95) 40.99

T5 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2

Hand Weedings (at monthly

interval)

5.27

(27)

6.34

(39) 75.78


6.46

(42)

7.53

(56) 65.22


8.88

(79)

8.64

(74) 54.04

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand

Weedings


4.54

(20)

5.66

(32) 80.12


6.58

(43)

7.29

(52) 67.70

T10 Weedy (control)

11.97

(143)

12.71

(161) 0.00

T11 Weed free

1.0

(0)

1.0

(0) 100.00

C.D (p=0.05) 1.78 1.15


28

As the weed dry matter at 60 DAT was significantly lower in cases where herbicides

coupled with hand weeding, it clearly shows that herbicides alone treatments can check the

weeds to some extents, but when coupled with hand weeding, shows remarkable results

(c) Weed control efficiency

Weed control efficiency (W.C.E) was calculated on dry weight basis by adopting the

formula (Mani et al 1976) as mentioned in chapter III.

Data pertaining to weed control efficiency presented in Table 4.3 clearly indicate that

the maximum weed control efficiency was observed in weed free treatment (100%) followed

by butachlor @ 1.0 kg/ha + 2 hand weedings (84.47%) and atrazine @ 1.0 kg + 2 hand

weedings (80.12%).

The lowest weed control efficiency was observed in weedy control (0.0%). Among

different herbicides, the minimum weed control efficiency was observed from pendimethalin

0.75 kg/ha (40.99%) followed by butachlor 1 kg/ha (53.42%). All the treatments recorded

comparatively higher weed control efficiency due to lower dry weight of weeds as compared

to weedy control.

Herbicides like pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha + 2 hand weeding (75.78%) and

butachlor @ 1.5 kg/ha (74.53%) also shown better control of weeds, that might be due to

their effectiveness in controlling weeds and also recorded comparatively higher weed control

efficiency due to lower dry weight of weeds.

4.1.4 Phytotoxicity effect

Visual observation of phytotoxicity symptoms, such as leaf injury, stunting, crop

wilting, necrosis, epinasty and hyponasty on chrysanthemum plants were recorded at 7 and

14 days after application as per the phytotoxicity rating scale (using 0-10 rating scale)

mentioned in Table 3.1 in chapter number III.

Butachlor (1.0 kg/ha and 1.5 kg/ha), pendimethalin (0.75 kg/ha and 1 kg/ha) and

atrazine (1.0 kg/ha) did not show any visual symptoms of phytotoxicity on crop plant at

different stages of growth but atrazine @ 1.5 kg/ha showed symptoms of minor leaf injury,

yellowing of leaves, wilting and necrosis on crop plants at 7 and 14 days after spray as

presented in Table 4.4.

29

Table 4.4: Phototoxic effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plants after

transplanting

Sr.

No.

Treatment

Leaf injury

(days after

spray)

Yellowing

of leaves

Wilting

Necrosis

7

DAS

14

DAS

7

DAS

14

DAS

7

DAS

14

DAS

7

DAS

14

DAS

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2

Hand Weedings


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


+ 2 Hand Weedings


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T6 Pendimethalin 1.00 kg/ha 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2

Hand Weedings


0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T9 Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 3 2 0 0 2 1 2 1

T10 Weedy (control) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

T11 Weed free 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

30

Table 4.5: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plant height, plant spread

and number of branches of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Sr.

No. Treatments Plant

height (cm) Plant

spread

(cm)

Number of

branches/plant

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha 58.91 30.03 3.67

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand

Weedings


65.53 35.27 5.56

T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 62.72 33.37 4.15

T4 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha 59.20 29.90 3.61


Weedings


64.84 34.87 5.33


T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 58.53 30.13 4.07


Weedings

(at monthly interval) 64.00 33.77

5.15

T9 Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 62.30 31.80 3.47

T10 Weedy (control) 55.82 25.17 3.12

T11 Weed free 68.22 38.27 5.89

C.D (p=0.05) 2.47 2.39 0.45

31

4.1.5 Plant height

There was significant variation in plant height taken at the time of first flower bud

appearance stage between weedy control, weed free plots and herbicidal treatments alone and

coupled with hand weeding as revealed by the data presented in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.1.

The maximum plant height was observed in weed free plots (68.22 cm), where plots

were kept clean with regular hand weeding. Among the different herbicides tried, the plant

height was recorded maximum in butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 HW (65.53 cm) ,which was quite

closely followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (64.84) and atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW

with plant height (64.00 cm). This reason may be, when the herbicidal treatments coupled

with 2 hand weeding, it reduce the weed competition with the crop and as a result the

competition for nutrients, moisture and sunlight reduced so, this improved the crop growth.

Similar results confirming to our findings, were also obtained in gladiolus (Koutepas 1982

and Vijay 2001) and golden rod (Hanamant 1999).

Among the herbicide treatments, pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha gave the least plant height

(59.20 cm) which was at par with atrazine 1.0 kg/ha (58.53 cm) and butachlor 1.0 kg/ha with

(58.91 cm) plant height. All the treatment differed significantly with each.

Fig.4.1: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on plant height in chrysanthemum

The minimum plant height (55.82 cm) was recorded in weedy control (check). The

fact may be that weed count was more in weedy control and which might have resulted in

severe competition by weeds with the crop for nutrients, moisture, physical space and light

(Bond and Oliver 2006) which made the crop to suffer and ultimately reduced the plant height

(Shalini and Patil 2006). As a result, crop growth is often reduced and at harvest, weeds can

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

58.91

65.5362.72

59.2064.84

61.8058.53

64.00 62.3055.82

68.22

Pla

nt

hei

gh

t (c

m)

Treatments

T 1 = Butachlor 1 kg/ha T2 = Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2HW T3 = Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha

T4= Pendimenthalin 0.75 Kg/ha T5 = Pendimenthalin 0.75 kg/ha +2HW T6 = Pendimenthalin 1kg/ha

T7 = Atraine 1 kg/ha T8 = Atrazine 1 kg/ha+ 2 HW T9=Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha

T10 = Weedy control T11=Weed free

CD (0.05)= 2.47

32

interfere with equipment and reduce grower profits by increasing crop injury and hand labour

(Nowacki, 1983).

4.1.6 Plant spread

The data pertaining to plant spread under different pre-emergence herbicides, weed

free and weedy control treatments are presented in Table 4.5. All the treatments differed


The highest plant spread was observed in weed free plot (38.27 cm), whereas. Among

the herbicide treatments, the maximum plant spread was recorded in butachlor 1.0 kg/ha + 2

HW (35.27cm) which was at par with pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (34.87 cm) and

atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW with (33.77 cm) plant spread. These three treatments showed non-

significant difference with each other. The herbicide treatments coupled with 2 HW are more

effective in controlling of weeds in chrysanthemum. Similar results confirming the findings of

the present study were obtained in marigold (Kumar et al 2010).

The minimum plant spread (25.17 cm) was recorded from weedy control treatment,

where no weeding or herbicidal applications were applied, giving free environment to the

weeds to flourish completely. Among the different pre-emergence herbicide treatments, the

lowest plant spread was observed from pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha treatment with plant spread

(29.90 cm) which was closely followed by butachlor 1.0 kg/ha (30.03 cm) and atrazine 1.0

kg/ha (30.13 cm). This might be due to the reason that, the weed population is suppressed

proportionally that further encourages the flower plants to grow profusely and have better

plant spread. The data further states that the plant spread was significantly more in the

treatments where higher dose of herbicide was applied as compared to that of lower herbicidal

dose treatments of all three herbicides used in the experiment.

4.1.7 Number of branches/plant

It is quite evident from the data presented in Table 4.5 and Fig.4.2 that all the

treatments differed significantly with regard to number of branches. There was no significant

difference between weed free treatment and hand weeding coupled with butachlor that gives

significantly higher number of branches per plant than rest of the butachlor treatments with

respect of their doses.

The maximum number of branches per plant (5.89) was reported from weed free

treatment and it was closely followed by butachlor 1kg/ha + 2 HW (5.56). Significantly

maximum number of branches in treatment including hand weeding and weed free has been

also reported by Gilreath (1985) in Gladiolus hortulanus and Basavaraju et al (1992) in china

aster. Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW also gave (5.33) branches per plant which was at par

with butachlor 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW (5.56) and atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW with 5.15 branches

per plant.

33

The minimum t number of branches per plant (3.12) was obtained from weedy control

plots where no weed control measure was undertaken. Among different herbicidal treatments,

the lowest number of branches per plant was recorded from atrazine 1.5 kg/ha with (3.47)

number of branches which was at par with pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha (3.61) and butachlor 1.0

kg/ha having 3.67 branches per plant.

Fig. 4.2: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on number of branches in

chrysanthemum

4.1.8 Number of sprays/plant

There was significant difference among the different herbicide treatments, weed free

and weedy control for number of sprays per plant (Fig. 4.3). The data further states that the

number of sprays per plant was significantly more in the treatments where higher dose of

herbicide was applied as compared to that of lower herbicidal dose treatments.

The maximum number of sprays (9.57) was observed in weed free plot. Among the

herbicidal treatments, the maximum number of sprays was recorded from butachlor 1.0 kg/ha

+ 2 HW (8.70) followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW (8.60) and atrazine 1 kg/ha + 2

HW (8.43) with number of sprays. These three treatments were statistically non significant

with each other.

The lowest number of sprays per plant (5.80) was observed in weedy control where

no manual or herbicide applications were undertaken. Atrazine treatment of 1.0 kg/ha gave

the minimum number of sprays (6.67) which was at par with butachlor 1 kg/ha (6.73) and

pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha (6.80) with number of sprays. The number of sprays per plant in

fully weed infested plot was almost of half from other treatment taken in experiment. The

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

3.67

5.56

4.153.61

5.33

4.564.07

5.15

3.473.12

5.89

Nu

mb

er o

f b

ran

ches

(cm

)

Treatments





CD (0.05) = 0.45

34

hand weeding coupled herbicidal treatment achieved considerable weed control even more

than the herbicide dose alone treatments of the same herbicide and return gave maximum

number of sprays per plant.

Fig. 4.3: Effect of different pre- emergence herbicides on number of sprays in

chrysanthemum

4.1.9 Days to first bud appearance

Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on days taken to first bud appearance

was studied and data pertaining to this observation is presented in Table 4.7. It was found that

all the treatment showed non-significant differences with regard to number of days required

for appearance of first flower bud.

The least number of days taken for first flower bud initiation (91.67 days) was

recorded in weed free treatment which was closely followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2

HW (92.03 days) and atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW with 92.67 days for first flower bud

appearance.

The maximum number of days to first bud appearance was observed in weedy control

(95.53). Among the different herbicide treatments, pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha showed

maximum delay in first flower bud appearance (94.60 days) which was closely followed by

butachlor 1.5 kg/ha (93.97 days) and butachlor 1.0 kg/ha (93.80 days). Similar to our

findings, Badhesha (2003) also reported that onset of flowering is a natural phenomenon and

external factors like cultural practices did not affect it significantly. The non-significant data

predicts that it is a plant internal mechanism like physiochemical process which control onset

of flowering.

0

2

4

6

8

10

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

6.73

8.70

7.73

6.80

8.60

7.60

6.67

8.437.63

5.80

9.57

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ray

s

Treatments





CD (0.05)= 0.76

35

Table 4.6: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on number of sprays of

chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Sr. No. Treatments Number of sprays

/plant

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha 6.73

T2 Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings (at monthly

interval) 8.70

T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 7.73

T4 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha 6.80

T5 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings (at

monthly interval) 8.60

T6 Pendimethalin 1.00 kg/ha 7.60

T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 6.67

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings (at monthly

interval) 8.43

T9 Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 7.63

T10 Weedy (control) 5.80

T11 Weed free 9.57

C.D (p=0.05) 0.76

36

4.1.10 Days to full bloom

Data embodied in the Table 4.7 reveals that the number of days to full bloom stage

differed non-significantly among weedy control, weed free treatment and various treatments

of herbicides. The minimum days to flower bloom (113.56 days) was observed in weed free

plot followed by (114.97 days) in butachlor treatment 1 kg/ha + 2 HW. The highest number

of days (118.30 days) was taken to full bloom in weedy control plots.

It may be due to reason that when plants of chrysanthemum flower faces more

competition for weeds they are weaker than those of no competition from weeds or faces

light competition and thus, the weaker plants take longer to flower. In contrary the plant

which face less or no weed competition are stronger and bloom early (Badhesha 2003).

4.1.11 Duration of flowering

Data regarding duration of flowering was obtained and presented in Table 4.8.

Significant effect of different herbicides on duration of flowering was recorded. Delay in

flowering was observed with different treatments of herbicides over control. There was

statistically significant difference in duration of flowering within higher and lower herbicide

application of all three herbicides.

The longest flowering duration was reported from weed free treatment (21.77 days)

followed by butachlor 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW (20.71 days) and pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW

(19.78). The shortest flowering duration (15.21 days) was reported from weedy control and it

was significantly less than all herbicide treatments carried out in the experiment.

The shortest flowering duration among the different herbicide treatments was

recorded in atrazine 1.0 kg/ha (16.40 days) which was at par with pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha

(16.56 days) and butachlor treatment 1.0 kg/ha (17.44 days). All the treatment differed

significantly with each other with regard to duration of flowering.

4.1.12 Flower diameter

Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on flower diameter was studied and data

pertaining to this observation is presented in Fig. 4.4 and Table 4.8. There was significant

difference between the different herbicidal treatments, weedy control and weed free.

The maximum flower diameter (9.87 cm) was recorded in weed free plot. This was

due to better utilization of more photosynthates which were accumulated due to more number

of leaves and leaf area because of better control of the weeds. Similar to our findings, results

has also been reported by Patil and Shalini (2006).

Among the different herbicides tried, the maximum flower diameter (8.91 cm) was

recorded from butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 HW treatment which was quite closely followed by

pendimethalin treatment of 0.75 and + 2 HW (8.44 cm) and atrazine 1 kg/ha + 2 HW

treatment with (8.22 cm) flower diameter.

37

Table 4.7: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on days to first bud

appearance and days to full bloom stage of chrysanthemum variety

“Garden Beauty”

Sr. No. Treatments Days to first bud

appearance Days to full

bloom stage

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha 93.80 118.10



T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 93.97 116.53

T4 Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha 94.63 117.77


Weedings (at monthly interval) 92.03 115.87

T6 Pendimethalin 1.00 kg/ha 93.30 116.40

T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 93.50 116.87

T8 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand Weedings


T9 Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 93.43 117.40

T10 Weedy (control) 95.53 118.30

T11 Weed free 91.67 113.56

C.D (p=0.05) NS NS

38

The lowest flower diameter (5.88 cm) was recorded from weedy control treatment

where no weed control measures were undertaken. Atrazine treatment of 1.0 kg/ha gave the

minimum flower diameter (6.61 cm) which was at par with pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha (6.82 cm)

and butachlor 1 kg/ha (7.00 cm) with flower diameter. All the treatment differed significantly

with each other with regard to flower diameter of chrysanthemum cv. Garden Beauty.

Fig.4.4: Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on flower diameter in

chrysanthemum

4.1.13 Number of flowers per plant

The data presented in Table 4.8 showed significant differences among different

herbicides alone, coupled with hand weeding with regard to number of flowers per plant.

The highest number of flower per plant (70.37) was reported from weed free plots.

Among the different pre-emergence herbicide tried, the highest number of flowers (67.50)

was recorded from butachlor 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW which was at par with atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2

HW (65.87) and pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW with (65.73) with number of flowers. All

treatments showed non-significant differences. This was due to the fact that the crop plants in

these treatments experienced good vegetative growth right from the early stages of growth

period to the end of cropping period because of less competition of weeds for nutrients, water,

space, sunlight and nutrients which might have resulted in higher photosynthetic activity and

higher number of flowers per plant. Similar results confirming the findings of the present

study were obtained in gerbera by Shalini and Patil (2006).

The lowest number of flower per plant (43.77) was reported from weedy control where

no weeding or herbicidal application were applied, giving free environment to the weeds to flourish

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

7.00

8.918.11

6.82

8.447.90

6.61

8.227.83

5.88

9.87

Flo

wer

dia

met

er (

cm)

Treatments





39

Table 4.8 Effect of different pre-emergence herbicides on duration of flowering,

number of flowers per plant and flower diameter of chrysanthemum variety

“Garden Beauty”

Sr.

No. Treatments Duration of

flowering

(days)

Flower

diameter

(cm)

Number of

flowers

/plant

T1 Butachlor 1 kg/ha 16.72 7.00 57.17



20.71

8.91

67.50

T3 Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 18.14 8.11 63.80




19.78

8.44

65.73


T7 Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 16.40 6.61 56.63



18.76

8.22

65.87

T9 Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 18.00 7.83 62.73

T10 Weedy (control) 15.21 5.88 43.77

T11 Weed free 21.77 9.87 70.37

C.D (p=0.05) 1.11 0.62 2.74

40

completely and it was significantly less than all other treatments carried out in the experiment.

Atrazine treatment of 1.0 kg/ha gave the minimum number of flowers (56.63) which was quite

closely followed by pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha (56.67) and butachlor 1 kg/ha (57.17) with

number of flowers per plant.

The numbers of flowers per plant in fully weed infested plots of weedy control were

almost half of all other treatments taken in experiment. The hand weeding coupled herbicide

treatments achieved considerable weed control even more than that of the herbicide alone

treatments of the same herbicide and in turn gave maximum number of flowers.

4.2 Effect of different mulching material on weed population, growth and flowering

characters

4.2.1 Weed count (per m2)


Effect of different mulching material on number of weeds per unit area, 30 days after

transplanting was studied and data pertaining to this observation is presented in Table 4.9.

The significant differences were observed on weed population among different mulching

material tried.

In the weed-free treatment emergence of weeds was nil, as the field was kept weed

free with regular hand weeding. Among the different mulching material used, the lowest

weed population (3.52 /m2) was recorded from black polythene of 150 µm thickness

treatment which was at par with black polythene 100 µm (3.72 /m2) and black treatment

polythene 50 µm (3.86 /m2).

The highest weed population (16.02 /m2) was recorded from weedy control treatment,

where no weed control measures were applied. Under clear polythene sheet of 50 µm

thickness, number of weeds (15.18 /m2) were maximum which were at par with polythene

sheet of 100 µm (14.13 /m2) and polythene sheet of 150 µm with weed population of (12.93

/m2). Weeds were also observed under different treatments comprising paddy straw as mulch.

Among the different treatments, very less weed infestation was recorded under black

polythene mulch of different thickness. This might be due to the black colour of the

polythene absorbed all the incident radiation itself. Therefore no light penetration occurred

through the black polythene mulch which ultimately checks the weed seed germination and

growth. Similar observations of control of weed population with black polythene mulch have

also been reported in rose (Kumar et al 2010).


It is indicated from the data presented in Table 4.9, amongst all the mulching

treatments, the black polythene gave significantly lower weed population than from paddy

straw and clear polythene mulch 60 days after transplanting. All the treatments differed


41

Table 4.9: Effect of different mulching material on weed count per unit area

Sr. No. Treatments Weed Count (per m²)

30 DAT 60 DAT

T1 Paddy Straw Mulch 1.0 t / ha 9.75

(96)*

11.92

(141)


(52)

9.56

(91)


(49)

8.05

(64)

T4 Black polythene - 50 µm thick 3.86

(15)

3.49

(12)


(13)

3.20

(9)


(12)

2.53

(7)

T7 Clear polythene - 50 µm thick 15.18

(229)

15.06

(227)


(200)

14.33

(205)


(167)

13.99

(196)


(256)

17.10

(292)

T11 Weed free 1.0

(0)

1.0

(0)

C.D (p=0.05) 1.74 1.54


42

Weed free treatment did not show any emergence of weeds. The minimum weed

population (2.53 /m2) was recorded from black polythene of 150 µm thickness, which was

closely followed by black polythene of 100 µm (3.20 /m2) and black polythene of 50 µm

(3.49 /m2). Results were non-significant among these three treatments.

The highest weed population (17.10 /m2) was recorded from weedy control treatment

where no weed-control measure was undertaken, whereas, among the other treatments, clear

polythene sheet of 50 µm thickness showed higher weed count (15.06 /m2) which was at par

with polythene sheet of 100 µm (14.33 /m2) and polythene sheet of 150 µm with weed population

of (13.99 /m2). This might be due to the fact that the incident radiation enters through the

clear polythene mulch but very little amount of outgoing radiation could go back to

environment. Weeds below the transparent polythene film emerged which might have

hindered the flower production and quality (Baten et al 1995).

Al-Masoum et al (1998) reported that plastic mulch is better because, in addition to

warming the soil and eliminating weeds, it reflects beneficial spectra of light back on to the

plants. A consistent drop in the number of weeds throughout the crop growth stages was

observed in black polyethylene sheet treatment. It was due to its physical action by increasing

the soil temperature resulting in killing the embryo of weed seeds (Antil, 1988).

4.2.2 Fresh weight of weeds


It is quite evident from the data presented in Table 4.10 clearly indicates that no

regular trend is followed by the different mulching treatments as far as the fresh matter of

weeds was concerned.

Weed free treatment did not show any emergence of weeds. The lowest fresh weight

of weeds related to thickness of the black polythene was recorded from black polythene 150

µm (6.48 g/m2) followed by in black polythene 100 µm treatment (6.72 g/m

2) and black

polythene sheet of 50 µm thickness (6.74 g/m2).

The maximum fresh weight (29.51g/m2) was recorded from weedy control treatment

suggesting no weeding or mulching application to these plots, giving free environment to the

weeds to flourish completely. The data further states that the weed fresh matter was

significantly less in other mulching treatments. Among the different mulching treatments,

clear polythene sheet of 50 µm thickness showed maximum fresh weight (20.26 g/m2) which

was at par with polythene sheet of 100 µm (19.94 g/m2) and polythene sheet of 150 µm with

fresh weight of 18.29 g/m2.

Though black polyethylene mulching could kill the weed seeds annual weeds, the

heat flux accumulated in the soil strata is inadequate to kill or deplete the underground

propagule as observed by Kumar et al (1993), Miles et al (2002), Webster (2003) and

Johnson et al (2007).

43


It is indicated from the data presented in Table 4.10, amongst all the mulching

treatments, the black polythene gave significantly lower fresh weight of weeds than from

paddy straw and clear polythene mulch 60 days after transplanting. All the treatments differed


Weed free treatment did not show any emergence of weeds. The minimum weed fresh

weight (7.03 g/m2) was recorded from black polythene of 150 µm thickness, which was

closely followed by black polythene of 100 µm (7.53 g/m2) and black polythene of 50 µm

(7.83 g/m2). Results were non-significant among these three treatments.

This might be due to the material that blocks light will suppress or prevent the growth

of weeds. Layers of organic mulches such as straw, hay etc can be used for control of annual

weeds. Thicker layers of straw mulch provide better results and was more cost effective

(Makus et al 1994).

The maximum fresh weight of weeds (29.90 g/m2) was recorded from weedy control

treatment where no weed-control measure was undertaken, whereas, among the other

mulching material, clear polythene sheet of 50 µm thickness showed the maximum fresh

weight (21.46 g/m2) which was closely followed by polythene sheet of 100 µm (19.16 g/m

2)

and polythene sheet of 150 µm with weed fresh weight of (19.46 g/m2).

4.2.3 Dry weight of weeds


It is revealed by the data presented in Table 4.11 that the dry matter of weeds taken at 30

days after transplanting was significantly lower in the high thickness of black polythene treatments

than that of low thickness of black polythene followed by paddy straw mulch @ 2.0 t/ha.

The weed dry matter from weed-free plot was recorded as nil. The lowest weed dry

matter (3.00 g/m2, 3.21 g/m

2, 3.41 g/m

2) was, however, recorded from different thickness of

black polythene (50, 100 and 150 µm), followed by paddy straw @ 2.0 t/ha (3.60 g/m²)

which were at par with each other. The highest weed dry matter (12.79 g/m²) was from weedy

control where no weed control or mulch sheet measure was undertaken. Among the other

mulching material used, the maximum dry weight (9.03 g/m2) was recorded from weeds

grown under clear polythene sheet of 50 µm followed by dry weight of weeds (8.66 g/m2)

under clear polythene 100 µm .


The data pertaining to effect of different mulching material on dry weight of weeds

per unit area is presented in Table 4.11. Dry matter of weeds taken at 60 days after

transplanting was significantly lower in the high thickness of black polythene treatments than

that of low thickness of black polythene followed by paddy straw mulch @ 2.0 t/ha. The

lowest weed dry matter (3.70 g/m2) was, however, recorded from black polythene 150 µm,

44

Table 4.10: Effect of different mulching material on fresh weight of weeds per unit area

Sr. No. Treatments

Fresh weight (g/m²)

30 DAT 60 DAT

T1 Paddy Straw Mulch 1.0 t / ha

15.92

(263)

18.71

(350)


15.30

(237)

16.28

(268)


7.80

(65)

8.67

(77.63)

T4 Black polythene - 50 µm thick

6.74

(49)

7.83

(62)


6.72

(46)

7.53

(56)


6.48

(42)

7.0335

(49)

T7 Clear polythene - 50 µm thick

20.26

(412)

21.46

(460)


19.94

(397)

19.16

(367)


18.29

(334)

19.46

(378)


(870)

29.90

(894)

T11 Weed free (check)

1.0

(0)

1.0

(0)

C.D (p=0.05) 3.48 2.02


45

Table 4.11: Effect of different mulching material on dry weight of weeds per unit area

Sr.

No. Treatments

Dry weight (g/m²) Weed control

efficiency (%) 30 DAT 60 DAT


(47)

8.72

(75)

56.40


(40)

7.15

(51)

70.35


(12)

4.46

(20)

88.37


(11)

4.19

(17)

90.12


(10)

4.09

(16)

90.70


(9)

3.70

(13)

92.44


(82)

9.83

(96)

44.19


(75)

8.77

(77)

55.23


(48)

7.87

(62)

63.95


(163)

13.13

(172)

0.00

T11 Weed free (check) 1.0

(0)

1.0

(0)

100.00

C.D (p=0.05) 1.99 1.21


46

followed by paddy straw (4.46 g/m²) @ 2.0 t/ha. The weed dry matter from weed-free plot

was recorded as nil.

The highest weed dry matter (13.13 g/m²) was from weedy control where no weed

control or mulch sheet measure was undertaken. Among the other mulching material used,

the maximum dry weight (9.83 g/m2) was recorded from weeds grown under clear polythene

sheet of 50 µm followed by dry weight of weeds (8.77 g/m2) under clear polythene 100 µm .

The lowest weed population under the black polyethylene sheet treatment was due to

that, the weeds were depicted in reduced number. It is because of raising of the temperature

compared to uncovered plants. These results are in conformity with the findings of Stapleton

and Garza Lopez (1988) in lime. Similar results also reported by Chahal et al. (1994) in

gladiolus, Anandamurthy and Narayanagowda (1993) in tuberose cv. Double, Basavaraju et

al. (1992) in china aster, Newman and Binning (1980) in an annual flower and Stewart et al.

(1883) in gladiolus.

(c) Weed control efficiency

The data presented in Table 4.11 indicates that significantly maximum weed control

efficiency was observed in weed free treatment (100%) followed by black polyethylene sheet

with different thickness 50, 100 and 150 µm (92.44%, 90.70% and 90.12%) respectively and.

However, significantly lowest weed control efficiency was observed in weedy control (0.0%).

The minimum weed control efficiency was found in clear polythene 50 µm (44.19) followed

by clear polythene 100 µm (55.23).

Reduction in weed population and weed dry weight under black polythene can be

attributed to relatively better management practices which shifted the competition in favour of

chrysanthemum. There was significant enhancement in weed control efficiency.

4.2.4Soil temperature

The data pertaining to soil temperature was depicted in Table 4.12 that was recorded

at weekly interval for two months (Aug. to Oct.) after transplanting of rooted cuttings of

chrysanthemum.

Data showed that the maximum temperature was recorded under clear mulch. This

might be due to the fact that the incident radiation enters through the clear polythene mulch

and a very little amount of outgoing radiation could go back to the environments which

slightly increases soil temperature underneath clear mulch (Baten et al 1995) which favour

weed infestation and hence affects vegetative and growth parameters.

However the results were reverse under paddy straw mulch. The minimum

temperature was recorded under it. Straw mulching had different soil thermal properties under

diverse temperatures from that of exposed soil, colder weather had higher soil temperatures

and lesser during hot weather. Paddy straw mulch provide cooling effect underground

environment of soil and also supply of nutrient through decomposition of straw material

47

Table 4.12 Effect of different mulching material on soil temperature after

transplanting of rooted cuttings of chrysanthemum variety “Garden

Beauty”

Sr.

No.

Treatments Soil temperature (C) at weekly interval

1

WAT

2

WAT

3

WAT

4

WAT

5

WAT

6

WAT

7

WAT

8

WAT

9

WAT

10

WAT

T1 Paddy Straw

Mulch 1.0 t / ha

30.47 31.30 31.47 30.40 30.33 30.67 29.33 29.67 27.17 21.50

T2 Paddy Straw

Mulch 1.5 t / ha 29.90 31.03 31.20 30.23 30.30 30.63 28.73 29.13 27.83 22.50

T3 Paddy Straw

Mulch 2.0 t / ha

30.23 30.63 31.00 29.97 29.97 30.23 28.90 28.23 26.17 20.83

T4 Black polythene -

50 µm thick

35.67 36.33 36.97 35.97 35.43 35.43 30.73 29.27 27.33 22.27


100 µm thick

35.43 36.60 36.37 35.77 35.87 35.47 31.37 30.20 28.83 25.37


150 µm thick

34.90 35.57 36.70 35.33 35.67 35.73 31.17 30.33 29.47 25.17

T7 Clear polythene -

50 µm thick

38.77 39.40 39.33 38.63 38.67 38.87 31.13 30.50 28.17 23.50


100 µm thick

38.47 38.97 39.70 38.40 38.43 39.53 31.27 30.80 29.70 22.80


150 µm thick 39.07 39.43 40.00 38.63 38.50 38.97 30.57 29.83 27.27 23.73

T10 Weedy control

(check)

33.10 33.50 33.77 32.77 32.73 33.13 29.70 28.93 27.43 21.37

T11 Weed free (check) 33.27 33.83 33.97 33.03 33.17 33.50 29.87 29.50 29.17 24.07

C.D (p=0.05) 1.31 1.07 0.90 0.85 1.05 0.68 0.89 1.06 1.07 0.89

48

(Bristow 1988, Fabrizzi et al 2005, Sarkar et al 2007). The vegetative and flowering

parameters were significantly higher in paddy straw mulch than clear polythene mulch.

4.2.5 Plant height

The data presented in Table 4.13 reveals that there is significant difference among the

different mulching treatments used, along with weed free plots and weedy control with regard

to plant height.

Weed free treatment (plot that was kept weed free throughout the crop growth period

through manual weeding) exhibited significantly higher plant height (67.00 cm), followed by

black polythene 150 µm thickness (66.67 cm) and black polythene 100 µm thickness (65.33

cm). The effect of black plastic mulch is effective in checking weeds and insuring moderate

temperature as well as more effective in reducing the evaporation. The maximum plant height

in weed free treatment was due to the better availability of nutrients, moisture, sunlight and

space for crop growth. This is in conformity with the findings of Basavaraju et al (1992) in

China aster, Pal and Das (1990) in tuberose and Koutepas (1982) in gladiolus.

The minimum plant height (55.16 cm) was recorded in weedy control treatment,

where no weed control measures were applied. This was due to the fact that weed count was

more in weedy control and which might have resulted in severe competition by weeds with

the crop for resources which made the crop to suffer and ultimately reduced the plant height

(Kumar et al 2010).

Fig. 4.5: Effect of different mulching material on plant height in chrysanthemum

Similar trend in chrysanthemum was obtained in plant height with the black plastic

mulch as compared to transparent mulch and weedy control by Mukherjee and Raja (1999),

Arora et al (2002) in carnation and Chawla (2006) in African marigold and Solaiman et al

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

57.83 59.50 60.1663.83 65.33 66.67

56.83 56.67 57.50 55.16

67.00

Pla

nt

hei

gh

t(cm

)

Treatments

T 1 = Paddy straw 1.0 t/ha T2 = Paddy straw 1.5 t/ha T3 = Paddy straw 2.0 t/ha

T4= Black polythene 50 µm T5 = Black polythene 100 µm T6 = Black polythene 150 µm

T7 = Clear polythene 50 µm T8 = Clear polythene 100 µm T9= Clear polythene 150 µm

T10 = Weedy control, T11=Weed free

CD (0.05) = 1.46

49

(2008) in aster. Actually, the plant grows very well, increase of nitrogen utilization, result the

accumulation of some form of carbohydrates and that carbohydrate used for the synthesis of

anthocyanin. This finding was consistent with the report of Griesbach (1992).

4.2.6Plant spread

Data presented in Table 4.13 and Fig. 4.6 indicates that all the treatments differed

significantly with regard to plant spread of chrysanthemum.

The data regarding role of mulching treatments on the plant spread showed that, the

maximum plant spread (41.77 cm) was recorded with black polythene150 µm mulch which

was at par with black polythene of 100 µm thick (40.77 cm). In the weed free plot, plant

spread (42.22 cm) was higher that the mulching with black polythene sheet as the plots were

kept weed free throughout the crop growth period through manual weeding. Minimum plant

spread (24.48 cm) was observed in weedy control (without mulch) followed by clear

polythene 50 µm (33.33 cm) and clear polythene100 µm (34.11 cm).

The present findings are in conformity with the findings of Arora et al (2002) in

carnation and Murugan and Gopinath (2001) reported that growth attributes wee maximum

when black polythene was used as mulch in crossandra cv. Saundrya. This might be due to

the fact that black polythene mulch is effective in checking weeds and ensuring moderate

temperature in winter as well as more effective in reducing the evaporation.

Fig. 4.6: Effect of different mulching material on plant spread in chrysanthemum

4.2.7 Number of branches per plant

The data presented in Table 4.13 indicates that all mulching treatments, weedy

control and weed free control differed significantly with each other with regard to number of

branches per.

0

10

20

30

40

50

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

37.11 37.89 38.89 39.77 40.77 41.77

33.33 34.11 35.22

24.48

42.22

Pla

nt

spre

ad

(cm

)

Treatments





CD (0.05) = 1.25

50

Table 4.13: Effect of different mulching material on plant height, plant spread and

number of branches of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Sr.

No. Treatments Plant height

(cm)

Plant

spread

(cm)

Number of

branches/plant

T1 Paddy Straw Mulch 1.0 t / ha 57.83 37.11 4.00



T4 Black polythene - 50 µm thick 63.83 39.77 4.89

T5 Black polythene - 100 µm

thick 65.33 40.77 5.33

T6 Black polythene - 150 µm

thick 66.67 41.77 5.55

T7 Clear polythene - 50 µm thick 56.83 33.33 3.47

T8 Clear polythene - 100 µm

thick 56.67 34.11 3.61

T9 Clear polythene - 150 µm

thick 57.50 35.22 3.80

T10 Weedy (control) 55.16 24.48 3.00

T11 Weed free 67.00 42.22 5.78

C.D (p=0.05) 1.46 1.25 0.36

51

Table 4.14: Effect of different mulching material on number of branches and number of

sprays of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Sr. No. Treatments Number of sprays/plant










T10 Weedy control (check) 5.11

T11 Weed free (check) 11.55

C.D (p=0.05) 0.64

52

The maximum number of branches per plant (5.78) observed in weed free area and

the second highest value observed in black polythene 150 µm (5.55). The lowest value (3.00)

found in weedy control which was closely followed by clear polythene 50 µm with 3.47

numbers of branches per plant.

This might be attributed to the fact that black polyethylene mulch worked an

insulating barrier which reduced evaporation, helped maintaining optimum soil temperature in

winter, control salinity and weeds. The adequate soil moisture provided resulted in greater

development of green tissue areas contributing to higher photosynthesis and assimilation. As

a result, plant growth improved leading to higher accumulation of total dry matter. Mulching

effectively regulates soil temperature, prevents crust development and preserves soil water

(Younis et al 2010a). The present findings are in conformity with the findings of Chawla

(2008) in African marigold and Kumar et al. (2010) in rose cv. Laher.

4.2.8Number of sprays per plant

Effect of different mulching material on number of sprays was observed. Data

pertaining to this attribute are presented in Table 4.14 that showed significant differences

among the various mulching treatments, weed free and weedy control for number of

sprays/plant.

The maximum number of sprays (11.55) were recorded in weed free plot followed by

black polythene 100 µm (11.44) and black polythene 150 µm (11.11), which were at par with

each other. The lowest number of sprays per plant (5.11) was observed in weedy control

followed by clear polythene 50 µm (7.00). Both the treatments differed significantly with

each other. The number of sprays per plant in fully weed infested plot of weedy control was

almost of half all other treatment taken in experiment.

The above results were in accordance to the results observed by Mukherjee and Raja

(1999) in chrysanthemum. They also observed the effects of different types of plastic mulch

on chrysanthemum, where number of sprays/plant were significantly resulted better in the

black plastic mulch as compared to transparent mulch and control.

4.2.9 Days to first bud appearance

Effect of different mulching material on days taken to first bud appearance was

studied and data pertaining to this observation is presented in Table 4.15. The significant

difference was observed among the different mulching material, weedy control and weed free

control. There was a marked difference in days taken for first flower bud initiation among the

different weed control treatments. The least number of days was taken for first bud initiation

in weed free treatment (91.76 days) which was at par with black polythene sheet 100 µm

(92.10 days) and black polythene of 150 µm (92.22 days). All these three treatments differed


53

Table 4.15: Effect of different mulching material on days to first bud appearance and

days to full bloom stage of chrysanthemum variety “Garden Beauty”

Sr. No. Treatments Days to first bud

appearance Days to full

bloom stage

T1 Paddy Straw Mulch 1.0 t / ha 95.10 116.89



T4 Black polythene - 50 µm thick 93.81 116.11



T7 Clear polythene - 50 µm thick 96.00 118.44



T10 Weedy (control) 96.55 119.77

T11 Weed free 91.76 113.56

C.D (p=0.05) 1.03 1.25

54

The maximum number of days to first bud appearance was observed in weedy

control (96.55). Among the different mulching treatments, clear polythene 50 µm showed

maximum delay in first flower bud appearance (96.00 days) which was at par with clear

polythene 100 µm (95.89 days) and clear polythene 150 µm (95.44 days). The variation

with regard to number of days to first bud appearance might be due to the increased soil

temperature of black polythene mulch treatment, which was directly related to early

initiation of flower and the increased cumulative number of flowers (Solaiman et al 2008).

This is in conformity with the findings of Baumhardt and Jones 2002, Zhang et al 2009 and

Yi et al 2011.

Results were in accordance to results observed by Solaiman et al (2008) in China

Aster (Callistephus chinensis). Similar results confirming the findings of the present study,

were obtained in gladiolus (Koutepas 1982 and Vijaykumar 2001) and golden rod (Hanamant

1999).

4.2.10 Days to full bloom stage

The data presented in Table 4.15 revealed that the number of days to full bloom stage

vary significantly among weedy control, weed free treatment and various treatments of

mulching.

However the minimum number of days to full bloom stage (113.56) was observed in

weed free followed by black polythene 150 µm (113.89) which was at par with black

polythene 100 µm (115.13). Whereas, the maximum number of days to first full bloom stage

observed in weedy control (119.77) followed by clear polythene sheet 50 µm (118.44) and

clear polythene sheet 100 µm (117.77). In paddy straw mulch @ 2 t/ha, 116.22 days were

recorded for full bloom stage.

It may be due to reason that plants face more competition for weeds under clear

mulch. However transparent plastic mulch allowed much of the incident radiation to

enter into the soil but permitted little of the outgoing radiation to go back out of the soil

thus creating a favourable condition for weed growth (Baten et al 1995). They are

weaker than those of no competition from weeds or faces light competition and thus, the

weaker plants take longer to flower. In contrary the plant which face less or no weed

competition are stronger.

4.2.11 Duration of flowering

Data regarding duration of flowering was obtained and presented in Table 4.16 and

Fig. 4.7. Significant effect of different mulching material on duration of flowering was

recorded. Delay in flowering was observed with different treatments of mulching over

control.

55

Fig.4.7: Effect of different mulching material on duration of flowering in chrysanthemum

The longest flowering duration was reported from weed free (22 days) followed by

black polythene 150 µm thick (21.22 days) and black polythene 100 µm thick (20.78 days).

The shortest flowering duration (16.89 days) was, however, reported from weedy control and

it was significantly less than among all mulching treatments carried out in the experiment.

The shortest flowering duration among the different mulching treatment was recorded in clear

polythene 100 µm thick (17.33 days) which was followed by clear polythene 50µm thick

(17.43 days) and clear polythene 150 µm thick (17.44 days).

Similar to our findings, Murugan and Gopinath (2001) obtained maximum duration of

flowering and advanced flowering in crossandra cv. Saundry by using black polyethylene

mulch as compared to organic mulches (dried leaves, coconut fronds and coir pith).

4.2.12 Flower diameter

The data presented in Table 4.16 Fig. 4.8 showed significant differences among the

mulching treatments, weedy control and weed free control with regard to flower diameter.

The minimum flower diameter was recorded from weedy control treatment (6.07 cm)

and it was significantly less than all other treatments carried out in the experiment. The

maximum flower diameter (9.57 cm) was, however, reported from black polythene 150 µm

thick followed by (9.53 cm) in black polythene 100 µm treatment and (9.50 cm) flower

diameter in weed free treatment .

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

17.77 18.3419.78 20.23 20.78 21.22

17.43 17.33 17.44 16.89

22.00D

ura

tio

n o

f

flo

wer

ing

(day

s)

Treatments





CD (0.05) = 1.05

56

Fig. 4.8: Effect of different mulching material on flower diameter in chrysanthemum

These results are in conformity with Barman et al (2005) in gladiolus. Mulch also

might have helped to maintain microbial activity at higher level. All these in turn are likely to

influence favourably the nutrient availability and their uptake by the plant.

4.2.13 Number of Flowers

Data regarding number of flower per plant was obtained and presented in Table 4.16.

An appraisal of Table elucidates that significant effect of different mulching material on

number of flower per plant.

The highest number of flower per plant was recorded (72.11) in weed free. The

second highest number of flower per plant (71.56) was, however, reported from black

polythene 150 µm followed by black polythene 100 µm thick (69.55). The higher production

and improvement in quality of flowers due to mulching, particularly by black polyethylene

mulch may be due to adequate moisture contents and appropriate temperature of soil lead to

maximum plant height earlier flower bud emergence, maximum flower size, number of

flowers per plant and longest flower stalk. Conversely, less flowering of plant without mulch

was attributed to poor growth when related with mulched plant (Iqbal et al 2009).

The lowest number of flower per plant (53.66) were reported from weedy control

followed by clear polythene mulch of different thickness (50 µm, 100 µm and 150 µm ) with

number of flowers (60.68, 60.34 and 62.55) respectively than paddy straw mulch. The above

results are in close conformity with the findings of Challa and Ravindara (1999) and Han et al

(2000) who noticed that leaf and straw mulches reduced weed population and enhanced

flower yield and quality in rose than transparent much.

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

7.177.97

9.139.53 9.47 9.57

6.57

7.73 7.70

6.07

9.50

Flo

wer

dia

met

er

(cm

)

Treatments





CD (0.05) = 0.68

57

Table 4.16: Effect of different mulching material on duration of flowering, number of

flowers per plant and flower diameter of chrysanthemum variety “Garden

Beauty”

Sr. No. Treatments Duration of

flowering

(days)

Flower

diameter

(cm)

Number of

flowers/plant










T10 Weedy (control) 16.89 6.07 53.66

T11 Weed free 22.00 9.50 72.11

C.D (p=0.05) 1.05 0.68 1.49

58

The effective use of nutrients in mulch could be attained because of vigorous root

system (Younis et al 2010b). Relatively better moisture and thermal regimes enhanced root

growth which ultimately led to increase in the potential for efficient nutrient uptake (Kumar

and Dey 2011). Nitrogen and phosphorus are the main elements due to important functioning

for growth and development of ornamental crops. The precipitation takes enormous quantity

of phosphorus used as nourishment into the soil‟s immobile pools and plants are unable to use

this (Badawi 2010). Application of mulches reduces the loss of phosphorus by limited

precipitation so it may lead to better and quality flowering.

4.3 Various weeds observed in the treatment pots throughout the crop season

The 14 weeds which were observed in the treatment plots are listed in table 4.17. Any

weed listed in the table may be present in all the plots or may be present in only a single plot

of total plots of taken in both the experiments (herbicide and mulching) (Plate 5). The list

include all type of weeds in irrespective of their morphological or anatomical characters viz.

broad leaf weeds, monocot weeds, dicot weeds and grassy weeds.

Table 4.17: Various weeds species observed in the herbicide and mulching trail

throughout the crop season

Sr. No. Weeds species

1 Cyperus rotundus

2 Phyllanthus niruri

3 Acrachne racemosa

4 Parthenium hysterophorus

5 Malva parviflora

6 Boerhaavia diffusa

7 Eragrostis tanella

8 Euphorbia microphylla

9 Eleusine aegyptiacum

10 Portulaca oleracea

11 Digitaria sanguinalis

12 Spergula arvensis

13 Poa annua

14 Trianthema portulacastrum

Poa annua Digitaria sanguinalis

Eragrostis tanella Malva parviflora

Plate 5(a): Weed species observed in experiments (a, b, c, d)

a b

c d

Trianthema portulacastrum Euphorbia microphylla

Cyperus rotundus Phyllanthus niruri

Plate 5(b): Weed species observed in experiments (e, f, g & h)

e f

g h

59

4.4 Comparative approximate cost of production of various herbicides and mulch

treatments (per hectare basis)

Crop was planted in month of August, and last for an average of 5 months. On an

average 4 labourers are needed for upkeep of a hectare of crop which includes all agronomic

practices carried out throughout the crop period. Initial field preparation was done by tractor

and cost was included within the average labour cost. No irrigation costs were considered as

no charges were levied upon farmers by Punjab government at the time this study was

conducted.

Details regarding the wages, costs of herbicides and mulches (approximate):

1) Daily wage of hired labourer (Rs) = 240

2) Number of days taken by 4 labourers for manual weeding of one hectare area = 5-6

3) Number of days taken by 2 labourers to spray one hectare land = 1

4) Cost of 1 kg of Butachlor(Rs) = 275

5) Cost of 1 kg of Pendimethalin(Rs) = 400

6) Cost of 1 kg of Atrazine (Rs) = 756

7) Cost of 1 ton of paddy straw mulch(Rs) = 1500

8) Cost of 1 kg of black polythene mulch (Rs) = 150

9) Cost of 1 kg of clear polythene mulch (Rs) = 190

10) Amount of 50µ thick mulch (black/ white) required for 1 hectare land = 462 kg

11) Amount of 100µ thick mulch (black/ white) required for 1 hectare land = 750 kg

12) Amount of 150µ thick mulch(black/ white) required for 1 hectare land = 925 kg

13) Average cost of fertilizers and insecticides per hectare used in entire crop period

(Rs)= 2000

14) Average rental cost of tractor for 1 hectare land preparation+ fuel charges (Rs)= 2500

4.4.1 Cost of production involving different herbicides

The data presented in Table 4.18 indicates that when only manual weeding is applied

in the field, the cost of production is very much high as compared to the control of weeds

involving herbicides at different rates. Even when the herbicides were coupled with two

manual weedings, the cost of production was bearable.

The highest total cost of production (Rs 1,48,500/- per ha) was observed from the

weed free treatment in which by applying handweedings at fornightly interval, no weed was

let to grow. This was followed by the treatments in which herbicidal application was coupled

with two handweedings in all the three different herbicides treatments. The cost of production

(Rs 50,855/-, Rs 50,880/- and Rs 51,336/- per ha respectively) from Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2

hand weedings, Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 handweedings and Atrazine 1 kg/ha + 2

handweedings were comparable and were found to be nearly close to each other.

60

Table 4.18: Comparison of cost of production involving different herbicides and

manual weeding

Treatment Average

labour cost

(Rs)

Average cost of

insecticides and

fertilizer

(Rs)

Cost of

herbicides

(Rs)

Total

cost of

production

(Rs)

Butachlor 1 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 275 41,255

Butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 Hand

weedings (at monthly interval)

48,580c 2000 275 50,855

Butachlor 1.5 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 412 41,392

Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 300 41,280

Pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2

Hand weedings (at monthly

interval)

48,580c 2000 300 50,880

Pendimethalin 1.00 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 400 41,380

Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 756 41,736

Atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 Hand

weedings (at monthly interval)

48,580c 2000 756 51,336

Atrazine 1.5 kg/ha 38,980b 2000 1,134 42,114

Weedy (control) 38,500a 2000 - 40,500

Weed free 1,46,500d 2000 - 1,48,500

a : Labour cost of deploying two daily paid labourers for first month and 3 DPL for last

month of crop.

b : Labour cost of deploying two daily paid labourers for first month and 3 DPL for last

month of crop including labour charges for spraying operation.

c : Labour cost of deploying two daily paid labourers for first month and 3 DPL for last

month of crop including labour charges for spraying and hand weedings.

d : Labour cost of deploying four daily paid labourers for full duration of crop.

61

The treatments involving herbicidal application alone found to be quite low in

incurring the cost of production and almost close to each other, although from the weed

control data, it was evident that these herbicide alone applications were not too good to

control the weeds efficiently.

4.4.2 Cost of production involving different mulch

The data presented in Table 4.19 indicates that when only manual weeding is applied

in the field, the cost of production is very high as compared to the weedy control. Even when

the polythene mulching material used, the cost of production was almost near to weed free

(Rs 1,48,500/-).

When clear polythene mulch with different thickness (50, 100, 150 µm) were used the

cost of production is very high even than black polythene mulch, it was evident that clear

mulch application were not too good thus creating a favourable condition for weed growth.

The current study indicate the best result under black polythene mulch of different

thickness (50, 100, 150 µm) but the cost of production for this material is not bearable i.e. (Rs

1,09,800/-, Rs 1,5300/- and Rs 1,79,250/- respectively). Although the results for flower

production under paddy straw mulch @ 2 t/ha was in comparison with black polythene mulch

of various thickness but the cost of production for paddy straw mulch was far less than other

mulching material used in this study (Rs 43,000/-).

Hence keeping this in view the cost of production used for mulching paddy straw

mulch is good option.

62

Table 4.19: Comparison of cost of production involving different mulch and manual

weeding

Treatment Average

labour cost

(Rs)

Average cost of

insecticides and

fertilizer

(Rs)

Cost of

mulch

(Rs)

Total

cost of

production

(Rs)

Paddy Straw Mulch 1.0 t / ha 38,500a 2000 1500 42,000

Paddy Straw Mulch 1.5 t / ha 38,500a 2000 2,250 42,750

Paddy Straw Mulch 2.0 t / ha 38,500a 2000 3,000 43,500

Black polythene - 50 µm

thick

38,500a 2000 69,300 1,09,800


thick

38,500a 2000 1,12,500 1,53,000


thick

38,500a 2000 1,38,750 1,79,250

Clear polythene - 50 µm

thick

38,500a 2000 87,780 1,28,280


thick

38,500a 2000 1,42,500 1,83,000


thick

38,500a 2000 1,75,750 2,16,250

Weedy (control) 38,500a 2000 - 40,500

Weed free 1,46,500b 2000 - 1,48,500

a : Labour cost of deploying two daily paid labourers for first month and 3 DPL for last

month of crop.

b : Labour cost of deploying four daily paid labourers for full duration of crop.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY

The present experiment entitled “Weed Management in Chrysanthemum

(Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)” was conducted during 2013-14 at research fields of

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is widely appreciated as a

potted flowering plant exhibiting diverse and beautiful range of flower colour, flower type

with varying plant height which makes it suitable for garden decoration, cut flower as well as

pot culture. It has to be potential to be a decorative flower in beautiful flower vases.

Chrysanthemum is the most appropriate crop to concentrate on the development of a

successful weed control strategy to encourage crop growth and flowering that would be of the

greatest benefit to the flower industry as a whole. Integrated weed management is a method

where all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable methods are employed to

keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic damage, keeping in the

foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.

In the present study among the different herbicide treatments, number of weeds per

unit area was found to the lowest (9.77 /m2) with butachlor @ 1 kg/ha + 2 HW after 60 days

of transplanting (DAT) of rooted cuttings. Fresh weight (13.51 g/m2)

and dry matter of weeds

(5.04 g/m2) was also found to be the lowest with the same treatment. The maximum plant

height was observed in weed free plots (68.22 cm) followed by chemical weed control

treatment i.e. butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 HW (65.53 cm).Plant spread (35.27cm) was also recorded

maximum in butachlor 1 kg/ha + 2 HW. The mean number of sprays (9.57) were recorded

maximum in weed free plot followed by butachlor treatment of 1 kg/ha + 2 HW (8.70).

Among various chemical treatment the mean maximum plant spread was recorded in

butachlor @ 1 kg/ha + 2 HW (35.27cm) which is at par with pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha + 2

HW (34.87 cm).

The highest number of branches per plant (5.89) was recorded from weed free treatment

and it was closely followed by butachlor treatment 1kg/ha + 2 HW (5.56). Pendimethalin 0.75

kg/ha + 2 HW gave (5.33) branches per plant which was at par with both butachlor (5.56) and

atrazine (5.15) coupled with hand weeding. The maximum duration (21.7 days) of flowering

was observed in weed free plots followed by HW coupled with herbicidal treatment of butachlor

(20.7 days). The maximum number of flower per plant (70.37) was, however, reported from

weed free plots followed by (67.50) flowers per plant in hand weeded plot coupled with

butachlor 1kg/ha herbicide which was at par with atrazine 1.0 kg/ha + 2 HW (65.87) and

pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha + 2 HW with (65.73) mean number of flowers per plant.

64

In mulching experiment among the different mulching material tried, number of

weeds per unit area was found to the lowest (2.53 /m2) black polythene 150 µm thick after 60

days of transplanting (DAT) of rooted cuttings. Weed free treatment did not show any

emergence of weeds. Fresh weight (7.03 g/m2)

and dry matter of weeds (3.70 g/m

2) was also

found to be the lowest with the same treatment which was closely followed by paddy straw

mulch @ 2 t/ha with (4.46) dry matter. The maximum plant height was observed in weed free

plots (67.00 cm) followed by mulching treatment i.e. black polythene 150 µm thickness

(66.67 cm). Plant spread (41.77cm) was also recorded maximum in black polythene 150 µm.

The mean number of sprays (11.55) were recorded maximum in weed free plot followed by

black polythene with different thickness 50, 100 and150 µm with (11.00, 11.44 and 11.11)

number of sprays respectively. Among various mulching treatment the mean maximum plant

spread was recorded in black polythene 150 µm thickness (41.77 cm) which is at par with

black polythene 100 µm (40.77 cm). The highest number of branches per plant (5.78) was

recorded from weed free treatment and it was closely followed by black polythene 150 µm

thickness (5.55).

The maximum flower diameter (9.57 cm) was, however, reported from black

polythene 150 µm thick which was quite closely followed by (9.53 cm) in black polythene

100 µm treatment and (9.50 cm) flower diameter in weed free treatment . The maximum

duration (22.00 days) of flowering was observed in weed free plots followed by black

polythene 150 µm thickness (21.22 days). The maximum number of flower per plant (72.11)

was, however, reported from weed free plots followed by (71.56) flowers per plant in black

polythene 150 µm thickness.

From the above study it can be concluded that among the different pre-emergence

herbicides tried, butachlor @ 1 kg/hac+ 2 hand weeding was the best treatment for effective

weed control and improved vegetative and flowering parameters. Whereas among the

different mulches tried, black polythene sheet 150 µm thickness was found to be more

effective for weed control and improved vegetative and flowering parameters which was at

par with paddy straw @ 2 tonnes/hac.

REFERENCES

Al-Masoum A A, Hashim A A and Jafer K (1998) Effect of two mulch types for solarization

on soil temperature. AMA Agri. Mechanization in Asia, Africa and America 29: 73-

75.

Anandamurthy G M and Narayanagowda J V (1993) Evaluation of herbicides for weed

control in tuberose (Polianthus tuberosa Linn.) cv. Double. Crop Research 6: 176-

178.

Anonymous (2013) Area and production of chrysanthemum. http://www.indiastat.com

Antil D N (1988) The use of low level plastics in horticultural field crops. In: Plastics in

Nineties. Proceedings of the Conference held in Sirole, United Kingdom. Pp 20-21.

Arora J S, Sidhu G S and Kaur A (2002) Performance of carnation in polyhouse. J Orn Hort

5: 58-63.

Badawi M A (2010) Role of phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms in the growth of date

palm trees. Acta Hort 882: 115-20.

Badesha G S (2003) Weed control studies in winter annuals for seed production. M.Sc thesis.

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.

Barman D, Rajni K, Pal R and Upadhyay R C (2005) Effect of mulching on cut flower

production and corm multiplication in gladiolus. J Orn Hort 8: 152-54.

Basavaraju C, Gowda J V N and Muniyappa T V (1992) Effect of pre-emergent herbicides on

yield in china aster. Current Research 21: 50-51.

Baten M A, Nahar B S, Sarker S C and Khan M A H (1995) Effect of different mulches on

growth and yield of late planted garlic (Allium sativam L.). Pak J sci Indust Res 38:

138-141.

Baumhardt R L and Jones O R (2002) Residue management and tillage effects on soil-water

storage and grain yield of dry land wheat and sorghum for a clay loam in Texas. Soil

Till Res 68: 71-82.

Bhavani J K (1960) Role of mulch and cultural practices and its influence on growth and

yield of Bhokri grapes (Vitis vinifera) M.Sc thesis. Poona University, Poona.

Bond J A and Oliver L R (2006) Comparative growth of palmer amaranth (Amaranthus

palmeri) accessions. Weed Sci 54: 121-26.

Bristow K L (1988) The role of mulch and its architecture in modifying soil temperature. Aus

J Soil Res 26:269-80.

Brookes G and Barfoot P (2010) Global impact of biotech crops, environmental effects,

1996–2008. Ag Bio Forum 13: 76–94.

Brosh S, Hadar E and Zilberstein J (1985b) Weed control in roses grown in greenhouse.

Phytoparasitica 13: 245.

66

Brosh S, Zilberstein J and Boshwitz Y (1985a) Weed control in gladioli for flower

production. Phytoparasitica 13: 246.

Chahal D S, Sehgal O P and Singh K K (1994) Effect of chemical and agronomic treatments

on population and growth of weeds in gladiolus field. Ann Biol 10: 245- 49.

Challa P and Ravindra V (1999) Allelopathic potential of mango leaves for weed

management in rose (Rosa hybrida) cv. Happiness basins. Allelopathy J 6: 75-80.

Chawla S L (2006) Effect of irrigation regimes and mulching on vegetative growth, quality

and yield of flowers of African marigold. Ph.D thesis. Maharana Pratap University of

Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur.

Chawla S L (2008) Response of African marigold to irrigation and mulching. J Orn Hort 11:

131-35.

Derr J F (1995) Wildflower tolerance to metolachlor combined with other broadleaf

herbicides. Hort Sci 28: 1023-26.

Edwards L, Burney J R, Richer G and Macrae A H (2000) Evaluation of compost and straw

mulching on soil-loss characterstics in erosion plots of potatoes in Prince Edward

Island, Canada. Agric Ecosystems Environ 81: 217-22.

Fabrizzi K P, Garcia F O, Costa J L and Picone L I (2005) Soil water dynamics, physical

properties and corn and wheat responses to minimum and no-tillage systems in the

southern Pampas of Argentina. Soil Till Res 81: 57-69.

Ghosh S N and Bauri F K (2003) Effect of mulching on yield and physiochemical

properties of mango fruits cv. Himsagar grown in rainfed laterite soils . Ori J Hort

31: 78-81.

Gilreath J P (1984) Chemical weed control in flowering gladiolus. Proc Fla State Hort Soc

97: 297-99.

Gilreath J P (1985) Cypressive morning-glory control in gladiolus. Hort Sci 20: 701-03.

Gilreath J P and Bell M L (1998) Chemical weed control in gladiolus. Proc Fla State Hort

Soc 111: 29- 32.

Gressel J (2008). Genetic Glass Ceilings, Transgenics for Crop Biodiversity. Baltimore, Johns

Hopkins University Press.

Han Y Y, Woo J H, Sim Y G, Choi B S and Yu S N (2000) Influence of mulching

materials on yield and quality of cut rose in soil condition. J Korean Soc Hort Sci

41: 194-96.

Hanamant T B (1999) Studies on chemical weed control in golden rod (Solidago canadensis

L.). M.Sc. thesis. University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

Harris R W, Clark J R and Matheny N P (2004) Arboriculture. 4th ed. Prentice Hall Inc. New

Jersey.

67

Hassan G I, Godara A K, Kumar J and Huchehe A D (2000) Effect of different mulches on

yield and quality of „Oso Grande‟ strawberry. Ind J Agric Sci 70: 184-85.

Henderson-Cole J C and Schnelle M A (1993) Effect of prodiamine and oxadiazon on growth

of bedding plants and ground covers. J Environ Hort 11: 17-19.

Holm L G, Plucknett D L, Pancho J V and Herberger J P (1977). The World’s Worst Weeds,

Distribution and Biology. Honolulu, HI, University Press of Hawaii.

Hong S J, Kim H K and Park S W (2001) Effect of mulching materials on growth and

flowering of oriental hybrid lilies in alpine area. Korean Journal of Horticultural

Science and Technology 19: 585-590.

Iqbal Q, Amjad M, Ali M R, Ali M A and Ahmad R (2009) Vegetative and reproductive

evaluation of hot peppers under different plastic mulches in poly/plastic tunnel. Pak J

Agri Sci 46:113-18.

Jacks C V, Brind W D and Smith R Mulching Technology comm. No. 49 Common wealth

Bulletin of Soi science. Pp 118.

James C (2010) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech / GM Crops 2009. The First

Fourteen Years, 1996 to 2009. ISAAA

Johnson III W C, Davis R F and Mullinix B G (2007) An integrated system of summer

solarization and fallow tillage for Cyperus esculentus and nematode management in

the southeastern coastal plain. Crop Protec 26: 1660–66.

Kim J H, Lee J S, Kim T J, Kim H H, Kim S D, Lee H D, Lee C H and Yun T (2000) Effects

of shading and mulching on growth and flower quality of Baegkwang

chrysanthemum. J Koren Soc Hort Sci 41: 631-35.

Kim S T, Ahn H G , Jung W Y, Chang Y D and Choi S T (2000) Effects of planting times

and mulching on growth and flowering of native wild Crocosmia crocosmiiflora in

cut flower culture. J Koren Soc Hort Sci 4: 311-313.

Koutepas N G (1982) Effect of weeds and herbicides on qualitative and quantitative

characteristics of gladiolus. Zizaniologia 1: 39-42.

Kuhns L J and Michael A (1992) The effectiveness of pre-emergence herbicides under, above

or without mulch. Proceedings, 46th annual meeting of the Northeastern Weed Sci Soc

90-95.

Kumar A, Sharma B C and Kumar J (2012) Integrated weed management in gladiolus. Ind J

Weed Sci 3: 181-82.

Kumar A, Sharma B C, Kumar R, Sharma P K and Wazir V (2010) Integrated weed

management in marigold under irrigated sub-tropical conditions of Jammu and

Kashmir. Ind J Weed Sci 1 and 2: 10-13.

Kumar and Jagannathan (2003) Integrated Weed Management In: Chaudhary S, Kumar D,

Sharma R and Rathi J P S Weed Management Principles and practices. 1st ed. Pp.44-

45. Narendra Publishing House, New Dehli.

68

Kumar B, Yaduraju N T, Ahuja K N and Prasad D (1993) Effect of soil solarization on weeds

and nematodes under tropical Indian conditions. Weed Res 33: 423–429.

Kumar D G, Sachin S S and Kumar R (1990) Importance of mulch in crop production. Ind J

Soil Conser 18: 20-26.

Kumar S and Dey P (2011) Effects of different mulches and irrigation methods on root

growth, nutrient uptake, water-use efficiency and yield of strawberry. Sci Hort 127:

318-24.

Kumar S, Chakraborty B and Singh N (2010) Effect of different mulching materials in rose

(Rosa spp. L.) cv. Laher. J Orn Hort 13: 95-100.

Lamont G (1986) Herbicide evaluation trials on cut flowers. Aus Hort 84: 89-91.

Lamont G P and O‟Connell M A (1986) An evaluation of pre-emergent herbicides in field-

grown cut flowers. Plant Protection 1: 95-100.

Lebaron H M and Gressel J (1982) In: Faulkner J S, Meredith C P , Carlson P S, Machado V

S Herbicide resistance in plants. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Leurox G (1982) Dahlia of Today. Puget Sound Dahlia Association, Pp. 26-27

Makus D J, Tiwari S C, Pearson H A, Haywood J J and Tiarks A E (1994) Okra production

with pine straw mulch. Agroforestry systems 27: 121-127.

Mani U S, Maia K C, Goutham and Bhagavandas (1976) Weed killing chemicals in potato

cultivation. Ind Farming 23: 17-18.

Manuja S, Ram R, Singh R D and Mukherjee D (2005) Evaluation of different herbicides

for protection of gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) crop from weeds. Crop Protect 24:

921-26.

Merwin I A , Rosenberger D A , Engle C A, Rist D L and Fargione M (1995) Comparing

mulches, herbicides and cultivation as orchard groundcover management systems.

Hort tech 5: 151-58.

Miles J E, Kawabata O and Nishimoto R K (2002) Modeling purple nut sedge sprouting

under soil solarization. Weed Sci 50: 64–71.

Mukherjee D and Raja R (1999) To study the effects of different types of plastic mulch on

plant growth and flowering of chrysanthemum Pp 26. In: Annual Report (1998-99)

Floriculture division, IHBT, Palampur.

Murugan M and Gopinath G (2001) Effect of organic and inorganic mulches on growth and

flowering of crossandra (Crossandra undulaefolia Salisb) cv. Saundarya. Research

on Crops 2: 346-50.

Neilsen G H, Hogue E J, Forge T and Neilsen D (2003) Mulches and biosolids affect vigour,

yield and nutrition of fertigated high density apple. Hort Sci 38: 41-45.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02612194

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02612194

69

Newman R C and Binning L K (1980) Pre-emergence herbicide application for weed control

in annual flowers. In: Proceeding of the North Central Weed Control Conference,

University Wisconsin, Madison, United State of America 35: 95.

Nowacki W (1983) Influence of weed infestation of the potato crop on the efficiency of

potato lifter and mechanical damage of tubers. Biul Inst Ziem 29: 93–100.

Orzolek M D, Murphy J and Ciardi J (1993) The effect of coloured polyethylene mulch on

the yield of squash, tomato and cauliflower. Final Report to the Pennsylvania

Vegetable Marketing and Research Commodity Board. The Pennsylvania State

University, USA

Pal A K and Das S N (1990) Effect of weedicides on growth and flowering of tuberose. South

Ind Horticulture 38: 143-149.

Paskalev G and Tsachev S (1982) Investigations on rejuvenation of rose plantations mulched

with polyethylene film. Rasten Nauki 19: 36-39

Patil V S and Shalini M (2006) Effect of integrated weed management practices on

vegetative, reproductive and yield parameters in gerbera. Karnataka Journal of

Agricultural Sciences 19: 649–52.

Porter W C (1996) Isoxaben and Isoxaben combinations for weed control in container-grown

herbaceous flowering perennials. J Envl Hort 14: 27-30

Rajamani K, Thanburaj S T, Thangaraj T and Murugesan S (1992) Studies on the effect of

certain herbicides in rose cv. Happiness. South Ind Hort 40: 121-22.

Rameshkumar S, Jabarathinam T G, Sathappan C T, Sureshkumar S M and Kathiresan R M

(2012) Integrated weed management in flower crops involving goat grazing and

polyethylene mulching. Pak J Weed Sci Res 18: 855-62.

Rao V S (2000) Principles of weed science. 2nd

ed. Pp.1 Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.

Ludhiana.

Rathore A L, Pal A R and Sahu K K (1998) Tillage and mulching effects on water use, root

growth and yield of rainfed mustard and chickpea grown after lowland rice. J Sci food

Agri 78: 149-61.

Reicosky D C and Allmaras R R (2003) Advances in tillage research in North America

cropping systems. J Crop Prod 8: 75-125.

Reza H, Gopinath G, Rajesh A M and Yathindra H A (2011) Response of chrysanthemum to

mulching and fertigation. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences 45: 427-29.

Rodrigues E J R, Minami K and Farina E (1999) Mulching in soilless systems of the rose

crop: Productivity, water consumption, temperature and salinization. Scientia

Agricola 56: 785-95.

Rowe-Dutton and Patricia (1957) The mulching of vegetable crops. Technical communicities

No. 24 (C.A.B.)

70

Sarkar S, Paramanick M and Goswami S B (2007) Soil temperature, water use and yield of

yellow sarson (Brassica napus L. var. glauca) in relation to tillage intensity and

mulch management under rainfed lowland ecosystem in eastern India. Soil Till Res

93: 94–101.

Sarmah D, Mahanta P, Talukdar M C and Das R (2014) Effect of mulching on growth and

flowering of gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus) cv. Red Gem under Assam

Condition. Res on Crops 15: 211-14

Schonbeck M W and Evanylo G K (1998) The effect of mulches on soil properties and tomato

production. I. Soil temperature, soil moisture and marketable yield. J Sustainable

Agric 13: 55-81.

Sekhon N K, Singh C B, Sidhu A S, Thind S S, Hira G S and Khurana D S (2008) Effect of

straw mulching, irrigation and fertilizer nitrogen levels on soil hydrothermal regime,

water use and yield of hybrid chilli. Archives Agron Soil Sci 54: 163-74.

Shalini M and Patil V S (2004) Effect of integrated weed management practices on

vegetative, reproductive and yield parameters in gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii H.

Bolus). J Orn Hort 7: 144-47

Sharma E, Rai S C and Sharma R (2001) Mulching influences plant growth and albinism

disorder in strawberry under subtropical climate. Acta Hort 662: 187-91.

Singh A K and Bijimol G (1999) Growing gladiolus is lucrative. Farmers and Parliament 37:

4-6.

Singh A K and Karki K (2005) Effect of herbicides and mulching on growth and flowering

parameters in Rose. J Orn Hort 8: 49-52.

Singh R, Asrey R and Kumar S (2006) Effect of plastic tunnel and mulching on growth and

yield of strawberry. Ind J Hort 63: 18-20.

Solaiman A H M, Kabir M H, Uddin A F M J and Hasanuzzaman M (2008) Black plastic

mulch on flower production and petal coloration of aster (Callistephus chinensis).

.Am-Euras J Bot 1: 05-08.

Staats D and Klett J E (1993) Evaluation of weed control and phytotoxicity of pre-emergence

herbicides applied to container-grown herbaceous and woody plants. J Envl Hort 11:

70-78.

Stapleton J J. and Garza-Lopez J C (1988) Mulching of soils with transparent and black

polyethylene films to increase growth in annual and perennial crops in south western

Mexico. Tropical Agriculture 65: 29-33.

Stewart P A, Tablert R E and Wallinder, C.J., 1983, Yellow nutsedge control in gladiolus.

Hort Sci 18: 367-68.

Stowell B (2000) Organic Kiwifruit production-maintaining soil fertility and yields. Kiwifruit

139: 18-21.

Tarara J M (2000) Microclimate modification with plastic mulch. Hort Sci 35: 169-80.

71

Tariq U, Rehman S, Khan M A, Younis A, Yaseen M and Ahsan M (2012) Agricultural and

municipal waste as potting media component for growth and flowering of Dahlia

hortensis „Figaro‟. Turk J Bot 36: 378-85.

Thetford M, Gilliam C H, and Williams J D (1995) Granular pre-emergence applied

herbicides influence annual bedding plant growth. J Environ Hort 13: 97-103.

Vijaykumar K (2001) Weed management studies in gladiolus (Gladiolus hybridus).

M.Sc.thesis. University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

VinayKumar C And Narayana Gowda J V Chemical weed management in china aster

(Callistephus chinensis L. Nees). Asian J Hort 5: 486-90.

Warren L S and Coble H D (1999) Managing purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) population

utilizing herbicide strategies and crop rotation sequences. Weed Tech 13: 494-03.

Webster T M (2003) High temperatures and durations of exposure reduce nutsedge (Cyperus

spp.) tuber viability. Weed Sci 51: 1010–15.

Wilhoit J H, Morse R D and Vaughan D H (1990) Strip tillage production of summer cabbage

using high residue levels. Agric Res 5: 338-42.

Yadav L P and Bose T K (1987) Chemical weed control in tuberose and gladiolus. Acta Hort

205: 177- 85.

Yamaguchi T, Ito A and Koshioka M (1996) Effect of combination of reflective film

mulching and shading treatments on the growth of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus).

Japan Agricutlrual Research Quarterly 30 : 181-188.

Yi L, Yufang S, Shenjiao Y, Shiqing L and Fang C (2011) Effect of mulch and irrigation

practices on soil water, soil temperature and the grain yield of maize (Zea mays L) in

Loess Plateau, China. Afr J Agric Res 6: 2175-82.

Younis A, Riaz A, Saleem S and Hameed M (2010a) Potential use of wild flowers in urban

landscape. Acta Hort 881: 229-34.

Younis A, Bhatti Z M B, Riaz A , Tariq U , Arfan M, Nadeem M and Ahsan M (2012) Effect

of different types of mulching on growth and flowering of Freesia alba cv. Aurora.

Pak J Agri Sci 49: 429-33.

Younis A, Riaz A, Waseem M, Khan A and Nadeem M (2010b) Production of quality croton

(Codiaeum variegatum) plants by using different growing media. Am-Euras J

Environ Sci 7: 232-37.

Zhang S L, Lovdahl L, Grip H, Tong Y A, Yang X Y and Wang Q J (2009) Effects of

mulching and catch cropping on soil temperature, soil moisture and wheat yield on

the Loess Plateau of China. Soil Till Res 102: 78-86.

VITA

Name of the student : Ravneet Kaur

Father’s name : S. Avtar Singh

Mother’s name : Smt. Sukhwinder Kaur

Nationality : Indian

Date of birth : 13-07-1989

Permanent home address : Vill. Madnipur, P.O. Sehaura, Teh. Payal, Distt.

Ludhiana-141413

Correspondence address : Vill. Madnipur, P.O. Sehaura, Teh. Payal, Distt.

Ludhiana-141413

e-mail id : [email protected]

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

Bachelor’s degree : B.Sc. Agri (Hons.)

University

Year of award

:

:

Khalsa College, Amritsar, GNDU,

2012

% marks : 79.6%

Master’s degree : M.Sc. (Floriculture and Landscaping)

University

Year of award

:

:

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

2014

OCPA : 8.21/10.0

Title of Master’s Thesis

: Weed management in Chrysanthemum


mailto:[email protected]

weed management in chrysanthemum chrysanthemum … · certificate i this is to certify that the...

Documents